03/05/2010 Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing …

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Comprehensive Design Example for Prestressed

Concrete (PSC) Girder Superstructure Bridge

Design Step 6.0 - Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing Design

Design requirements (S14.5.3)

Movements during construction

Where practicable, construction staging should be used to delay construction of abutments and piers
located in or adjacent to embank ments until the embank ments have been placed and consolidated.
Otherwise, deck joints should be sized to accommodate the probable abutment and pier movements
resulting from embank ment consolidation after their construction.

Closure pours may be used to minimize the effect of prestress-induced shortening on the width of seals
and the size of bearings.

Characteristics (S14.6.2)
The bearing chosen for a particular application has to have appropriate load and movement capabilities.
Table S14.6.2-1 may be used as a guide when comparing different bearing systems.

Force effects resulting from restraint of movement at the bearing (S14.6.3)

Restraint forces occur when any part of a movement is prevented. Forces due to direct loads include dead
load of the bridge and loads due to traffic, earthquak es, water and wind. The applicable limit states must
be considered.

Bearings are typically located in an area which collects large amounts of dirt and moisture and promotes
problems of corrosion and deterioration. As a result, bearings should be designed and installed to have the
maximum possible protection against the environment and to allow easy access for inspection.

Elastomeric bearing overview

Shore A Durometer hardnesses of 60±5 are common, and they lead to shear modulus values in the range of
80 to 180 psi. The shear stiffness of the bearing is its most important property since it affects the forces
transmitted between the superstructure and substructure. Some states use a slightly different common
range than stated above. See S14.7.5.2 and S14.7.6.2 for material requirements of neoprene bearing pads.

Elastomer may be used as a plain pad (PEP) or may be reinforced with steel. Steel reinforced elastomeric
bearings are composed of layers of elastomer and steel plates bonded together with adhesive.

Elastomers are flexible under shear and uniaxial deformation, but they are very stiff against volume
changes. This feature mak es the design of a bearing that is stiff in compression but flexible in shear
possible. Under uniaxial compression, the flexible elastomer would shorten significantly and, to maintain
constant volume, sustain large increases in its plan dimension, but the stiff steel layers of the steel
reinforced elastomeric bearings restrain the lateral expansion.

Elastomers stiffen at low temperatures. The low temperature stiffening effect is very sensitive to the
elastomer compound, and the increase in shear resistance can be controlled by selection of an elasotmer
compound which is appropriate for the climatic conditions.

The design of a steel reinforced elastomeric bearing requires an appropriate balance of compressive, shear
and rotational stiffnesses. The shape factor, tak en as the plan area divided by the area of the perimeter
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free to bulge, affects the compressive and rotational stiffnesses, but it has no impact on the translational
stiffness or deformation capacity.

The bearing must be designed to control the stress in the steel reinforcement and the strain in the
elastomer. This is done by controlling the elastomer layer thick ness and the shape factor of the bearing.
Fatigue, stability, delamination, yield and rupture of the steel reinforcement, stiffness of the elastomer, and
geometric constraints must all be satisfied.

Design methods
Two design methods are allowed by the AASHTO-LRFD Specifications. Method A, specified in S14.7.6, is
applicable to plain, steel reinforced and fiber glass reinforced elastomeric pads as well as cotton duck
pads. Method B, specified in S14.7.5, is applicable to steel reinforced elastomeric bearings. The following
sections and the design example below are based on Method B. Flowcharts for the bearing design using
both Method A and Method B are included in Section 3.

General elastomer material properties and selection criteria (S14.7.5.2)

Commonly used elastomers have a shear modulus between 0.080 and 0.175 k si and a nominal hardness
between 50 and 60 on the Shore A scale. The shear modulus of the elastomer at 73° F is used as the
basis for design. The elastomer may be specified by its shear modulus or hardness. If the elastomer is
specified explicitly by its shear modulus, that value is used in design, and other properties are obtained
from Table S14.7.5.2-1. If the material is specified by its hardness, the shear modulus is tak en as the
least favorable value from the range for that hardness given in Table S14.7.5.2-1. Intermediate values may
be obtained by interpolation.

Elastomer grade is selected based on the temperature zone of the bridge location and by Table S14.7.5.2-
2. The temperature zones are shown in Figure 6-1.

