2 – Marks

Unit -1

List out the class -1 and class - 2 preservatives.

Class 1 preservative:

 Common salt
 Sugar
 Vinegar
 Dextrose
 Glucose
 Spices
 Homey
 Edible vegetable oils

Class 2 preservatives:

 Benzoic acids and its salts

 Sulphurous acids and its salts
 Nitrates/nitrites of sodium or potassium
 Sorbic acid
 Propionates of Ca, Na, lactic acid
 Nisin Methyl/Propyl parahydroxy Benzoates Sodium Diacetate

Write about antioxidants?

An antioxidant is a substance added to fats and fat-containing substances to retard oxidation

and thereby prolong their wholesomeness, palatability and sometimes keeping time. An antioxidant
should not contribute an objectionable odour, flavour or colour to the fat and to the food in which it is
present. It should be effective in low concentrations and be fat soluble. Also it should not have
harmful physiological effects.

Examples: BHT, BHA, Propyl gallate, tertiary butyl hydroquinone

Write a short note on a) Sorbic acid b) Propionic acid c) Parabens

Sorbic acid:

Sorbic acid (CH3-CH = CH – CH = CH – COOH) and its sodium and potassium salts inhibit
moulds and yeasts, in foods such as cheese, baked products, fruit juices, wines and pickles. The
antimycotic action of sorbic acid is due to the inability of moulds to metabolize the conjugated
unsaturated structure.

Propionic acid:

Propionic acid (CH3CH2COOH) and its sodium and calcium salts exert antimicrobial activity
against moulds and some bacteria. The acid finds extensive use in bakery field, where it not only
inhibits moulds effectively but is also active against the ropy bread organism Bacillus
mesentericus.The toxicity of propionic acid to moulds and certain bacteria is related to the inability of
the organisms to metabolize the three-carbon unit.

Parabens:

These are alkyl esters of p-hydroxyl benzoic acid. The methyl, ethyl, propyl and heptyl esters
are generally used. These are effective inhibitors of moulds and yeasts, but are relatively ineffective
against bacteria. They are active at PH 7 and higher and have little effect on flavour.

Define intentional and unintentional food additives?

Intentional Additives:

The intentional additives are the substances that are added in the manufacture of food products
to improve or maintain flavour, colour, texture or consistency or to enhance or conserve nutritional
value.

Unintentional Additives:
The unintentional incorporation of chemicals into food is as widespread as intentional addition
and may present health hazards. The sources of contamination are radioactive fall-out, thousands of
chemicals used in agricultural production, animal food additives, and accidental contaminants during
food processing.
Unit - 2

Define food colours and what are the types of food colours?

Colour additives include colour stabilizers, colour fixatives and colour retention agents etc. They
consist of synthetic colours, synthesized colours, that also occur naturally, and other colours from
natural sources. There are two types in food colours. They are:

1. Natural
2. Artificial or synthetic

A number of natural colours extracted from seeds, flowers, insects and foods are also used
as food additives. One of the best known and widespread red pigments is bixin derived from the seed
coat of Bixaorenella. Bixin is not considered to be carcinogenic. A natural red colour, cochineal
obtained by extraction from female insect, grape extract, and caramel, the brown colour obtained from
burnt sugar, are some natural colours that are used as food additives.

Write about Azo coupling.

 Azo refer to ‘a’ = not zoa = to alive

-N=N- parent group
H-N=N-H di imides group
Azo dyes: Azo dyes have characteristic R-N = N-R bonding and are manufactured by Azo coupling.
 Azo coupling:
An organic reaction between a diazonium compound and an aniline/ phenol/ benzene
which produces a coloured azo compound

Write about colouring agents?

Colouring agents include colour stabilizers, colour fixatives and colour retention agents
etc. They consist of synthetic colours, synthesized colours, that also occur naturally, and other colours
from natural sources. A number of natural colours extracted from seeds, flowers, insects and foods are
also used as food additives. One of the best known and widespread red pigments is bixin derived from
the seed coat of Bixaorenella. Bixin is not considered to be carcinogenic. A natural red colour,
cochineal obtained by extraction from female insect, grape extract, and caramel, the brown colour
obtained from burnt sugar, are some natural colours that are used as food additives.
Write a short note on flavour enhancers?

One of the best known, most widely used and somewhat controversial flavour enhancer is
monosodium glutamate (MSG), the sodium salt of the naturally occurring amino acid glutamic acid.
This is added to over 10,000 different processed foods. This was extracted from seaweeds and soya
bean. Yeast extract has the same flavour enhancing property as MSG. It is found that, in this case, the
flavour enhancing substances are the ribonucleotides. These are ten times more powerful than MSG.

