TEACHING ENGLISH AS A

FOREIGN / SECOND
LANGUAGE – A
HANDOUTS

Compiled by: Ms. Kainat Shaikh

Fulbright Scholar – University of Oregon, United States
English Linguistics & Literature Instructor at
National University of Modern Languages (NUML) Hyderabad Campus
© All rights reserved. This is a copyrighted work, please do not copy or distribute for
the purpose of commercialization.

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 Table of Contents

1. Basic Terminology ……………………………….………..………………………. 03

2. Student – Teacher Relationship …...………………..….....……..……………….. 08

3. Grammar Translation Method (GTM)……………………..………………..………12

4. Direct Method (DM)……………..… ………………………..…….…...…………...15

5. Audio Lingual Method (ALM)………… ……………………………….……………17

6. The Silent Way………………………………… ………………..………...………...21

7. Suggestopedia……………………... ………………….…..………………………..24

8. The Communicative Approach ……… …………………………....……………….27

9. Lesson Planning …………………………………..…………………….…….……..33

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 BASIC TERMINOLOGY

1. Academic language: Language used in the learning of academic subject matter in formal
schooling context; aspects of language strongly associated with literacy and academic
achievement, including specific academic terms or technical language, and speech
registers related to each field of study. Often the term "metalanguage" is used for
language used to talk about language.
2. Active Vocabulary: The words and phrases which a learner is able to use in speech and
writing.
3. Affective Feedback: Affective feedback is when teachers (or anybody) display signs about
how interested they are in trying to understand the student. These signs come in the form
of gestures, facial expressions, and intonations. Positive affective feedback will encourage
the learner to continue even if it is clear that the listener cannot fully understand. Negative
affective feedback will stop a learner from speaking entirely and raise their affective filter.
4. Affective Filter: This is an imaginary wall that is placed between a learner and language
input. If the filter is on, the learner is blocking out input. The filter turns on when anxiety is
high, self-esteem is low, or motivation is low. Hence, low anxiety classes are better for
language acquisition. Another implication is that too much correction will also raise the
affective filter as self-esteem in using the language drops.
5. Aptitude: The specific ability a learner has for learning a second language. This is separate
from intelligence.
6. Approach: A set of principles about teaching including views on method, syllabus and a
philosophy of language and learning. Approaches have theoretical backing with practical
applications.
7. Authentic Language: real or natural language, as used by native speakers of a language in
real-life contexts; not artificial or contrived for purposes of learning grammatical forms or
vocabulary
8. Authentic Materials Unscripted materials or those which have not been specially written
for classroom use, though they may have been edited. Examples include newspaper texts
and TV broadcasts.
9. Communicative Competence: The ability to use the language effectively for
communication. Gaining such competence involves acquiring both socio linguistic and
linguistic knowledge (or, in other words, developing the ability to use the language
accurately, appropriately, and effectively).

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10. Comprehensible Input: When native speakers and teachers speak to L2 learners, they often
adjust their speech to make it more comprehensible. Such comprehensible input may be a
necessary condition for acquisition to occur.
11. Comprehensible Output: The language produced by the learner (the 'output') may be
comprehensible or incomprehensible. The efforts learners make to be comprehensible
may play a part in acquisition.
12. Contextualization: Placing the target language in a realistic setting, so as to be meaningful
to the student.
13. Deductive Approach: A deductive approach (rule-driven) starts with the presentation of a
rule and is followed by examples in which the rule is applied.
14. Drilling: The intensive and repetitive practice of the target language, which may be choral
or individual.
15. EAP: English for Academic Purpose.
16. EFB: English for Business.
17. EFL: English as a foreign language.
18. ELL: (English Language Learner) The term used to indicate that a student is learning English
as a new language.
19. ELT: English Language Teaching.
20. EOP: English for Occupational Purposes.
21. Error analysis: In this procedure, samples of learner language are collected and the errors
are identified, described, and classified according to their hypothesized causes. The errors
are then evaluated for relative seriousness.
22. Error correction: An important issue for ESL teachers is when and how to correct the errors
of language learners. Some researchers feel there is no need to correct errors at all, as
errors will auto correct. However, some researchers think that error correction is
necessary. Among those who think it is necessary, there are those who say 'get it right
from the beginning' to those who only care if they 'get it right in the end.' Different
classroom theories propose different solutions for error correction.
23. ESL: English as a Second Language.
24. ESOL: English to/for Speakers of Other Languages.
25. ESP: English for Special Purposes; eg for business, science and technology, medicine etc.
26. EST: English for Service & Technology.

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27. Foreign language: A language which is not normally used for communication in a particular
society. Thus English is a foreign language in France, Spanish is a foreign language in
Germany, and Turkish is foreign language in Pakistan.
28. Filter: Learners do not attend to all the input they receive. They attend to some features,
and 'filter' other features out. This often depends on affective factors such as motivation,
attitudes, emotions, and anxiety.
29. Feedback: The response learners get when they attempt to communicate. This can involve
correction, acknowledgement, requests for clarification, backchannel cues (e.g. "Mmm").
Feedback plays an important role in helping learners to test their ideas about the target
language.
30. Fluency: Fluency is the ability to produce rapid, flowing, natural speech, without concern
for grammatical correctness.
31. Inductive Approach: An inductive approach involves the learners detecting, or noticing,
patterns and working out a 'rule' for themselves before they practise the language.
32. Fossilization: A poor habit of speech. When a student makes the same mistake, it is clear
they have not understood the actual rule for a language items use. This happens especially
when the error does not interfere with communication. Most L2 learners fail to reach
target language competence. They stop learning when their internalized rule system
contains rules difference from those of the target language. This is referred to as
'fossilization'.
33. Language proficiency: the level of competence at which an individual is able to use
language for both basic communicative tasks and academic purposes
34. Learner-centred / Student centred: Language activities, techniques, methods where the
students/learners are the focus. Students are allowed some control over the activity or
some input into the curriculum. These activities encourage student creativity. Group work
is one kind of student centred activity. Having students design their own test is another
learner centred activity. Individual styles and needs of the learners are taken into account.
Learner centred education is thought to be intrinsically motivating and thus beneficial.
35. Learning strategies: These account for how learners accumulate new L2 rules and how they
automatize existing ones. They can be conscious or subconscious. These contrast with
communication strategies and production strategies, which account for how the learners
use their rule systems, rather than how they acquire them. Learning strategies may include
metacognitive strategies (e.g., planning for learning, monitoring one's own
comprehension and production, evaluating one's performance); cognitive strategies (e.g.,

