Effect of Boiler Pressure (Using Molliar Diagram i.e.

, h-s diagram)

We have,
(h − h ) − (h1 − h4 )
η th = 2 3 but WP << WT
h2 − h1
h − h3 (∆h )S
∴η th = 2 =
h2 − h1 (h2 − h1 )

i.e., Rankine cycle η depends on h2, h1 and ∆hS. From figure as P1″′ > P1″ > P1′ for the fixed
maximum temperature of the steam t1 and condenser pressure P2, Isentropic heat drops increases
with boiler pressure i.e., from the figure therefore it is evident that as boiler pressure increases,
the isentropic heat drop (∆h)S increases, but the enthalpy of the steam entering the turbine
decreases, with the result that the Rankine η increases. But quality of the steam at the exit of the
turbine suffers i.e., x3″′ < x3 ″ < x3′, which leads to serious wear of the turbine blades.

Dr. T.N. Shridhar, Professor, NIE, Mysore 1

Effect of Super Heating (Using Molliar Diagram i.e., h-s diagram)

The moisture in the steam at the end of the expansion may be reduced by increasing the super
heated temperature of steam t1. This can be seen in figure where t1″′ > t1″ > t1′, but x3′ < x3″ <
x3″′. It is, therefore, natural that to avoid erosion of the turbine blades, an increase in the boiler
pressure must be accompanied by super heating at a higher temperature and since this raises the
mean average temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam, the Rankine η increases.

Deviation of Actual Vapour Power cycles from Ideal cycle

The actual Vapour power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle, as shown in figure, as a
result of irreversibilities in various components mainly because of fluid friction and heat loss to
the surroundings.

Dr. T.N. Shridhar, Professor, NIE, Mysore 2

Fluid friction causes pressure drops in the boiler, the condenser, and the piping between various
components. As a result, steam leaves the boiler at a lower pressure. Also the pressure at the
turbine inlet is lower than that at the boiler exit due to pressure drop in the connecting pipes. The
pressure drop in the condenser is usually very small. To compensate these pressure drops, the
water must be pumped to sufficiently higher pressure which requires the larger pump and larger
work input to the pump.

The other major source of irreversibility is the heat loss from the steam to the surroundings as the
steam flows through various components. To maintain the same level of net work output, more
heat needs to be transferred to the steam in the boiler to compensate for these undesired heat
losses. As a result, cycle efficiency decreases.

As a result of irreversibilities, a pump requires a greater work input, and a turbine produces a
smaller work output. Under the ideal conditions, the flow through these devices are isentropic.
The deviation of actual pumps and turbines from the isentropic ones can be accounted for by
utilizing isentropic efficiencies, defined as
W h − h4
η P = S = 1S
Wa h1 − h4
W h − h3
And η t = a = 2
WS h2 − h3S

Numerical Problems:

1. Dry saturated steam at 17.5 bar enters the turbine of a steam power plant and expands
to the condenser pressure of 0.75 bar. Determine the Carnot and Rankine cycle
efficiencies. Also find the work ratio of the Rankine cycle.

Solution: P1 = 17.5 bar P2 = 0.75 bar ηCarnot = ? ηRankine = ?

a) Carnot cycle: At pressure 17.5 bar from steam tables,

P tS hf hfg hg Sf Sfg Sg
17 204.3 871.8 1921.6 2793.4 2.3712 4.0246 6.3958
18 207.11 884.5 1910.3 2794.8 2.3976 3.9776 6.3751

For P = 17.5 bar, using linear interpolation

Dr. T.N. Shridhar, Professor, NIE, Mysore 3

 207.11 − 204.3
For tS, 204.3 + x0.5 = 205.710 C
1
= 478.71 K

Similarly, hf = 878.15 kJ/kg hfg = 1915.95 kJ/kg hg = 2794.1 kJ/kg

Sf = 2.3844 kJ/kg0K Sfg = 4.0011 kJ/kg0K Sg = 6.3855 kJ/kg K

Also at pressure 0.75 bar from steam tables

P tS hf hfg hg Sf Sfg Sg
0.8 93.51 391.7 2274.0 2665.8 1.233 6.2022 7.4352
0.7 89.96 376.8 2283.3 2660.1 1.1921 6.2883 7.4804

∴For 0.75 bar, using linear interpolation,

tS = 91.740C hf = 384.25 hfg = 2278.65 hg = 2662.95
Sf = 1.2126 Sfg = 6.2453 Sg = 7.4578