Unit - 3

Write a short on chelating agents?

Chelating agents are not antioxidants. They serve as scavengers of metals which catalyze
oxidation. EDTA is a chelating agent permitted for use in the food industry as a chemical
preservative. Calcium disodium EDTA and disodium EDTA have been approved for use as food
additives by the United States Food and Drug Administration.

Write about anticaking agents and humectants?

Anticaking agents are help to prevent particles from adhering to each other and turning into a
solid chunk during damp weather. They are help in free flowing of salt and other powders.

Humectants are moisture retention agents. Their functions in foods include control of
viscosity and texture, bulking, retention of moisture, reduction of water activity, control of
crystallization and improvement or retention of softness. They also help in improve the rehydration of
dehydrated food and solubilisation flavour compounds. Examples: polyhydroxy alcohols, glycerol’s,
propylene glycol.

Write about Surface Active Agents.

Food products generally are multiphase systems in which solids, liquids and air are finely
distributed during manufacture to give the finished product the desired structure & shelf life.
As many of these phases for e.g., oil & water are not miscible substances. Hence it is required to
facilitate phase distribution during manufacture to ensure stability and prevent separation during
storage.
Surface active agents exhibit a phenomenon called “surface activity” because of which
miscibility of otherwise immiscible components is possible.
Surface active agents/ Tensides are generally used in food industry when a decrease in surface
tension is required
Define modified starches and list out the types of modified starches.
Starch properties and those of amylose and amylopectin can be improved or tailored by
physical and chemical methods to fit or adjust the properties to a particular application of food
products.

Types of modified starches:

1. Mechanically damaged starches
2. Extruded starches
3. Dextrinized starches
4. Pregelatinized starches
5. Thin – Boiling starch
6. Starch esters
7. Cross linked starches
8. Oxidized starches

Unit - 3
Define nutritive and non-nutritive sweeteners?

Nutrient supplements restore values lost in processing or storage, or ensure higher nutritional
value than what nature may have provided. When foods are processed, there may be loss of some
nutrients and additives may be added to restore the original value. For example: to restore the nutritive
value, thiamine, nicotinic acid, iron and calcium are added.

Non nutritive sweeteners is defined as the substances having less than 2% of calorie value in an
equivalent unit of sweetening capacity according to US code of Federal Regulations. They are also
referred as sugar replacers or sugar substitutes or alternative sweeteners or non caloric sweeteners.
The first synthetic sweetening agent used was saccharin, which is about 300 times sweeter than
sucrose. Sucrose is an ideal sweetener; it is colourless, soluble in water, and has a pure taste.

Write about acids and buffers.

Acids:
Acids dissociate in aqueous solutions into positively charged and negatively atoms or group of
atoms called ions. This process is known as ionization. According to the classical definition, a
substance which on ionization in aqueous solution yields hydrogen ions is an acid. A substance which
undergoes complete ionization is a strong acid, while that which undergoes partial ionization is a
weak acid. The acids in food processing are used to decrease the ph according to the processing
requirements. The common acidulates used are citric acid, lactic acid, acetic acid, tartaric acid etc.
Buffers:
Control of ph is a very important step in the food industries and in food preparations. The ph
stability is achieved through a buffer system. Buffer solutions have the ability to maintain a relatively
constant ph when small amount of acids or bases are added to them. Strong acids are not suitable for
this purpose.

Unit - 5
Define food safety?
Food safety is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation and storage of food in
ways that prevent food-borne illness. In considering industry to market practices, food safety
considerations include the origins of food including the practices relating to food labelling, food
hygiene, food additives and pesticide residues.

15 - Marks

What is food additive? Explain about the classification of food additives

and explain their functions in food processing?

Food additives are the substances which are added to the food which either improve the flavour,
texture, colour, or chemical preservatives, taste, appearance or function as processing aid.

A broad definition of food additive is any substance the intended use of which results, directly or
indirectly, in it’s becoming a component of or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food, and
which is safe under the condition of its use.

Classification

Food additives are categorized into different groups. They are:

Antioxidants:

An antioxidant is a substance added to fats and fat containing substances to retard oxidations and
thereby prolong their wholesomeness, palatability and sometimes keeping time. An antioxidant should
not contribute an objectionable odour, flavour or colour to the fat and to the food in which it is
present. It should be effective in low concentrations and be fat soluble. Also it should not have
harmful physiological effects.

Examples: BHT, BHA, Propyl gallate, tertiary butyl hydroquinone

Chelating agents:
They are not antioxidants. They serve as scavengers of metals which catalyze oxidation. EDTA is a
chelating agent permitted for use in the food industry as a chemical preservative.