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 mental or physical manipulation of the material), or social/affective strategies (e.g.,
interacting with another person to assist learning, using self-talk to persist at a difficult task
until resolution).
36. Learning styles: The way(s) that particular learners prefer to learn a language. Some have
a preference for hearing the language (auditory learners), some for seeing it written down
(visual learners), some for learning it in discrete bits (analytic learners), some for
experiencing it in large chunks (global or holistic or experiential learners) and many prefer
to do something physical whilst experiencing the language (kinaesthetic learners).
37. Linguistic competence: a broad term used to describe the totality of a given individual's
language ability; the underlying language system believed to exist as inferred from an
individual's language performance.
38. Materials: Anything which is used to help to teach language learners. Materials can be in
the form of a textbook, a workbook, a cassette, a CD-Rom, a video, a photocopied
handout, a newspaper, a paragraph written on a whiteboard: anything which presents of
informs about the language being learned.
39. Materials adaptation: Making changes to materials in order to improve them or to make
them more suitable for a particular type of learner. Adaptation can include reducing,
adding, omitting, modifying and supplementing. Most teachers adapt materials every time
they use a textbook in order to maximise the value of the book for their particular learners.
40. Method: (PLAN): A method is a plan for presenting the language material to be learned
and should be based upon a selected approach.
41. Micro-teaching: A technique used on teacher training courses: a part of a lesson is taught
to a small number of students. A variation of this is 'peer teaching', where the 'students'
are often peers of the trainee teacher attending the same course.
42. Nonverbal Communication: paralinguistic and non-linguistic messages that can be
transmitted in conjunction with language or without the aid of language; paralinguistic
mechanisms include intonation, stress, rate of speech, and pauses or hesitations; non-
linguistic behaviours include gestures, facial expressions, and body language, among
others.
43. PPP: An approach to teaching language items which follows a sequence of presentation of
the item, practice of the item and the production of the items. This is the approach
currently followed by most commercially produced textbooks and has the advantage of
apparent systematicity and economy. However, it is based on the "linear" and
"behaviourist" view of language learning, which researchers have shown to be incorrect.

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 This approach ignores the cyclic nature of learning, and treats learning as a series of
"knowable facts".
44. Passive Vocabulary: The vocabulary that students are able to understand compared to that
which they are able to use. Contrasted with Active Vocabulary.
45. Pedagogy: The principles and methods of instruction. Pedagogy is the discipline that deals
with the theory and practice of teaching.
46. Productive Skills: When the learner is producing the language (speaking and Writing).
47. Realia: Objects or activities used to relate classroom teaching in the real life. 'Real things' -
the things found in the classroom such as pens, pencils and notebooks, windows and
tables, and those that you bring in for simulation of some sort of real world activity.
48. Receptive skills: When the learner is receiving incoming language (listening or reading).
49. STT: Student Talking Time should be increase while TTT (teacher talk time) should be
decreased.
50. Target language: This is the language that the learner is attempting to learn. It comprises
the native speaker's grammar.
51. TEFL: Teaching English as a Foreign Language (typically geared toward learning the
language for specific purposes such as business and is learned by students living in non-
English speaking countries).
52. TESL: Teaching English as a Second Language (typically geared toward learning the
language for everyday purposes and is learned by students living in English speaking
countries).
53. TESOL: Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages.
54. TOEFL: Test of English as a Foreign Language.
55. Technique: (TRICK): A technique is a very specific, concrete stratagem or trick designed
to accomplish an immediate objective.
56. Washback: The effect a test has on teaching and learning.
57. Lesson Planning: A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of
instruction or "learning trajectory" for a lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a
teacher to guide class learning. Details will vary depending on the preference of the
teacher, subject being covered, and the needs of the students.
58. Teaching Methodology: A teaching method comprises the principles and methods used by
teachers to enable student learning. These strategies are determined partly on subject
matter to be taught and partly by the nature of the learner.

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 THE STUDENT-TEACHER RELATIONSHIP AND ITS IMPACT ON THE CLASSROOM

Introduction: In the classroom environment the interpersonal relationship between teacher

and students is an important element contributing to the learning process of students. The
associations between interpersonal relationships and student outcomes have shown that
particular teacher-student relationships are more effective for student achievement and attitudes
than others.

Role of a Teacher in the classroom:

Most students need a strong sense of comfort and safety from both physical and emotional abuse
and criticism in their classrooms. Teachers need to have enough order that students do not
intimidate, bully, insult, or overly criticize each other. You achieve this sense of positive order by
teaching and developing positive social skills. Students do well when they believe that they can
depend on the teacher and their classmates. This comfort is achieved by rules and regulations in
the classroom that are sensible and consistently enforced. Teachers build a trusting relationship
by helping and encouraging students and by stopping inappropriate behaviour, such as racial and
gender harassment.

Positive Teacher Student Relationship:

 Teachers show their pleasure and enjoyment of students.

 Teachers interact in a responsive and respectful manner.

 Teachers offer students help (e.g., answering questions in timely manner, offering support
that matches the children’s needs) in achieving academic and social objectives.