T1 − T2 478.71 − 364.74
The Carnot cycle η, ηC = = = 0.2381
T1 478.71

1 1
Steam rate or SSC = =
∫ δW WT − WP

Since the expansion work is isentropic, S2 = S3

But S2 = Sg = 6.3855 and S3 = Sf3 + x3 Sfg3

i.e., 6.3855 = 1.2126 + x3 (6.2453) ∴x3 = 0.828

∴Enthalpy at state 3, h3 = hf3 + x3hfg3

= 384.25 + 0.828 (2278.65) = 2271.63 kJ/kg

∴Turbine work or expansion work or positive work = h2 – h3

= 2794.1 – 2271.63 = 522.47 kJ/kg

Again since the compression process is isentropic

i.e., S4 = S1 = Sf1 = 2.3844

Hence 2.3844 = Sf4 + x4 Sfg4

= 1.2126 + x4 (6.2453) ∴x4 = 0.188

Dr. T.N. Shridhar, Professor, NIE, Mysore 4

∴Enthalpy at state 4 is h4 = hf4 + x4 hfg4

= 384.25 + 0.188 (2278.65)

= 811.79 kJ/kg

∴Compression work, = h1 – h4 = 878.15 – 811.79

WP = 66.36 kJ/kg

1
∴ SSC = = 2.192 x 10 −3 kg / kJ
522.47 − 66.36

work ratio = rw =
∫ δw =
WT − WP 456.11
= = 0.873
+ ve work WT 522.47

b) Rankine cycle:

WT − WP (h2 − h3 ) − (h1 − h4 )
ηR = =
QH (h2 − h1 )
Since the change in volume of the saturated liquid water during compression from state 4 to state
1 is very small, v4 may be taken as constant. In a steady flow process, work W = -v∫dp
∴WP = h1S – h4 = vfP2 (P1 – P2)
= 0.001037 (17.5 – 0.75) x 105 x (1/1000)
= 1.737 kJ/kg
∴h1S = 1.737 + 384.25 = 385.99 kJ/kg

Hence, turbine work = WT = h2 – h3 = 522.47kJ/kg

Heat supplied = QH = h2 – h1S = 2.794.1 – 385.99 = 2408.11 kJ/kg

522.47 − 1.737
∴η R = = 0.2162
2408.11
1
∴ SSC = = 19204 x 10 −3 kg / kJ
522.47 − 1.737

Dr. T.N. Shridhar, Professor, NIE, Mysore 5

 522.47 − 1737
Work ratio, rw = = 0.9967
522.47

2. If in problem (1), the turbine and the pump have each 85% efficiency, find the %
reduction in the net work and cycle efficiency for Rankine cycle.
Solution: If ηP = 0.85, ηT = 0.85
W 1.737
WP = P = = 2.0435kJ / kg
0.85 0.85
WT = ηT WT = 0.85 (522.47) = 444.09 kJ/kg

∴Wnet = WT – WP = 442.06 kJ/kg

520.73 − 442.06
∴% reduction in work output = = 15.11%
520.73
WP = h1S – h4 ∴h1S = 2.0435 + 384.25 = 386.29 kJ/kg

∴QH – h2 – h1S = 2794.1 – 386.29 = 2407.81 kJ/kg

442.06
∴η cycle = = 0.1836
2407.81
0.2162 − 0.1836
∴% reduction in cycle efficiency = = 15.08%
0.2162

Note: Alternative method for problem 1 using h-s diagram (Mollier diagram) though the result
may not be as accurate as the analytical solution. The method is as follows

Since steam is dry saturated at state 2, locate this state at the pressure P2 = 17.5 bar on the
saturation line and read the enthalpy at this state. This will give the value of h2.

As the expansion process 2-3 is isentropic, draw a vertical line through the state 2 to meet the
pressure line, P = 0.75 bar. The intersection of the vertical line with the pressure line will fix
state 3. From the chart, find the value of h3.

The value of h4 can be found from the steam tables at pressure, P = 0.75 bar, as h4 = hf4. After
finding the values of h2, h3 and h4, apply the equation used in the analytical solution for
determining the Rankine cycle η and SSC.

Dr. T.N. Shridhar, Professor, NIE, Mysore 6

3. Steam enters the turbine of a steam power plant, operating on Rankine cycle, at 10 bar,
3000C. The condenser pressure is 0.1 bar. Steam leaving the turbine is 90% dry.
Calculate the adiabatic efficiency of the turbine and also the cycle η, neglecting pump
work.
Solution:

P1 = 10 bar t2 = 3000C P3 = 0.1 bar

x3 = 0.9 ηt = ? ηcycle = ? Neglect WP

From superheated steam tables,

For P2 = 10 bar and t2 = 3000C, h2 = 3052.1 kJ/kg, s2 = 7.1251 kJ/kg

From table A – 1, For P3 = 0.1 bar

tS = 45.830C hf = 191.8 hfg = 2392.9

Sf = 0.6493 Sfg = 7.5018

Since x3 = 0.9, h3 = hf4 + x3 hfg3

= 191.8 +0.9 (2392.9)

= 2345.4 kJ/kg

Also, since process 2-3s is isentropic, S2 = S3S

i.e., 7.1251 = Sfg4 + x3S Sfg3

= 0.6493 + x3S (7.5018)