Colouring agents:

These include colour stabilizers, colour fixatives and colour retention agents etc. They consist of
synthetic colours, synthesized colours, that also occur naturally, and other colours from natural
sources. A number of natural colours extracted from seeds, flowers, insects and foods are also used as
food additives. One of the best known and widespread red pigments is bixin derived from the seed
coat of Bixaorenella. Bixin is not considered to be carcinogenic. A natural red colour, cochineal
obtained by extraction from female insect, grape extract, and caramel, the brown colour obtained from
burnt sugar, are some natural colours that are used as food additives.

Curing agents:

These are additives to preserve meats and give them desirable colour and flavours, decrease the
growth of microorganisms, and prevention of toxin formation. Sodium nitrite has been used for
centuries as a preservative and colour stabilizers in meat and fish products. The curing also
contributes flavour to the meat. In addition, nitrite curing inhibits the growth of clostridium and
streptococcus and also lowers the temperature required to kill C.botulinum.

Emulsifiers:

Emulsifiers are group of substances used to obtain a stable mixture of liquids that otherwise would not
or would separate quickly. They are widely used in dairy and confectionary products to disperse tiny
globules of an oil or fatty liquid in water. They are also added to margarine, salad dressings and
shortenings. Peanut butter contains up to 10% emulsifiers.

Flavours and flavour enhancers:

Flavouring additives are the ingredients both naturally occurring and added, which give the
characteristics flavour to almost all the foods in our diet. Flavour enhancers are not flavours
themselves but they amplify the flavours of other substance through a synergistic effect. Natural
flavours are substances such as spices, herbs, roots, essences and essential oils have been used in the
past as flavour additives. The agents responsible for flavour are esters, aldehydes, ketones alcohols
and ethers. These substances are easily synthesized and can be easily substituted for natural ones.

One of the best known most widely used flavour enhancer is MSG. It is generally recognized as safe.
Yeast extract has the same flavour enhancing property as MSG.
Humectants:

These are moisture retention agents. Their functions in foods include control of viscosity and texture,
bulking, retention of moisture, reduction of water activity, control of crystallization and improvement
or retention of softness. They also help improve the rehydration of dehydrated food and solubilisation
flavour compounds. Examples polyhydroxy alcohols, glycerol’s, propylene glycol.

Preservatives

Any substance which is capable of inhibiting, retarding or arresting the growth of microorganisms of
any deterioration of food due to microorganisms. The compounds used as preservatives include
natural preservatives such as sugar, salt, acids etc as well as synthetic preservatives.

Stabilizers and thickeners

These compounds function to improve and stabilize the texture of foods, inhibit crystallization,
stabilize emulsions and foams, reduce the stickiness of icings on baked products, and encapsulated
flavours. Substances used as stabilizers and thickeners are polysaccharides such as gum Arabic, guar
gum, algenic acids, carrageenan, agar agar, starch and his derivatives, CMC and pectin’s.

Anticaking agents

They help to prevent particles from adhering to each other and turning into a solid chunk during damp
weather. They are help in free flowing of salt and other powders.

What are non-nutritive sweeteners? Explain process of perception of

sweeteners and also explain about different varieties of non-nutritive
sweeteners and their role in obesity, diabetics and their adverse effects on
health.

Non- nutritive sweeteners is defined as the substances having less than 2% of calorie value in an
equivalent unit of sweetening capacity according to US code of Federal Regulations. They are also
referred as sugar replacers or sugar substitutes or alternative sweeteners or non caloric sweeteners.

The commonly used non- nutritive or artificial sweeteners are:

Saccharin

Saccharin is the first synthesized non-nutritive sweetener in USA in 1879. It was initially used as an
antiseptic and a preservative. It was first introduced as food additive in 1900. It is commonly called as
sodium saccharin and calcium saccharin. It is stable at temperature 300˚c, soluble in water and ethanol
and aqueous solution is 300 times sweeter than equal concentration by weight of sucrose. Saccharin is
the only non caloric sweetener which is stable during cooking and baking of food products and is
utilized in drugs special dietary products and cosmetics. In USA the major uses of saccharin includes
soft drinks, tabletop sweeteners and dietetic foods. Saccharin usually has a synergistic effect on the
sweetness and the quantity of non caloric sweeteners can be reduced. Saccharin is absorbed slowly
but completely from the gut and is excreted through urine and feces as such without undergoing any
metabolism in the body. The JECFA have established an acceptable daily intake of 2.5mg/kg body
weight.