 Teachers help students to reflect on their thinking and learning skills.

 Teachers know and demonstrate knowledge about individual students’ backgrounds,

interests, emotional strengths and academic levels.

 Teachers seldom show irritability or aggravation toward students.

 Teachers actively involved in students’ learning

 Teachers provide a range of learning options and resources

 Teachers offer choices and decision making opportunities

 Teachers support the learners

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  Teachers encourage reflection

Kinds of Student Teacher Relationships:

 Authority-Subjects to authority

 Assessor-Assessed

 Transmitter-Receiver

 Motivator-Motivated

 Activator-Activated

 Counsellors-Clients

 Sellers-Buyers

 Resource-Users

Factors that Affect Teacher-Student Relationships:

 Race

 Socio-economic status

 Gender

 Temperament

 Type of relationship the child had with his/her primary caregiver

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How to Foster Healthy Teacher-Student Relationships:

 Create a healthy emotional climate in the classroom:

 Provide emotional support

 Provide instructional support

 Provide opportunities for positive student experiences

 Convey care and respect towards students

 Build trust with students

 Shared control

 Admit mistakes, lack of knowledge. Don't try to be the authority.

 Use humour

 Use lots of examples, illustrations, anecdotes, stories

 Use appropriate self-disclosure. Be a "real" person

 Give positive feedback, verbally (praise) and non-verbally (make eye-contact, smile, nod).

 Make sure that the level of teaching matches students' background, ability, and
experience.

 Engage students in their learning. Activity is much more motivating than passive listening
or passive responses.

 Treat learners fairly, respectfully, and without bias related to their age, race, gender, sexual
orientation, disability, religion, or national origin.

Importance of Student Teacher Relationship and Impact on the Classroom:

Teachers who foster positive relationships with their students create classroom environments
more conducive to learning and meet students’ developmental, emotional and academic needs.
Teachers who build positive relationships with their students may enjoy the following benefits:

 Fundamental to the healthy development of all students

 Good Behaviour by Students

 Academic performance

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  Sense of belonging

 Interdependence

 Reciprocal expectations/relationship

 Factor for successful implementation of school interventions

 Motivation to engage in school activity

 Low conflicts

 Enhancing of social skills

 Decision making

 Individual differences (aptitudes, attitudes, age, language, religion, learning styles) are
celebrated

 Acknowledgement of developmental, personal and relational needs

 Long Lasting Impact

 Discipline problems are tackled

CONCLUSION: The teacher-learner relationship confers rights and responsibilities on both parties.
Behaving in a way that embodies the ideal teacher-learner relationship creates a culture of mutual
respect, minimizes the likelihood of student mistreatment, and optimizes the educational
experience.

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 GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD – (GTM)

Latin and Ancient Greek are known as “dead languages”, based on the fact that people no longer
speak them for the purpose of interactive communication. Yet they are still acknowledged as
important languages to learn (especially Latin) for the purpose of gaining access to classical
literature, and up until fairly recently, for the kinds of grammar training that led to the “mental
dexterity” considered so important in any higher education study stream.

Techniques in Latin Teaching

“Latin has been studied for centuries, with the prime objectives of learning how to read classical
Latin texts, understanding the fundamentals of grammar and translation, and gaining insights into
some important foreign influences Latin has had on the development of other European
languages. The method used to teach it overwhelmingly bore those objectives in mind, and came
to be known as the Classical Method. It is now more commonly known in Foreign Language
Teaching circles as the Grammar Translation Method.”

The Grammar Translation Method

The aim of teaching Latin and Greek was (and is) obviously not so that learners would be able to
speak them. The aims were/are rather to develop:

• Logical thinking

• Intellectual capacities to attain a generally educational and civilizing effect

• An ability to read original texts in the languages concerned, at least in the better learners.

Interestingly, Howatt (1984: 131) also states: “Grammar and Translation are actually not the
distinctive features of GT, since they were already well-accepted as basic principles of language
teaching. What was new was the use of invented, graded sentences rather than authentic literary
texts in order to make language learning easier.”

Key features

According to Prator and Celce-Murcia in Teaching English as a Second Foreign Language (1979:3), the
key features of the Grammar Translation Method are as follows:

1) Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.

2) Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.

3) Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.

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4) Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the
form and inflection of words.

5) Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.

6) Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical
analysis.

7) Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target
language into the mother tongue.

8) Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

Typical Techniques

Diane Larsen-Freeman, in her book Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (1986:13)
provides expanded descriptions of some common/typical techniques closely associated with the
Grammar Translation Method.

The listing here is in summary form only.

1) Translation of a Literary Passage: Translating target language to native language.

2) Reading Comprehension Questions: Finding information in a passage, making inferences and

relating to personal experience.

3) Antonyms/Synonyms: Finding antonyms and synonyms for words or sets of words.

4) Cognates: Learning spelling/sound patterns that correspond between L1 and the target language.

5) Deductive Application of Rule: Understanding grammar rules and their exceptions, then applying
them to new examples.

6) Fill-in-the-blanks: Filling in gaps in sentences with new words or items of a particular grammar
type.

7) Memorization: Memorizing vocabulary lists, grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms.

8) Use Words in Sentences: Students create sentences to illustrate they know the meaning and use
of new words.

9) Composition: Students write about a topic using the target language.

Disadvantages

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  The Grammar Translation Method may make the language learning experience uninspiring
and boring.

 The Grammar Translation Method may also have left the students with a sense of
frustration when they travel to countries where the studied language is used (they can’t
understand what people say and have to struggle mightily to express themselves at the
most basic level)

 This method neither approaches nor encourages the students’ communicative

competence.

Reasons why it still used

The Grammar Translation Method is still common in many countries – even popular. Brown in his
book Incremental Speech Language (1994) attempts to explain why the method is still employed by
stating:

“This method requires few specialized skills on the part of teachers.”