∴x3S = 0.863

∴h3S = 191.8 + 0.863 (2392.9) = 2257.43 kJ/kg

Dr. T.N. Shridhar, Professor, NIE, Mysore 7
 h2 − h3 3052.1 − 2345.4
∴ Turbine efficiency,η t = = = 0.89
h2 − h3 S 3052.1 − 2257.43

WT h − h3
η cycle = = 2 but h1 = 191.8 kJ/kg
QH h2 − h1

3052.1 − 2345.4
= = 0.25 i.e., 25%
3052.1 − 191.8

4. A 40 mW steam plant working on Rankine cycle operates between boiler pressure of 4

MPa and condenser pressure of 10 KPa. The steam leaves the boiler and enters the
steam turbine at 4000C. The isentropic η of the steam turbine is 85%. Determine (i) the
cycle η (ii) the quality of steam from the turbine and (iii) the steam flow rate in kg per
hour. Consider pump work.
Solution:

P2 = 4 MPa = 40 bar P3 = 10 KPa = 0.1 bar

P = 40000kW t2 = 4000C ηt = 0.85 ηcycle = ? x3 = ?

m& = ?

h2 = h 40 bar , 4000 C
= 3215.7kJ / kg and s2 = 6.7733 kJ/kg-K

h4 = h f 0.1 bar = 191.8kJ / kg

Process 2-3s is isentropic i.e., S2 = S3S

6.7733 = 0.6493 + x3S (7.5018)

∴x3S = 0.816

Dr. T.N. Shridhar, Professor, NIE, Mysore 8

∴h3S = hf3 + x3S hfg3 = 191.8 + 0.816 (2392.9)

= 2145.2 kJ/kg

h2 − h3 3215.7 − h3
But η t = i.e., 0.85 =
h2 − h3 S 3215.7 − 2145.2

∴h3 = 2305.8 kJ/kg

∴WT = h2 – h3 = 3215.7 – 2305.8 = 909.9 kJ/kg

WP = v∫dP = 0.0010102 (40 – 0.1) 105/102

= 4.031 kJ/kg

= h1 – h4 ∴h1 = 195.8 kJ/kg

Wnet 909.9 − 4.031

(i ) η cycle = = = 29.9%
Q1 (3215.7 − 195.8)
(ii) x3 = ? we have 2305.8 = 191.8 + x3 (2392.9) ∴x3 = 0.88

(iii) P = m& Wnet i.e., 40000 = m& (905.87)

∴ m& = 44.2 kg/s

= 159120 kg/hr

Ideal Reheat cycle: We know that, the efficiency of the Rankine cycle could be increased by
increasing steam pressure in the boiler and superheating the steam. But this increases the
moisture content of the steam in the lower pressure stages in the turbine, which may lead to
erosion of the turbine blade. ∴The reheat cycle has been developed to take advantage of the
increased pressure of the boiler, avoiding the excessive moisture of the steam in the low pressure
stages. In the reheat cycle, steam after partial expansion in the turbine is brought back to the
boiler, reheated by combustion gases and then fed back to the turbine for further expansion.

Dr. T.N. Shridhar, Professor, NIE, Mysore 9

In the reheat cycle the expansion of steam from the initial state (2) to the condenser pressure is
carried out in two or more steps, depending upon the number of reheats used.

In the first step, steam expands in HP turbine from state 2 to approximate the saturated vapour
line (process 2-3s). The steam is then reheated (or resuperheated) at constant pressure in the
boiler (or in a reheater) process 3s-4 and the remaining expansion process 4s-5 is carried out in
the LP turbine.

Note: 1) To protect the reheater tubes, steam is not allowed to expand deep into the two-phase
region before it is taken for reheating, because in that case the moisture particles in steam while
evaporating would leave behind solid deposits in the form of scale which is difficult to remove.
Also a low reheat pressure may bring down Tm1 and hence cycle η. Again a high reheat pressure

Dr. T.N. Shridhar, Professor, NIE, Mysore 10

increases the moisture content at turbine exhaust. Thus reheat pressure is optimized. Optimum
reheat pressure is about 0.2 to 0.25 of initial pressure.

We have for 1 kg of steam

QH = (h2 – h1S) + (h4 – h3S); QL = h5S – h6

WT = (h2 – h3S) + (h4 – h5S); WP = h1S – h6

WT − W P
∴ ηR = ;
QH
3600
Steam rate = kg / kWh
(WT − WP )
Since higher reheat pressure is used, WP work is appreciable.

2) In practice, the use of reheat gives a marginal increase in cycle η, but it increases the net work
output by making possible the use of higher pressures, keeping the quality of steam at turbine
exhaust within a permissible limit. The quality improves from x51 S to x5S by the use of reheat.

Dr. T.N. Shridhar, Professor, NIE, Mysore 11