Acesulfame

It is one of the most recently introduced non nutritive sweeteners. It was developed in 1967. The
compound is freely soluble in water and forms a neutral solution. It is not hygroscopic and
decomposed if heated above 235˚C. Its molecular weight is 201.2 and is 150-200 times sweeter than
sucrose. It is essential used in soft drinks, table top sweeteners, chewing gums, mouth washes and
tooth pastes. The JECFA has recommended ADI of 0-9 mg/kg body weight.

Cyclamates

Sodium cyclamate was first synthesized in 1937 but was first commercially produced in USA in 1950.
Cyclamates are a group name used for cyclamic acid, sodium cyclamate and calcium cyclamate. They
are stable to temperature variation and provide sweetness 30 times that of sucrose. It is easily soluble
in water and used in various foods like soft drinks, confections, desserts as well as processed
vegetables and fruits. Cyclamates have a synergistic sweetening effect when combined with
saccharin. Sodium and calcium cyclamates are mainly used forms in the ratio of 10:1 cyclamate to
saccharin mixture.

Aspartame

It was discovered in 1960’s. Aspartame is prepared from amino acids phenylalanine and aspartic acid
by fermentation. It is an odourless white crystalline powder with clean sweet taste. It is slightly
soluble in water and sparingly soluble in alcohol. The sweetening potency of aspartame is 150-200
times that of sucrose. It provides 4 Kcal/g. The stability of aspartame in dry products like powdered
drink is good. In addition to sweetening, aspartame also enhances food flavours.
13 – Marks

Unit - 1

Write in detail about categories of GRAS.

In 1969, President Nixon directed the FDA to update safety aspects of all GRAS substances
on the basis of current scientific investigation.

In 1972 a committee from Federation of American societies for experimental biology

reviewed the safety of all GRAS substances on the basis of published and other available information.
The committee placed all reviewed substances in five categories.

a) Category 1:
It includes all those additives whose GRAS status was reaffirmed. This means that the
available information presented no evidence of toxic hazards of the substance in question.
These substances are generally used according to GMP
b) Category 2:
It includes all those additives whose GRAS status was reaffirmed at current level of use. This
means that the available information presented no evidence of toxic hazards at the level of
current use and practice.
c) Category 3:
Substances whose safety is reaffirmed at the level of current use and practice. However
certain uncertainties exist so that additional studies are required.
d) Category 4:
Include those substances for which information is incomplete to “reaffirm safety”. This means
evidence of toxicity has been reported, however the level and manner of current use the
information is insufficient to determine the effect on public health.
e) Category 5:
Those substances for which no biological studies are available to judge their safety.

Write about preservatives and their safe levels of usage.

A preservative is defined as any substance which is capable of inhibiting, retarding or

arresting the growth of microorganisms of any deterioration of food due to microorganisms, or of
marking the evidence of any such deterioration.
The compounds used as preservatives are classified into two types. They are
a. Natural preservatives:
Natural preservatives includes preservatives such as salts, sugar&, lemon etc.
b. Chemical preservatives:
Chemical preservatives are generally added after the foods are processed.
The role of some preservatives is:
1) Sodium chloride:
Salts stop the growth of microorganisms and interfere with the action of proteolytic
enzymes. Salts also cause food dehydration by drawing out water from the tissue cells. Salt is
employed to control microbial population in foods such as butter, cheese, cabbage, olives, cucumbers,
meat, fish and bread. The amount of salt added determines the extent of protection afforded to the
food. In the preservative action of NaCl, there is synergistic action with other intrinsic factors such as
PH or extrinsic factors such as temperature, partial pressure of oxygen etc.,
2) Sugar:
Sugar acid in the preservation of products in which it is used. The high osmotic pressure of
sugar creates conditions that are unfavourable for the growth and reproduction of most species of
bacteria, yeasts and moulds. The preservative action of moderate strength of sugar can be improved if
invertase is used to increase the concentration of glucose relative to sucrose. Foods in which sugars
aid preservation include syrups and confectionary products, fondant fillings in chocolate, honey,
jellies, marmalades, conserves and fruits such as dates, sultanas and currants.
3) Sulphur Dioxide:
It is used in the treatment of fruits and vegetables before & after dehydration to extend the
storage life of fresh grapes, prevents the growth of undesirable microorganisms during wine making,
and in the manufacture of fruit juices. Sulphur dioxide is also the most useful agent for the prevention
of browning reactions in dried fruits. Most cut fruits are treated with sulphur dioxide to prevent
enzymatic browning.
4. Sorbic acid:
Sorbic acid (CH3-CH=CH-CH=CH-COOH) and its sodium and potassium salts inhibit moulds and
yeasts, in foods such as cheese, baked products, fruit juices, wines and pickles. The antimycotic action
of sorbic acid is due to the inability of moulds to metabolize the conjugated unsaturated structure.
5. Acetic acid:
Acetic acid (CH3COOH), in the form of vinegar, has been used to preserve pickled vegetables
from antiquity. Acetates of sodium, potassium and calcium, are used in bread and other baked foods
to prevent ropiness and the growth of moulds, but they do not interfere with yeasts. The acid is also
used in foods, such as mayonnaise and pickles, primarily for flavour but these products also benefit
from the concurrent anti-microbial action. The anti-microbial activity of acetic acid increases as the
PH decreases.
6. Propionic acid:
Propionic acid (CH3CH2COOH) and its sodium and calcium salts exert antimicrobial activity
against moulds and some bacteria. The acid finds extensive use in bakery field, where it not only
inhibits moulds effectively but is also active against the ropy bread organism Bacillus
mesentericus.The toxicity of propionic acid to moulds and certain bacteria is related to the inability of
the organisms to metabolize the three-carbon unit.
7. Benzoic acid:
Benzoic acid is widely used as an antimicrobial agent. Its sodium salt is more soluble in water
than the free acid and hence it is generally used. The acid is most active against yeasts and bacteria
and least active against moulds. It exhibits optimum activity in the ph range 2.5 - 4, and thus is well
suited for use in acid foods, such as fruit juices, carbonated beverages, pickles and sauerkraut.
Unit - 2
Write about colours exempt from certification?