Table S14.7.5.2-2 - Low-Temperature Zones and Minimum Grades of Elastomer

Low-Temperature Zone A B C D E

50-year low temperature (oF) 0 - - -45 -45

20 30

Maximum number of consecutive days when the temperature does not rise 3 7 14 NA NA
above 32oF

Minimum low-temperature elastomer grade 0 2 3 4 5

Minimum low-temperature elastomer grade when special force provisions 0 0 2 3 5

are incorporated

Figure 6-1 - Temperature Zones

According to S14.7.5.2, any of the three design options listed below may be used to specify the elastomer:

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1. Specify the elastomer with the minimum low-temperature grade indicated in Table S14.7.5.2-2 and
determine the shear force transmitted by the bearing as specified in S14.6.3.1;

2. Specify the elastomer with the minimum low-temperature grade for use when special force provisions
are incorporated in the design but do not provide a low friction sliding surface, in which case the
bridge shall be designed to withstand twice the design shear force specified in S14.6.3.1; or

3. Specify the elastomer with the minimum low-temperature grade for use when special force provisions
are incorporated in the design but do not provide a low friction sliding surface, in which case the
components of the bridge shall be designed to resist four times the design shear force as specified
in S14.6.3.1.

Design Step 6.1 - Design a steel reinforced elastomeric bearing for the interior girders
at the intermediate pier
A typical elastomer with hardness 60 Shore A Durometer and a shear modulus of 150 psi is assumed. The
1.75 k si delamination stress limit of Eq. S14.7.5.3.2-3 requires a total plan area at least equal to the
vertical reaction on the bearing divided by 1.75. The bearing reaction at different limit states is equal to the
shear at the end of Span 1 as shown in Tables 5.3-3 and -4. These values are shown in Table 6-1 below.

Table 6-1 - Design Forces on Bearings of Interior Girders at the Intermediate Pier

Max. factored reaction (k) Max. reaction due to LL (k)

Strength I 433.0 1.75(129.9)
Service I 290.5 129.9

Notice that:

The loads shown above include the dynamic load allowance. According to the commentary of
S14.7.5.3.2, the effect of the dynamic load allowance on the elastomeric bearing reaction may be
ignored. The reason for this is that the dynamic load allowance effects are lik ely to be only a small
proportion of the total load and because the stress limits are based on fatigue damage, whose limits
are not clearly defined. For this example, the dynamic load allowance (33% of the girder maximum
response due to the truck ) adds 21.64 and 37.88 k ips to the girder factored end shear at the Service
I and Strength I limit states, respectively. This is a relatively small force, therefore, the inclusion of
the dynamic load allowance effect leads to a slightly more conservative design.

The live load reaction per bearing is tak en equal to the maximum girder live load end shear.
Recognizing that the girder, which is continuous for live load, has two bearings on the intermediate
pier, another acceptable procedure is to divide the maximum live load reaction on the pier equally
between the two bearings. This will result in lower bearing loads compared to using the girder end
shear to design the bearings. This approach was not tak en in this example, rather, the girder end
shear was applied to the bearing.

Design Step 6.1.1 - Determine the minimum bearing area

The bearing at the intermediate pier is fixed and is not subject to shear deformation due to the lack of
movements. According to S14.7.5.3.2, the maximum compressive stress limit under service limit state for
bearings fixed against shear deformations:

σs ≤ 2.00GS ≤ 1.75 ksi (S14.7.5.3.2-3)

σL ≤ 1.00GS (S14.7.5.3.2-4)

where:

σs = service average compressive stress due to the total load (ksi)

σL = service average compressive stress due to live load (ksi)
G = shear modulus of elastomer (ksi)

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S = shape factor of the thickest layer of the bearing

To satisfy the 1.75 ksi limit, the minimum bearing area, Areq, should satisfy:

Areq > 290.5/1.75 = 166.0 in2

The corners of the bottom flanges of the girder are usually chamfered. The bearing should be slightly
narrower than the flat part of the flange unless a stiff sole plate is used to insure uniform distribution of the
compressive stress and strain over the bearing area. The bearing should be as short along the length of the
girder as practical to permit rotation about the transverse axis. This requires the bearing to be as wide as
possible which is desirable when stabilizing the girder during erection. For a first estimate, choose a 24 in.
width [28 in. wide girder bottom flange - 2(1 in. chamfer + 1 in. edge clearance)] and a 7.5 in. longitudinal
dimension to ensure that the maximum compressive stress limit is satisfied (area = 24(7.5) = 180 in2 > 166
in2 required OK). The longitudinal translation is 0 in. for a fixed bearing. Notice that for a bearing subject to
translation, i.e., movable bearing, the shear strains due to translation must be less than 0.5 in./in. to prevent
rollover and excess fatigue damage. This means that the total elastomer thickness, hrt, must be greater
than two times the design translation, Δs , where applicable. A preliminary shape factor should be calculated
according to S14.7.5.1.

Design Step 6.1.2 - Steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings - Method B (S14.7.5)

For bridges at locations where the roadway has positive or negative grade, the thickness of the bearing may
need to be varied along the length of the girder. This is typically accomplished through the used of a tapered
steel top plate. In this example, the bridge is assumed to be at zero grade and, therefore, each elastomer
and reinforcement layer has a constant thickness. All internal layers of elastomer shall be of the same
thickness. For bearings with more than two elastomer layers, the top and bottom cover layers should be no
thicker than 70 percent of the internal layers.

The shape factor of a layer of an elastomeric bearing, Si, is taken as the plan area of the layer divided by
the area of perimeter free to bulge. For rectangular bearings without holes, the shape factor of the layer may
be taken as:

Si = LW/[2hri(L + W)] (S14.7.5.1-1)

where:

L = length of a rectangular elastomeric bearing (parallel to the longitudinal bridge

axis) (in.)
W = width of the bearing in the transverse direction (in.)
hri = thickness of ith elastomeric layer in elastomeric bearing (in.)

Determine the thickness of the ith elastomeric layer by rewriting Eq. S14.7.5.1-1 and solving for hri due to
the total load.

hri = LW/[2Si(L + W)]

Design Step 6.1.2.1 - Design Requirements (S14.7.5.3)

Compressive stress (S14.7.5.3.2):

In any elastomeric bearing layer, the average compressive stress at the service limit state will satisfy the
following provisions.

These provisions limit the shear stress and strain in the elastomer. The relationship between the shear
stress and the applied compressive load depends directly on the shape factor, with higher shape factors
leading to higher capacities.

First, solve for the shape factor under total load, S TL, by rewriting Eq. S14.7.5.3.2-3 for bearings fixed
against shear deformation.

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STL ≥ σs /2.00G (S14.7.5.3.2-3)

where:

σs = PTL/Areq
PTL = maximum bearing reaction under total load (k)
= 290.5 k
σs = 290.5/[7.5(24)]
= 1.614 ksi
G = 0.150 ksi

STL ≥ 1.614/[2.00(0.150)]
≥ 5.38 (1)

Solve for the shape factor under live load, SLL, by rewriting Eq. S14.7.5.3.2-4 for bearings fixed against
shear deformation.

SLL ≥ σL/1.00G (S14.7.5.3.2-4)

where:

σL = PLL/Areq
PLL = maximum bearing live load reaction (k)
= 129.9 k
σL = 129.9/[7.5(24)]
= 0.722 ksi

SLL ≥ 0.722/[1.00(0.150)] ≥ 4.81 (2)

From (1) and (2), the minimum shape factor of any layer is 5.38.

Notice that if holes are present in the elastomeric bearing their effect needs to be accounted for when
calculating the shape factor because they reduce the loaded area and increase the area free to bulge. Use
Eq. SC14.7.5.1-1 in this case instead of Eq. S14.7.5.1-1.

Using the shape factors of STL and SLL calculated above, determine the elastomer thickness.

hri(TL) < (LW)/[2(STL)(L + W)]

< 7.5(24)/[2(5.38)(7.5 + 24)]
< 0.531 in.

and

hri(LL) < (LW)/[2(SLL)(L + W)]

< 7.5(24)/[2(4.81)(7.5 + 24)]
< 0.594 in.

Use an interior elastomer layer thickness of hri = 0.5 in.