Grammar rules and Translation Tests are easy to construct and can be objectively scored.”

Many standardized tests of foreign languages still do not attempt to test communicative abilities,
so students have little motivation to go beyond grammar analogies, translations and other
written exercises.

Conclusions

The Grammar Translation Method was developed for the study of “dead” languages and to
facilitate access to those languages’ classical literature. That’s the way it should stay. English is
certainly not a dead or dying language, so any teacher that takes “an approach for dead language
study” into an English language classroom should perhaps think about taking up Math or Science
instead. Rules, universals and memorized principles apply to those disciplines – pedagogy and
communicative principles do not.

DIRECT METHOD – (DM)

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Introduction to Direct Method:

 The instructional goal is learning how to use a foreign language to communicate.

 DM aims to induce grammar rules through examples, illustrations, and demonstrations.

 The basic rule is that meaning is to be conveyed directly in the target language through the
use of demonstration and visual aids. In other words, no translation is allowed in the
classroom.

 Correct pronunciation is given careful attention in this method. In addition, new vocabulary
is taught by using known words.

Principles:

 No translate but demonstrate.

 Never explain but act.

 Never make a speech but ask questions.

 Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the target language.

 Native speaker to deliver teaching for correct pronunciation, and better oral skills.

 Think in the target language as much as possible. Vocabulary is acquired more naturally if
students use it in full sentences, rather than memorizing word lists.

 Vocabulary is taught through known words, demonstration, authentic objects (realia),

pictures, and miming.

 Grammar is taught inductively. There may never be an explicit grammar rule given.

Techniques:

 Reading aloud: Take turns reading sections of a passage, play, or whatever teaching
materials. The teacher uses gestures, pictures, realia, examples, or other means to make
the meaning of the section clear.

 Question and answer exercise: Students ask and answer Qs in full sentences and practice
new words and grammatical rules.

 Self-correction: To make students self-corrected by asking them to make a choice between

what they said and an alternative answer he supplied; Or the teacher may repeat a student

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 said, using a questioning tone or to repeat what the students said and stop before the error
to signal that something is wrong with students’ answers.

 Conversation exercise: For communication purpose, teaching contains conversational

activities: starting with questions in the target language which contained a certain
grammar structure, then let students ask Qs with each other with the same sentence
patterns. Finally, let student have free talk.

 Fill-in-blank exercise:

 Dictation: a normal speed – phrase by phrase, normal speed again.

 Map drawing: A map with unnamed geographical features. The teacher gives directions
and students label the map. Then change the roles.

 Paragraph writing: to write a paragraph in their own words by using the teaching materials
a model.

Disadvantages:

 Students may be afraid of asking Qs.

 It’s hard to practice the methods in a class with more than 20 students. It needs a great
amount of teachers

 It’s hard to explain abstract words.

 It takes much time for teacher to explain the words that might be trivial.

Note: Let students learn the correct pronunciation and better oral skills because no native
language is used and communication is main activity in the class. Whereas, students’ enterprising
spirits and the teacher speaking the target language fluently are required.

THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD: (ALM)

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The Audio Lingual Method is a method of foreign language teaching which emphasizes the
teaching of listening and speaking before reading and writing. It uses dialogues as the main form
of language presentation and drills as the main training techniques. Mother tongue is discouraged
in the classroom.

Principles of Audio –lingual Method (ALM)

The Audio Lingual Method is based on the following principles:

 Speaking and listening competence preceded reading and writing competence.

 Use of Mother Tongue is highly discouraged in the classroom.

 The development of language skills is a matter of habit formulation.

 Students practice particular patterns of language through structured dialogue and drill
until response is automatic.

 Structured patterns in language are taught using repetitive drills.

 The emphasis is on having students produce error free utterances.

 This method of language learning supports kinaesthetic learning styles.

 Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught. Concrete vocabulary is taught
through demonstration, objects, and pictures. Abstract vocabulary is taught through
association of ideas.

 The printed word must be kept away from the second language learner as long as possible

 The native language and the target language have separate linguistic systems. They should
be kept apart so that the students' native language interferes as little as possible with the
students' attempts to acquire the target language. (The language teacher uses only the
target language in the classroom. Actions, pictures, or realia are used to give
meaning otherwise).

 One of the language teacher's major roles is that of a model of the target language.
Teachers should provide students with a native-speaker-like model. By listening to how it
is supposed to sound, students should be able to mimic the model
(The language teacher introduces the dialogue by modelling it two times; she introduces
the drills by modelling the correct answers; at other times, she corrects mispronunciation
by modelling the proper sounds in the target language).

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  Language learning is a process of habit formation. The more often something is repeated,
the stronger the habit and the greater the learning (The students repeat each line of the
new dialogue several times).

Techniques

Dialogues and pattern practice form the basis of audio lingual classroom practice. The use of them
is a distinctive feature of the Audio Lingual Method. The techniques used by the Audio Lingual
Method are:

1. Repetition drill: This drill is often used to teach the lines of the dialogue. Students are asked
to repeat the teacher’s model as accurately and as quickly as possible. e.g.

T= This is a book→ S=This is a book. (Students do this without looking at their book. They
have to produce the appropriate sounds first.)

2. Substitution drill: The students repeat the line from the dialogue which the teacher has
given them, substituting the cue into the line in its proper place. E.g.

They drink Juice. → Soda→ They drink Soda→ coffee→ They drink coffee→ tea→ They
drink tea. (The major purpose of this drill is to give the students practice in finding and
filling in the slots of a sentence.)

3. Question-and-answer drill: The drill gives students practice with answering questions. The
students should answer the teacher’s question very quickly. It is also possible for the
teacher to cue the students to ask questions as well. This gives students practice with the
question pattern. e.g.