According to the amendment act (1960), colorants need not to be certified prior to their sale but
always under the surveillance of FDA to meet government regulations.

There are two types in food colours. They are:

1. Natural
2. Artificial or synthetic

Natural food colours:

Natural colorants are those that are extracted from animals, vegetable are mineral sources.
These includes anthocyanins, carotenoids, chlorophylls, heme containing compounds are also
naturally occurring pigments but are not extracted for used in dyeing foods. These major groups of
natural colorants are derivatives of benzopyran, isoprenoid or tetrapyrrole chemical structure. Other
natural colorants include betalins, riboflavin, caramel and various spice or insect derivatives. The
colorants of plant origin tend to be less stable, more variable in shade, are likely to introduce
undesirable flavours and may contain higher contaminated level.

Anthocyanins:

These are intense red and blue pigments occurring in many fruits and vegetables and flowers.
There are about 140 different anthocyanins. The distinct colour of black berries is due to one pigment
where as blue berries contain 15 pigment. There are composed of aglycona esterified to one or more
sugars and maybe acylated. Sugars that may be presenting the pigments includes glucose, rhamnose,
galactose, xylose and arabinose. Anthocyanins exhibit intense colour below PH 3.5 ranging from blue to
red. Hence these are suitable for acidic foods.

Carotenoids:

Carotenoids are responsible for yellow, orange and red pigments in a large variety of plants and animals.
There are about 200 naturally occurring carotenoids. Carotene is the precursor of vitamin A yielding two
molecules of vitamin upon cleavage. They are susceptible to oxygen and this can be minimized by proper
packaging. Carotenoids are stable at a ph of 2 to 7.

Betalins:

Betalins are found in the membrane of the Centrospermae family of plants. The betalin colours range from
red to yellow. The red beet is the most common source of these pigments. Betalins are sensitive to ph, light and
heat. These compounds are stable at ph range of 4 to 5.
Chlorophyll:

These are the most abundant naturally occurring plant pigments from green to olive green. They exist in
four forms – chlorophylls a, b, c, d but primarily present in two forms – chlorophylls a and b. They are sensitive
to heat and colour. Mild processing can destroy chlorophylls due to pheophytinization.

Synthetic food colours:

1. They are added to improve the appearance and eye appeal of preserve food products.

2. They have varied solubility and are soluble in water, oil, and acids or alkaline.

3. Colours should be harmless, stable and their tint should be characteristic of the colour of the
product.

4. Initially food colours mostly permitted coal-tar dyes which were designated as synthetic
colours by W.H.O (1958).

5. A part from International codex committee & FDA regulations, there are indigenous food laws
such as F.P.O, PFA of govt of India which have laid down stringent regulations regarding usage
of synthetic colours.