The shape factor is:

S = (LW)/[2(hri)(L + W)]
= 7.5(24)/[2(0.5)(7.5 + 24)]
= 5.71

Design Step 6.1.2.2 - Compressive deflection (S14.7.5.3.3)

This provision need only be check ed if deck joints are present on the bridge. Since this design example is
a jointless bridge, commentary for this provision is provided below, but no design is investigated.

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Deflections of elastometric bearings due to total load and live load alone will be considered separately.

Instantaneous deflection is be tak en as:

Δ = σei hri (S14.7.5.3.3-1)

where:

εi = instantaneous compressive strain in ith elastomer layer of a laminated

bearing
hri = thick ness of ith elastomeric layer in a laminated bearing (in.)

Values for εi are determined from test results or by analysis when considering long-term deflections. The
effects of creep of the elastomer are added to the instantaneous deflection. Creep effects should be
determined from information relevant to the elastomeric compound used. In the absence of material-
specific data, the values given in S14.7.5.2 may be used.

Design Step 6.1.2.3 - Shear deformation (S14.7.5.3.4)

This provision need only be check ed if the bearing is a movable bearing. Since the bearing under
consideration is a fixed bearing, this provision does not apply. Commentary on this provision is provided
below, but no design check s are performed.

The maximum horizontal movement of the bridge superstructure, Δo, is tak en as the extreme displacement
caused by creep, shrink age, and posttensioning combined with thermal movements.

The maximum shear deformation of the bearing at the service limit state, Δs , is tak en as Δo, modified to
account for the substructure stiffness and construction procedures. If a low friction sliding surface is
installed, Δs need not be tak en to be larger than the deformation corresponding to first slip.

The bearing is required to satisfy:

hrt ≥ 2Δs (S14.7.5.3.4-1)

where:

hrt = total elastomer thick ness (sum of the thick nesses of all elastomer layers)
(in.)
Δs = maximum shear deformation of the elastomer at the service limit state (in.)

This limit on hrt ensures that rollover at the edges and delamination due to fatigue will not tak e place. See
SC14.7.5.3.4 for more stringent requirements when shear deformations are due to high cycle loading such
as brak ing forces and vibrations.

Design Step 6.1.2.4 - Combined compression and rotation (S14.7.5.3.5)

Service limit state applies. Design rotations are tak en as the maximum sum of the effects of initial lack of
parallelism between the bottom of the girder and the top of the superstructure and subsequent girder end
rotation due to imposed loads and movements.

The goal of the following requirements is to prevent uplift of any corner of the bearing under any
combination of loading and corresponding rotation.

Rectangular bearings are assumed to satisfy uplift requirements if they satisfy:

σs > 1.0GS(θs /n)(B/hri)2 (S14.7.5.3.5-1)

where:

n = number of interior layers of elastomer, where interior layers are defined as

those layers which are bonded on each face. Exterior layers are defined as
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those layers which are bonded only on one face. When the thickness of the
exterior layer of elastomer is more than one-half the thickness of an interior
layer, the parameter, n, may be increased by one-half for each such exterior
layer.
hri = 0.5 in.
σs = maximum compressive stress in elastomer (ksi)
= 1.614 ksi
B = length of pad if rotation is about its transverse axis or width of pad if rotation
is about its longitudinal axis (in.)
= 7.5 in.
θs = maximum service rotation due to the total load (rads)

For this example, θs will include the rotations due to live load and construction
load (assume 0.005 rads) only. As a result of camber under the prestressing
force and permanent dead loads, prestressed beams typically have end
rotation under permanent dead loads in the opposite direction than that of the
live load end rotations. Conservatively assume the end rotations to be zero
under the effect of the prestressing and permanent loads.
= 0.005944 rads (from a live load analysis program)

Rewrite Eq. S14.7.5.3.5-1 to determine the number of interior layers of elastomer, nu, for uplift:

nu > 1.0GS(θs )(B/hri)2/σs

> 1.0(0.150)(5.71)(0.005944)(7.5/0.5)2/1.614
> 0.710

To prevent excessive stress on the edges of the elastomer, rectangular bearings fixed against shear
deformation must also satisfy:

σs < 2.25GS[1 - 0.167(θs /n)(B/hri)2] (S14.7.5.3.5-3)

Rewrite Eq. S14.7.5.3.5-3 to determine the number of interior layers of elastomer, nc , required to limit
compression along the edges.

nc > -0.167(θs )(B/hri)2/[σs /2.25GS - 1]

> -0.167(0.005944)(7.5/0.5)2/[1.614/[2.25(0.150)(5.71)] - 1]
> 1.37

Use 2 interior layers 0.5 in. thick each. Use exterior layers 0.25 in. thick each (< 70% of the thickness of
the interior layer).