T: Are there any questions? Ss: No, there aren’t any.

T: Is there any milk? Ss: No, there isn’t any.

T: Are there any sandwiches? Ss: No, there aren’t any.

T: Is there any wine? Ss: No, there isn’t any.

4. Expansion drill: This drill helps students to produce longer sentence bit by bit, gradually
achieving fluency. The main structure is repeated first, then students have to put cue
phrase in its proper place. e.g.

T: They go to the cinema. Ss: They go to the cinema.

T: On Sundays. Ss: They go to the cinema on Sundays.

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 T: Always. Ss: They always go to the cinema on Sundays.

T: Nearly. Ss: They nearly always go to the cinema on Sundays.

5. Clause combination drill: Students learn to combine two simple sentences into a complex
one. E.g.:

T: It may rain. He’ll stay at home. Ss: If it may rain, he’ll stay at home.

T: It may be sunny. We’ll go to the beach. Ss: If it may be sunny, we’ll go to the
beach.

6. Background build-up drill (or back chaining): This drill is used when a long line of dialogue
is giving students trouble. The teacher breaks down the line into several parts. The
students repeat a part of the sentence, usually the last phrase of the line. Then, following
the teacher’s cue, the students expand what they are repeating part by part until they are
able to repeat the entire line. The teacher begins with the part at the end of the sentence
(and works backward from there) to keep the intonation of the line as natural as possible.
This also directs more student attention to the end of the sentence, where new
information typically occurs.

7. Chain drill: A chain drill gets its name from the chain of conversation that forms around the
classroom as students, one-by-one, ask and answer questions of each other. The teacher
begins the chain by greeting a particular student, or asking him a question. That student
responds, and then turns to the student sitting next to him. e.g.

T: Hello, what’s your name? S1: My name is John Smith. (He turns to the student
next to her.) Hello, what’s your name? S2: My name is Mary Clinton. (She turns to
the student next to her.) Hello, what’s your name? S3: My name is Peter.

8. Completion: Students hear an utterance that is complete except for one word, and then
repeat the utterance in completed form. e.g.

T: I’ll go my way and you go_______ . Ss: I’ll go my way and you go yours.

9. Use of minimal pairs: The teacher works with pair of words which differ in only one sound;
students are first asked to find the difference between the two word and later to say the
two words. e.g. ship—sheep, live—leave leap—lip bit—beat

10. Transformation Drill: Teacher provides a sentence that must be turned into something
else, for example a question to be turned into a statement, an active sentence to be turned

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 into a negative statement, etc. Other examples of transformations are also used (in
changing a statement into a question, an active sentence into a passive one, or direct
speech into reported speech).

11. Multiple-slot Substitution Drill: Same as the Single Slot drill, except that there are multiple
cues to be substituted into the line.

12. Single Slot Substitution Drill: Teacher states a line from the dialog, then uses a word or a
phrase as a "cue" that students, when repeating the line, must substitute into the sentence
in the correct place. The major purpose of this drill is to give the students practice in finding
and filling in the slots of a sentence.

Conclusion

The Audiolingual method focuses on speaking and listening competence, stressing repetition,
and habit formation to learn a second or foreign language. This method make the learner
understand the second language by memorizing and practice speaking with drilling from the
people communication.

THE SILENT WAY

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The Silent way is a language teaching methodology which was devised by Caleb Gattegno in the
1960s. Gattegno states that a foreign language can only be learnt in schools by artificial methods,
employing materials constructed for the purpose

Theory and characteristics

1) As the name already suggests, the method is built upon the hypothesis that inside
the classroom the teacher should be as silent as possible, whereas
the students/learners should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible.
2) Participation actively in class and in this way become autonomous learners.
3) Silence is regarded as the best instrument for learning in the classroom, because “in silence
students concentrate on the task to be accomplished and the potential means for its
accomplishment
4) The techniques of the Silent Way “made it possible for the teacher to say less and less as
the lessons advanced, while the pupils were saying more and more and using their own
inner criteria developed in this approach. In general, there are three basic theories on
which Gattegno’s work is founded.
5) Learning is regarded as a “problem-solving, creative, discovering activity, in which the
learner rather acts and participates actively than just being passive and doing nothing but
listening to the teacher. If the learner is involved directly, he automatically benefits from
the so called “discovery learning”.
6) The use of special physical objects such as coloured wooden rods or colour-coded wall
charts facilitates learning. These physical objects “provide physical foci for student learning
and also create memorable images to facilitate student recall” (Richards & Rodgers 2001:
81).
7) Learning is facilitated by involving the learners and letting them solve problems on their
own with the help of the provided materials.

Learner and teacher roles

Though the Silent Way is not considered to be a teacher-centred approach, the teacher is very
much in control of what happens in the class. While the teacher uses mainly gestures and facial
expressions to address the learners, his/her main task is the teaching of the language by letting the
students express themselves on a variety of subjects and by making their own hypotheses about
grammar, pronunciation, style, etc. The teacher's guidance, though silent, is very active.

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The learners are expected to participate in class actively. They should be willing to make mistakes,
to test out the basic language elements via the usage of the materials provided and their
motivation is solicited by the constant presentation of problems to be solved.

The materials make meaning visible and tangible so Silent Way lessons are usually easily
understandable by students. It does require of students that they be willing to take risks and be
comfortable about making mistakes which is encouraged by the supportive attitude of the teacher.