Define flavours and explain the types of flavours with suitable examples.
Flavour is the sensory impression of food or other substances, and is determined primarily by
the chemical senses of taste and smell.
Flavours are of two kinds- natural and artificial.
Natural flavours include Spices, herbs, fruit juices and certain plant extracts like menthol from mint
and citral from lemon grass. The most natural form of flavour additives available in the food industry
are Whole fruit, crushed fruit, purees and concentrates.
Synthetic flavours: They include aliphatic, aromatic and terpene compounds. Artificial flavourings
are again subdivided into nature identical and synthetic molecules
Eg: 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy Benzaldehyde, 1-menthol
Another group of natural flavourings obtained by extraction from certain plant products –
vanilla beans, Liquorice root ,lemon peel ,coffee, cherry etc., which are generally extracted in the
form of alcoholic infusion
Different classes of flavours
Essential oils
They are volatile. They are concentrated hydrophobic liquids containing volatile aromatic
compounds extracted from plants. Hydro distillations are used to extract the materials.
Absolutes
They are non- volatile. They are concentrated aromatic oily mixture extracted from plants
through solvent extractors. They are obtained from wax like masses called concretes (high mol wt)
from plant tissue. Absolutes are low molecular weight compounds.
Fruit Flavours with other natural flavours (WONF)
Fruit concentrates or extracts fortified with naturally occurring plants for wines and cordials
True fruit flavours
They are composed of fruit juices and their concentrates
Artificial fruit flavours
Fruit concentrates fortified with synthetic materials

Unit - 3

Write in detail about stabilizers and thickeners of algal origin.

Stabilizers and thickeners are the food additives which are used to improve and stabilize
the viscosity and consistency of foods. Stabilizers are usually macro molecules which from a disperse
matrix or gel into which other small molecules can be incorporated. The substances used as stabilizers
or thickeners are polysaccharides like pectin, alginates, plant and seed gums and cellulose derivatives
like carboxyl methyl, hydroxyl propyl and methyl cellulose gums. All stabilizers and thickeners are
hydrophilic and are dispersed in solution as colloids, which lead to the designation hydrocolloid.

The main functions of stabilizers and thickeners include:

 Improve and stabilize consistency

 Inhibit crystallization
 Stabilize emulsion and foams
 Reduce stickiness of icings
 Encapsulate flavours

The various types of stabilizers and thickeners are:

Gelatine:

Gel foam or puragel is a heterogeneous mixture of water soluble proteins of high average
molecular weight. Gelatine is obtained from collagen by hydrolytic action. It is colour less or slightly
yellow, transparent, brittle practically odour less and tasteless sheets, flakes or coarse powder. It is
used in ice creams, yoghurts, cake toppings etc. Gelatine is amphoteric and nutritionally it lacks
tryptophan and other amino acids and hence is an incomplete protein.

Algin and alginates in foods:

These are extensively used in the preparation of ice creams, in the production of dairy
products, such as whipped creams, milk powders, milk shakes and cheese creams. They act as
stabilizer in cream substitutes and chocolate milk suspensions. They prevent the formation of crystals
during the process of freezing and produce uniform viscosity, good whipping ability, smooth melting
and full development aromatic components. In food industries like bakery, confectionery and
sweetmeats preparation of various jelly products, meat and sausages, alginates find wide applications.
Triethanolamine alginate finds use as a coating material for cheese, meat and other foods.

Algin and alginates are used in many slimming diets for diabetic and obese person. They are used as
plasma substituting colloids.

Agar:

It is also known as Agar-agar or gelose or Bengal isinglass or Japan agar or China grass. It is
a polysaccharide complex extracted from agarocytes of algae of the family Rhodophyceae. It is a
transparent, odour less, tasteless strips which are coarse or fine powder. It is insoluble in cold water,
alcohol, slowly soluble in hot water to mixed solution.

Pectin:

It is a polysaccharide substance present in the cell walls in all plant tissues which functions as
an intercellular cementing material. One of the richest sources of pectin is lemon and orange which
contains about 30% of this polysaccharide with molecular weight of 20,000 and 40,000. It is widely
used as a setting, jellying and solidifying agent in jams, jellies and marmalades and as stabilizing
agent in beverages.

Guar gum:

It is also called as guar flour, decorpa, jagur, gum cya-mopsis, guarina or glucotard. It is the free
flowing powder completely soluble in cold and hot water but insoluble in oils, ketones, hydrocarbons
and esters. It is used in salad dressings, sauces, bakery products, breads and pet foods. It is also used
in herbal medicine in treatment of diabetes, obesity and lowering of serum cholesterol.

Write in detail about Modified starches and their applications.