Design Step 6.1.2.5 - Stability of elastomeric bearings (S14.7.5.3.6)

Bearings are investigated for instability at the service limit state load combinations specified in Table
S3.4.1-1.

Bearings satisfying Eq. S14.7.5.3.6-1 are considered stable, and no further investigation of stability is
required.

2A ≤ B (S14.7.5.3.6-1)

for which:

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where:

L = 7.5 in.

W = 24 in.

hrt = total thickness of the elastomer in the bearing (in.)

= 2(0.25) + 2(0.5)
= 1.5 in.

For a rectangular bearing where L is greater than W, stability will be investigated by interchanging L and W
in Eqs. S14.7.5.3.6-2 and -3.

= 0.301

= 0.321

Check 2A ≤ B

2(0.301) = 0.602 > 0.321, therefore, the bearing is not stable and Eqs. S14.7.5.3.6-4 and -5
need to be checked.

For bridge decks fixed against translation, the following equation needs to be satisfied to ensure stability.

σs ≤ GS/(A - B) (S14.7.5.3.6-5)

However, if A - B ≤ 0, then the bearing is considered stable.

A - B = 0.301 - 0.321 = -0.02

Therefore, the bearing is stable.

Design Step 6.1.2.6 - Reinforcement (S14.7.5.3.7)

The reinforcement should sustain the tensile stresses induced by compression on the bearing. With the
present load limitations, the minimum steel plate thickness practical for fabrication will usually provide
adequate strength.

At the service limit state:

hs ≥ 3hmax σs /Fy (S14.7.5.3.7-1)

where:

hmax = thickness of thickest elastomeric layer in elastomeric bearing (in.)

= 0.5 in.
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σs = 1.614 ksi
Fy = yield strength of steel reinforcement (ksi)
= 36 ksi

hs(TL) ≥ 3(0.5)(1.614)/36
≥ 0.067 in.

At the fatigue limit state:

hs ≥ 2.0hmax σL/ΔFTH (S14.7.5.3.7-2)

where:

hmax = 0.5 in.

σL = 129.9/[7.5(24)]
= 0.722 ksi
ΔFTH = constant amplitude fatigue threshold for Category A as specified in Table
S6.6.1.2.5-3 (ksi)
= 24 ksi

hs(LL) ≥ 2(0.5)(0.722)/24
≥ 0.030 in.

Use hs = 0.120 in. thick steel reinforcement plates; this is an 11 gage shim.

If holes exist in the reinforcement, the minimum thick ness is increased by a factor equal to twice the gross
width divided by the net width. Holes in the reinforcement cause stress concentrations. Their use should be
discouraged. The required increase in steel thick ness accounts for both the material removed and the
stress concentrations around the hole.

The total height of the bearing, hrt:

hrt = cover layers + elastomer layers + shim thicknesses

= 2(0.25) + 2(0.5) + 3(0.120)
= 1.86 in.

Figure 6-2 - Dimensions of Elastomeric Bearing

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Notes:

1. 11 gage steel shim thickness is held constant for all bearings

2. All cover layers and edge covers are to be 1/4-inch thick.
3. Total bearing thickness will include the summation of a masonry plate, a sole plate, and the
laminated elastomeric pad thickness.
4. Elastomer in all bearings shall have grade 60 Shore A Durometer hardness.
5. Pad shall be vulcanized to masonry plate and sole plate in the shop
6. Pad thickness shown is uncompressed.

A shear key between the bent cap and the concrete diaphragm will provide the movement restraint in the
longitudinal direction. See Figure 6-3.

Figure 6-3 - Longitudinal Fixity at Intermediate Bent

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