Materials and how they can be used

The Silent Way uses a whole set of materials, which can be used in class. It includes:

 coloured wooden rods (Cuisenaire rods)

 a set of wall charts, containing words of a 'functional’ vocabulary and some additional ones

 a rectangle chart

 a Fidel

 a pointer for use with the charts

 tapes or discs

 drawings or pictures

Cuisenaire Rods:

The coloured wooden rods can be used to represent whole situations in an abstract way. The
teacher for example could use the green rods to represent a certain number of people, the red
ones to represent cars and a single white rod representing a special character, for instance the
teacher himself. The teacher then would probably first point at the white rod and thereafter at
himself to show the students the meaning of the rods. The next step would be the presentation of
the meanings of the other rods (the green and red ones), and after the students get their meaning,
the teacher might present a certain everyday situation with the rods. During this presentation, the
teacher may feature certain grammatical aspects of the language and let the students find out
about these. Another way to use the rods could simply be the usage of them as representing
certain parts of the word order of the language. The students might then test out in which order
the rods have to be put, so that the correct form is created.

The rectangle chart, the Fidel and the word charts:

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The different charts can be used to teach different aspects of the language. The rectangle chart
for instance can be used to show the pronunciation of the phonemes of a language. It contains
several different coloured rectangles which represent the various sounds of a language. The same
colour code which is used in the rectangle chart is also used in the Fidel and the word charts.
The Fidel contains several different charts. They present all possible spellings of every single sound
of the language. The word charts present the functional words of the language.

Advantages

The use of the Silent Way enables a very high degree of interaction as well between the teacher
and the students as between the students themselves and additionally raises the participation of
the students in class. The students/learners cooperate and help each other in class and in this way
the social aspect of learning is supported. For the students it is beneficial that they are expected
to develop a certain degree of self-awareness and that they can discover the language on their
own via testing things and making use of the materials provided by the teacher.

Disadvantages

Just from reading descriptions some people feel the Silent Way is a very abstract way of learning a
language and it is true that it is extremely different from more commonly used methods of
language learning. Some learners may have may be put off by this. However most of those who
have practical experience of the approach appreciate the way they are given the opportunity to
function as autonomous learners.

Some have assumed that the Silent Way can only be used in small classes but this is not in fact the
case: particularly with beginners, classes of 40 or more have been successful.

There is also a certain amount of scepticism on the part of some teachers who doubt the utility of
a teaching method in which the teacher apparently says nothing.

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 SUGGESTOPEDIA

Background:

 Suggestopedia is a method developed by Georgi Lozanov.

 Is a specific set of learning recommendations derived from Suggestology.

 It tries to harness these influences and redirect them so as to optimize learning.

 Lozanov acknowledges ties in tradition of yoga and Soviet psychology.

 From yoga he borrowed the technique of altering the states of consciousness and
concentration, and the use of rhythmical breathing.

 From Soviet psychology Lozanov has taken the notion that all students can be taught a
given subject matter at the same level of skill

 Suggestopedia centralizes music and musical rhythm to learning.

 Lozanov calls upon his use of music to relax learners as well to structure, pace, and
punctuate the presentation of linguistic material.

Approach: It is important to experience language material in meaningful texts.

Use of Concerts, Material, Authority, Infantilisation, Double-plan, Intonation, rhythm, and pseudo-
passiveness.

Objectives: The prime objective of Suggestopedia is to tap into more of students' mental potential
to learn, in order to accelerate the process by which they learn to understand and use the target
language for communication. Four factors considered essential in this process were the provision
of a relaxed and comfortable learning environment, the use of soft Baroque music to help increase
alpha brain waves and decrease blood pressure and heart rate, "desuggestion" in terms of the
psychological barriers learners place on their own learning potential, and "suggestibility" through
the encouragement of learners assuming "child-like" and/or new roles and names in the target
language.

Principles:

 Learning is facilitated in an environment that is as comfortable as possible, featuring soft

cushioned seating and dim lighting.

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  "Peripheral" learning is encouraged through the presence in the learning environment of
posters and decorations featuring the target language and various grammatical
information.

 The teacher assumes a role of complete authority and control in the classroom.

 Self-perceived and psychological barriers to learners' potential to learn are "desuggested".

 Students are encouraged to be child-like, take "mental trips with the teacher" and assume
new roles and names in the target language in order to become more "suggestible".

 Baroque music is played softly in the background to increase mental relaxation and
potential to take in and retain new material during the lesson.

 Students work from lengthy dialogs in the target language, with an accompanying
translation into the students' native language.

 Errors are tolerated, the emphasis being on content and not structure. Grammar and
vocabulary are presented and given treatment from the teacher, but not dwelt on.

 Homework is limited to students re-reading the dialog they are studying - once before they
go to sleep at night and once in the morning before they get up.

 Music, drama and "the Arts" are integrated into the learning process as often as possible.

Techniques:

 Classroom Set-up: Emphasis is placed on creating a physical environment that does not "feel"
like a normal classroom, and makes the students feel as relaxed and comfortable as possible.

 Peripheral Learning: Students can absorb information "effortlessly" when it is perceived as

part of the environment, rather than the material "to be attended to”

 Positive Suggestion: Teachers appeal to students' consciousness and subconscious in order

to better orchestrate the “suggestive" factors involved in the learning situation

 Visualization: Students are asked to close their eyes and visualize scenes and events, to help
them relax, facilitate positive suggestion and encourage creativity from the students

 Choose a New Identity: Students select a target language name and/or occupation that
places them "inside" the language they are learning

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  Role-play: Students pretend temporarily that they are someone else and perform a role using
the target language

 First Concert: Teacher does a slow, dramatic reading of the dialog synchronized in intonation
with classical music

 Second Concert: Students put aside their scripts and the teacher reads at normal speed
according to the content, not the accompanying pre-Classical or Baroque music - this typically
ends the class for the day

 Primary Activation: Students "playfully" reread the target language out loud, as individuals
or in groups

 Secondary Activation: Students engage in various activities designed to help the students
learn the material and use it more spontaneously - activities include singing, dancing,
dramatizations and games - "communicative intent" and not "form" being the focus

Teachers’ role: To create situations in which the learner is most suggestible and then to present
linguistic material in a way most likely to encourage positive reception and retention by the learner.