Definition:
Starch properties and those of amylose and amylopectin can be improved or tailored by
physical and chemical methods to fit or adjust the properties to a particular application of food
products.
Types of Modified starches:
1. Mechanically damaged starches:
When starch granules are damaged by grinding or by application of pressure at various
water contents the amorphous portion is increased resulting in increased dispersibility & swellability
in cold water.
 Decrease in gel temperature by 5-100c
 Increase is enzymatic vulnerability
2. Extruded starches: Starches subjected to extrusion.
 Increases dispersibility (x-ray diffraction changes from ‘v’ pattern to E pattern) at high
temperature decreases cooling.
 Extruded have a lower viscosity.
3. Dextrinized starch :
 Heating of starch to 100-2000c with acidic or basic agents causes degradation of starch.
 Powders are sticky, turbid solutions which can be used as adhesives in sweets and fat
substitutes.
4. Pregelatinized starch:
 Heating of starch suspensions followed by drying provides products swellable in cold water &
forms gels on heating.
 Mostly used in instant foods, pudding and weaning foods.
5. Thin-Boiling starch:
 Partial acidic hydrolysis yields a starch product which is not very soluble in cold water but
readily soluble in boiling water.
 Lower viscosity and remains fluid after cooling. Retro gradation is slow.
 These starches are utilized as thickeners and as protective films.

6. Starch Esters:
When 30-40% starch suspension is reacted with ethylene oxide in the presence of hydroxides of alkali
or alkali earth metals (PH11-13) starch ethers are formed.
 Used in refrigerated foods (pie filling)
 These products swell instantly in cold water
Starch +Mono chloroacetic acid ---- Carboxyl methyl starch
 Dispersions at 1-3% give ointment and at 3-4% gives gel like consistency.

7. Starch Esters:
 Starch mono phosphate ester is produced by dry heating of starch with alkaline
orthophosphate or alkaline tripolyphosphate at 120-1750c
 Thickener and also a stabilizer in bakery foods, heat-sterilized canned foods and
microencapsulation of flavours.
8. Cross linked starches:
 Starch +bi/poly functional reagents such as sodium tri meta phosphate, phosphorus oxy
chloride, Epichlorhydrin etc.,
 Increase in gelatinization temperature is directly proportional to extent of cross linking.
 “Starch stability” at high temperature & PH is achieved.
9. Oxidised starches:
 Starch hydrolysis & Oxidation occur when aqueous starch suspensions are treated with starch
suspensions are treated with sodium hypochlorite at a temperature below starch gelatinization
temperature.
 Used as a “lower viscosity filler” and these starches show no retro gradation and no gelation.

Unit - 4
What are acid foods? Write about their functions and applications in foods.
Acids dissociate in aqueous solutions into positively charged and negatively charged atoms or
groups of atoms called ions. This process is known as ionization. According to the classical definition
(Arrhenius), a substance which on ionization in aqueous solution yields hydrogen ions (H+, proton) is
an acid. As there is a strong affinity between hydrogen ions and water molecules, they produce
hydronium ions (H++H2O H3O+). A substance which undergoes complete ionization (100 percent)
is a strong acid or base, while that which undergoes partial ionization (i.e., considerably less than 10
per cent) is a weak acid or base.
The new definitions are much broader and can be applied to non-aqueous systems. The
strength of an acid depends upon the percentage of its ionization. An acid that is 50 per cent ionized
will yield a greater amount of H+ than one that is 5 per cent ionized. At constant temperature, the
extent of ionization is a constant value and is characteristic of an acid.
The acids in food processing are used to decrease the PH according to the processing
requirements. The common acidulates used are citric acid, lactic acid, acetic acid, tartaric acid etc.,
Tartaric acid is used in the form of cream of tartar is used in bakery industry as a foam stabilizer,
Acetic acid in the form of vinegar is used in pickling and curing and Citric acid is used for sugar
inversion, prevent crystallization in confectionery industry and also serves as a preservative.
Acids help to maintain a constant acid level in food. This is important for taste, as well as to
influence how other substances in the food function. For example, an acidified food can retard the
growth of some micro-organisms.

Write in detail about permitted food acids.

According to the classical definition (Arrhenius), a substance which on ionization in aqueous

solution yields hydrogen ions (H+, proton) is an acid. The new definitions are much broader and can
be applied to non-aqueous systems. The strength of an acid depends upon the percentage of its
ionization. An acid that is 50 per cent ionized will yield a greater amount of H+ than one that is 5 per
cent ionized. At constant temperature, the extent of ionization is a constant value and is characteristic
of an acid.
The acids in food processing are used to decrease the PH according to the processing
requirements. Acids help to maintain a constant acid level in food. This is important for taste, as well
as to influence how other substances in the food function. For example, an acidified food can retard
the growth of some micro-organisms.

The common permitted food acids are citric acid, lactic acid, acetic acid, tartaric acid etc.,

Citric acid:

Citric acid is a weak organic acid occurs naturally in citrus fruits. Lemons and limes have
particularly high concentration of acid; it can constitute as much as 8% of the dry weight of these
fruits. Because it is one of the stronger edible acids, the dominant use of citric acid is as a flavouring
and preservative in food and beverages, especially soft drinks and candies. It can be added to ice-
creams as an emulsifying agent. It is an excellent chelating agent and widely used as an acidulant in
creams, gels and liquids of all kinds.

Acetic acid:
Acetic acid (CH3COOH), in the form of vinegar, has been used to preserve pickled vegetables
from antiquity. Acetates of sodium, potassium and calcium, are used in bread and other baked foods
to prevent ropiness and the growth of moulds, but they do not interfere with yeasts. The acid is also
used in foods, such as mayonnaise and pickles, primarily for flavour but these products also benefit
from the concurrent anti-microbial action. The anti-microbial activity of acetic acid increases as the
PH decreases.
Lactic acid:
Lactic acid is found primarily in sour milk products. It is used as a food preservative, curing
agent and flavouring agent. It is an ingredient in processed foods and is used as a decontaminant
during meat processing. It is produced commercially by fermentation of carbohydrates. It is also used
in a wide range of food applications such as bakery products, beverages, confectionery, meat products
,dairy products, salads, dressings etc., Lactic acid in food products usually serves as either as pH
regulator or as a preservative. It is also used as a flavouring agent.

Tartaric acid:

Tartaric acid is an important food additive that is commonly combined with baking soda to
function as a leavening agent. It can be used in all type of foods except untreated foods. It naturally
occurs in fruits like grapes, apricot, apple, and banana. The application of tartaric acid in products
such as soft drinks, wine, candy, confectionaries, dairy products bread etc.,

Unit – 5

What is food safety? Write in detail about food safety in the use of food
additive.
Food safety is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation and storage of food in
ways that prevent food-borne illness. In considering industry to market practices, food safety
considerations include the origins of food including the practices relating to food labelling, food
hygiene, food additives and pesticide residues.
The toxicity of food additives is generally low. The major food safety concern of food
additives is in fact due to their chronic exposure at levels above the safety references.

The Joint Food Agriculture Organization / World Health Organization Expert Committee on
Food Additives (JECFA) is the international food safety authority responsible for collecting and
evaluating scientific data on food additives and allocate a safety reference (i.e. acceptable daily intake
(ADI)) to the food additives evaluated. JECFA also makes recommendations on safe levels of use.

The ADI of a chemical is the estimate of the amount of a substance in food or drinking-
water, expressed on a body-weight basis that can be ingested daily over a lifetime without appreciable
health risk. A dietary intake above the ADI does not automatically mean that health is at risk.
Transient excursion above the ADI would have no health consequences provided that the average
intake over long period is not exceeded as the emphasis of ADI is a lifetime exposure.

A small proportion of the population may be intolerant to some food additives and may
have acute effects, e.g., small amount of sulphur dioxide may cause bronchoconstriction and
asthmatic reaction for certain people with allergic conditions.

Explain about safety evaluation of food additives.

In the evaluation of safety of additives, it has to be proved that harmful effects have not
occurred with the addition of chemicals. As it is difficult to carryout toxicity studies with human
beings, animal experiments are carried out. The simplest way to express toxicity is by the value LD 50
i.e. the dosage necessary to kill 50% of population of test animals under precisely stated conditions.
There are three types toxicity studies that usually are employed.

1) Acute toxicity or single dose experiments

2) Sub acute toxicity
3) Chronic toxicity

Acute toxicity or single dose experiments:

In acute toxicity studies, groups of animals are fed orally or through injections a range of single
doses of additives. The LD50 values in a specified period of time and abnormalities seen on autopsy
may provide clues for the inherent toxicity of the additive.

Sub acute toxicity tests:

In a sub acute toxicity tests, two or more species of animals are used. The duration of the test
lasts for 90 days at different dose levels. They vary from zero to sufficiently high levels to produce
adverse effects. Regular evaluation of the state of health of the animals is carried out which include
physiological and biological tests. Complete autopsy and histological examination of all organ
systems of the animals given high doses of additives is carried out. These studies help to determine
the acceptable daily intake in mg/kg body weight for human beings.
Chronic toxicity tests:

These are conducted in manner similar to the sub acute toxicity test but the duration of test is
longer, extending from 1 to 2 years. The number of animals used at each dose and number of dose
level will be more than in sub acute tests. Additives are administered at 10 to100 times allowable
levels calculated using sub acute test. These types of tests help in determining the carcinogenicity and
mutagenicity of the additives. Long term tests also help study the effect of additives on the permanent
structural or functional changes induced in embryo, male or female fertility, litter size, litter weight
and number of surviving young ones.