 Show absolute confidence in the method

 Display fastidious conduct in manners and dress.

 Organize properly and strictly observe the initial stages of the teaching process – this
includes choice and play of music, as well as punctuality.

 Maintain a solemn attitude toward the session.

 Give tests and respond tactfully to poor papers (if any).

 Stress global rather than analytical attitudes toward material.

 Maintain a modest enthusiasm.

Conclusion :

 Having acknowledge that “there are techniques and procedures in Suggestopedia that
may be useful in a foreign language classroom”.

 Suggestopedia gives authority in the eyes of students and prepare them to expect success.

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 COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

Theory part

Creator- Robert Langs

He is an American psychiatrist, t, analytically trained in a classical Freudian psychoanalytic institute

in New York City, who is known today as an important psychoanalytic revolutionary and revisionist.
Dr. Langs is a graduate of The Chicago Medical School. Dr. Langs presently practices, teaches, and
writes about communicative psychotherapy. His most recent devotion is to creating dramas-one
and two act plays-that are effective art forms, while conveying through narrative tales the insights
of the CA into the nature of emotional life.

Origins-

Actually in so far as one teaching methodology tends to influence the next. The communicative
approach could be said to be the product of educators who had grown dissatisfied with the audio-
lingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language instruction. They felt that students
were not learning enough realistic, whole language. They did not know how to communicate using
appropriate social language, gestures, or expressions; in brief, they were at a loss to communicate
in the culture of the language studied. Interest in and development of communicative-style
teaching mushroomed in the 1970s; authentic language use and classroom exchanges where
students engaged in real communication with one another became quite popular.

1. Focuses on language as a medium of communication. Recognizes that all communication has

a social purpose - learner has something to say or find out.

2. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in real life. Unlike the
audio-lingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition and drills, the
communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome of a class
exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and responses. The real-life simulations
change from day to day. Students' motivation to learn comes from their desire to
communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics.

3. Communicative approach places great emphasis on helping students use the target language
in a variety of contexts and places great emphasis on learning language functions. Unlike the
ALM, its primary focus is on helping learners create meaning rather than helping them
develop perfectly grammatical structures or acquire native-like pronunciation. This means

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 that successfully learning a foreign language is assessed in terms of how well learners have
developed their communicative competence

4. More emphasis on active modes of learning, including pair work and group-work

5. Emphasis on oral and listening skills in the classroom. Not just hearing teacher, but having
personal contact themselves with language, practicing sounds themselves, per mutating
sentence patterns and getting chance to make mistakes and learn from doing so. But it is not
just limited to oral skills. Reading and writing skills need to be developed to promote pupils'
confidence in all four skill areas. By using elements encountered in variety of ways such as
summarizing, translating, discussion - makes language more fluid and pupils' manipulation of
language more fluent.

6. Makes use of topical items with which pupils are already familiar in their own language -
motivates pupils arouses their interest and leads to more active participation. Besides,
teacher should Avoid age-old texts, materials must relate to pupils' own lives, be fresh and
real, and even slang. It is important to Changing texts and materials regularly.

7. Communicative approach seeks to use authentic resources. More interesting and motivating.
In Foreign language classroom, authentic texts serve as partial substitute for community of
native speaker. Newspaper and magazine articles, poems, manuals, recipes, telephone
directories, videos, all can be exploited in variety of ways.

8. Communicative approach is much more pupil-orientated, because dictated by pupils' needs

and interests.

Situation:

Robert is shopping at the supermarket, but he can't find anything, so he asks a Terry berry for help.

Terry bery: Can I help you sir?

Robert. Where is milk, I am at completely lost.

Terry berry: Milk? Go down this aisle and turn left. It’s in the dairy section.

Robert: Oh I see. How much is the noodle?

Terry berry: 50 and buy two get one free.

Robert: Thanks very much.

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Practice-role play

Situation 1

A: a housewife who wants to buy a package of washing powder but you can’t find it in the
supermarket

B: a passionate clerk in a super market, but give a wrong direction

Situation 2

C: a senior citizen who want to buy a pack of noodle, but couldn’t recognized the price print on the
package

D: a clerk who have to serve every customer when need

Introduction of Teaching

1. Teacher gives a presentation of a situation or context through several brief dialogues:

The dialogues are related to the learners’ experiences and interest. This includes a discussion of
the function and situation: People, roles, setting, topic and the level of formality or informality the
function and situation demand.

2. Brainstorming and discussion establish the vocabulary and expressions:

The purpose is to accomplish the communication. Includes a framework or means of structuring a

conversation or exchange to achieve the purpose of the speakers.

3. Questions and answers are based on the dialogue topic and situation:

Such as wh- questions, yes/no, either/or and open-ended questions.

4. Study of the basic communicative expressions in the dialogue or one of the structures that
exemplifies the function, using pictures, real objects, or dramatization to clarify the meaning.

5. Classroom should provide opportunities for rehearsal of real-life situations:

Provide opportunity for real communication. Emphasis on creative role-plays/ simulations/ surveys/
projects/ playlets - all produce spontaneity and improvisation - not just repetition and drills.

6. Primacy of oral work:

Emphasis on oral and listening skills in the classroom. Contact time with language is all-important -
paves way for more fluid command of the language / facility and ease of expression. Not just

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hearing teacher, but having personal contact themselves with language, practicing sounds
themselves, permutating sentence patterns and getting chance to make mistakes and learn from
doing so.

7. Oral recognition and interpretative activities including oral production proceeding from
guided to freer communication activities.
8. Homework and extension activities are relevant to the learners’ creation of new dialogues
around the same situation.

Here are the main core principles which make it the most successful language learning approach
in use today.

Basic Principles for Teachers

 A teacher's main role is a facilitator and monitor rather than leading the class. In other
words, "the guide by the side" and not "the sage on the stage".

 Lessons are usually topic or theme based, with the target grammar "hidden" in the context
e.g. a job interview (using the Present Perfect tense.)

 Lessons are built round situations/functions practical and authentic in the real world e.g.
asking for information, complaining, apologizing, job interviews, telephoning.

 Activities set by the teacher have relevance and purpose to real life situations - students
can see the direct benefit of learning

 Emphasis on engaging learners in more useful and authentic language rather than
repetitive phrases or grammar patterns

 Emphasis on communication and meaning rather than accuracy. Being understood takes
precedence over correct grammar. The fine tuning of grammar comes later.

 Use of songs and games are encouraged and provide a natural environment to promote
language and enhance correct pronunciation

 Feedback and correction is usually given by the teacher after tasks have been completed,
rather than at the point of error, thus interrupting the flow

Basic Principles for Learners

 Learners are encouraged to speak and communicate from day one, rather than just barking
out repetitive phrases

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  Learners practice the target language a number of times, slowly building on accuracy

 Learners interact with each other in pairs or groups, to encourage a flow of language and
maximize the percentage of talking time, rather than just teacher to student.

 Unless the focus is on the accuracy stage of the lesson, learners are corrected at the end
of an activity so as not to interrupt their thought process.

Advantages

Interesting

To start the lesson with “Today we are going to learn about the Present Perfect Simple”, instead
of to start the lesson with “Today we are going to learn how to do a job interview in English”.
“Present Perfect Simple” will frighten students, but students will interest in practicing English for
a good job interview

Useful

The curriculums of communicative approach usually have clear and specific main topics
(situations) to cultivate learners’ communicative and social competence.

Confident

Teachers encourage students to express a lot. Errors are considered natural. The teacher will not
correct every sentence immediately. It won’t hurt the self-esteem of students.

Brainstorming

Students can have incomplete knowledge but still communicate effectively. For example, if the
student doesn't know how to say "chair," they can describe it as "the thing you sit in." Increasing
utility rates can help memorization.

Authentic

Situation and atmosphere are close to people’s real life. Real life situations and communication are
unpredictable. A student may learn all the correct forms of communication but may not know
when to use them appropriately. Role-play and simulation provide opportunities to react to these
situations and to give the students a taste of real life.

Harmonious

The class will be harmonious through role-play games, interview, and other interaction activities
by the teacher.

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Disadvantages

Evaluation

It’s hard to make a flawless evaluation of communicative approach, because there are a lot of
instable and changeful factors, like cognition. "Communicative Approach" is aimed at training
students' listening and speaking, so it relatively ignores the training of reading and writing.
Therefore, it is hard to evaluate every aspect of English ability.

Limited instructional hours: Role-play games and simulations involve a lot of conversations and
discussions. Thus it may not be very suitable for a large class. The teacher has to spend a lot of time
on interactions of students and he is not able to predict the process in the class.

Losing control

Since the activities require the full participation of the students and minimum participation from
the teacher, the teacher may fear that he may lose control of the class.

Not suitable for all levels

Low proficiency students who do not have the necessary communicative competence to carry out
the activity. Communicative activities would be more suitable for intermediate and advanced
learners.

Activities are difficult to monitor

With so much activity both physical and verbal going on, it is sometimes difficult for the teacher to
monitor a student's performance. There is the fear among teachers that the students are having
too much fun and that no learning is taking place.

Introverted students

Speaking will obstruct shy people for communication. If the character of students is introverted,
teaching development will be a tough problem.

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Lesson Planning: Preparation, Presentation, Practice, Production

Teaching English as a second language requires a great deal of patience, and some careful
planning. The purpose of any lesson in education is to teach something new to the learner.
Whatever the subject, teacher will need a guide to help with time management, keep the
material organized and easy to understand. That is where the lesson plan comes in.

1) Preparation/Introduction:
 Prepare a warm-up exercise
 Set a scene of the lesson
 Brainstorm by word webs, word maps, or
 mind maps
 Ask the questions to develop the interest and
 attention of your students
 This part of lesson should be of 5 to 10
 minutes
2) Presentation
 Present the material which need to be used in your lesson
 Presentation ways: written text, a song, dialogue on tape etc.
 Help students digest the new material rather than swallow it
 Clear explanations along with illustrations and examples.
 Give clear and concise examples from the real life context.
 Move to 3rd part of lesson plan ensuring students have understanding of material,
their meaning and proper use.
 10 minutes
3) Practice
 Involve students
 Use material
 Provide exercises and activities
 Manage and support students, arrange them in pairs or groups. Encourage
teamwork.
 Focus on integrated skills of language
 This part will take up bulk of class time.
 Keep students intrigued and excited.

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 4) Production
 Teacher should have minimal to no involvement.
 Students are given opportunity newly learned and material freely and openly.
 Production in pairs and groups.
 Students will achieve the lesson’s goal.
 Teachers are required to take feedback from students.
 This part of plan will last from 15 to 20 minutes.

Parameters of teaching:

 Planning
 Recording
 Challenging
 Demonstrating
 Securing
 Managing
 Adapting
 Explaining
 Discussing
 Interrogating
 Reviewing
 Evaluating
 Modifying
 Establishing
 Questioning

Lesson Plan aids teachers effectively to perfect their imparting of knowledge by reaching the
optimum level of all the milestones presented above.

Topics for Poster Presentations

a) Advertisement g) Important books of world

b) Child Labour: Luxury or Malady h) Important personalities of world
c) Junk Food: Taste or Waste i) A friend in need is friend indeed.
d) Social Media: Advantages j) Eat to live or live to eat.
e) Social Media: Disadvantages k) Educate a woman, educate a nation.
f) Cinderella: A shiny shoe

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