Relay

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Operation of a 12 A relay
Automotive-style miniature relay, dust cover is taken
off

A relay is an electrically operated switch.

Many relays use an electromagnet to
mechanically operate a switch, but other
operating principles are also used, such as
solid-state relays. Relays are used where it
is necessary to control a circuit by a
separate low-power signal, or where
several circuits must be controlled by one
signal. The first relays were used in long
distance telegraph circuits as amplifiers:
they repeated the signal coming in from
one circuit and re-transmitted it on another
circuit. Relays were used extensively in
telephone exchanges and early computers
to perform logical operations.

A type of relay that can handle the high

power required to directly control an
electric motor or other loads is called a
contactor. Solid-state relays control power
circuits with no moving parts, instead
using a semiconductor device to perform
switching. Relays with calibrated operating
characteristics and sometimes multiple
operating coils are used to protect
electrical circuits from overload or faults;
in modern electric power systems these
functions are performed by digital
instruments still called "protective relays".
Magnetic latching relays require one pulse
of coil power to move their contacts in one
direction, and another, redirected pulse to
move them back. Repeated pulses from
the same input have no effect. Magnetic
latching relays are useful in applications
where interrupted power should not affect
the circuits that the relay is controlling.

Magnetic latching relays can have either

single or dual coils. On a single coil device,
the relay will operate in one direction when
power is applied with one polarity, and will
reset when the polarity is reversed. On a
dual coil device, when polarized voltage is
applied to the reset coil the contacts will
transition. AC controlled magnetic latch
relays have single coils that employ
steering diodes to differentiate between
operate and reset commands. It was used
in long distance telegraph circuits,
repeating the signal coming in from one
circuit and re-transmitting it to another.

History
In 1809 Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring
designed an electrolytic relay as part of his
electrochemical telegraph.[1]

American scientist Joseph Henry is often

claimed to have invented a relay in 1835 in
order to improve his version of the
electrical telegraph, developed earlier in
1831.[2][3][4][5]
Telegraph relay contacts and spring

It is claimed that English inventor Edward

Davy "certainly invented the electric relay"[6]
in his electric telegraph c.1835.

A simple device, which is now called a

relay, was included in the original 1840
telegraph patent of Samuel Morse.[7] The
mechanism described acted as a digital
amplifier, repeating the telegraph signal,
and thus allowing signals to be
propagated as far as desired.[7]

The word relay appears in the context of

electromagnetic operations from 1860.[8]
Basic design and operation

Simple electromechanical relay

A small cradle relay often used in electronics. The

"cradle" term refers to the shape of the relay's
armature.
A simple electromagnetic relay consists of
a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron
core (a solenoid), an iron yoke which
provides a low reluctance path for
magnetic flux, a movable iron armature,
and one or more sets of contacts (there
are two contacts in the relay pictured). The
armature is hinged to the yoke and
mechanically linked to one or more sets of
moving contacts. The armature is held in
place by a spring so that when the relay is
de-energized there is an air gap in the
magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of
the two sets of contacts in the relay
pictured is closed, and the other set is
open. Other relays may have more or fewer
sets of contacts depending on their
function. The relay in the picture also has
a wire connecting the armature to the
yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit
between the moving contacts on the
armature, and the circuit track on the
printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke,
which is soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through

the coil it generates a magnetic field that
activates the armature, and the
consequent movement of the movable
contact(s) either makes or breaks
(depending upon construction) a
connection with a fixed contact. If the set
of contacts was closed when the relay
was de-energized, then the movement
opens the contacts and breaks the
connection, and vice versa if the contacts
were open. When the current to the coil is
switched off, the armature is returned by a
force, approximately half as strong as the
magnetic force, to its relaxed position.
Usually this force is provided by a spring,
but gravity is also used commonly in
industrial motor starters. Most relays are
manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-
voltage application this reduces noise; in a
high voltage or current application it
reduces arcing.
When the coil is energized with direct
current, a diode is often placed across the
coil to dissipate the energy from the
collapsing magnetic field at deactivation,
which would otherwise generate a voltage
spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit
components. Such diodes were not widely
used before the application of transistors
as relay drivers, but soon became
ubiquitous as early germanium transistors
were easily destroyed by this surge. Some
automotive relays include a diode inside
the relay case.

If the relay is driving a large, or especially a

reactive load, there may be a similar
problem of surge currents around the relay
output contacts. In this case a snubber
circuit (a capacitor and resistor in series)
across the contacts may absorb the surge.
Suitably rated capacitors and the
associated resistor are sold as a single
packaged component for this
commonplace use.

If the coil is designed to be energized with

alternating current (AC), some method is
used to split the flux into two out-of-phase
components which add together,
increasing the minimum pull on the
armature during the AC cycle. Typically
this is done with a small copper "shading
ring" crimped around a portion of the core
that creates the delayed, out-of-phase
component,[9] which holds the contacts
during the zero crossings of the control
voltage.[10]

Contact materials for relays vary by

application. Materials with low contact
resistance may be oxidized by the air, or
may tend to "stick" instead of cleanly
parting when opening. Contact material
may be optimized for low electrical
resistance, high strength to withstand
repeated operations, or high capacity to
withstand the heat of an arc. Where very
low resistance is required, or low
thermally-induced voltages are desired,
gold-plated contacts may be used, along
with palladium and other non-oxidizing,
semi-precious metals. Silver or silver-
plated contacts are used for signal
switching. Mercury-wetted relays make
and break circuits using a thin, self-
renewing film of liquid mercury. For higher-
power relays switching many amperes,
such as motor circuit contatctors,
contacts are made with a mixtures of
silver and cadmium oxide, providing low
contact resistance and high resistance to
the heat of arcing. Contacts used in
circuits carrying scores or hundreds of
amperes may include additional structures
for heat dissipation and management of
the arc produced when interrupting the
circuit.[11] Some relays have field-
replaceable contacts, such as certain
machine tool relays; these may be
replaced when worn out, or changed
between normally open and normally
closed state, to allow for changes in the
controlled circuit.[12]

Types
Coaxial relay

Where radio transmitters and receivers

share one antenna, often a coaxial relay is
used as a TR (transmit-receive) relay,
which switches the antenna from the
receiver to the transmitter. This protects
the receiver from the high power of the
transmitter. Such relays are often used in
transceivers which combine transmitter
and receiver in one unit. The relay contacts
are designed not to reflect any radio
frequency power back toward the source,
and to provide very high isolation between
receiver and transmitter terminals. The
characteristic impedance of the relay is
matched to the transmission line
impedance of the system, for example, 50
ohms.[13]
Contactor

A contactor is a heavy-duty relay with

higher current ratings,[14] used for
switching electric motors and lighting
loads. Continuous current ratings for
common contactors range from 10 amps
to several hundred amps. High-current
contacts are made with alloys containing
silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the
contacts to oxidize; however, silver oxide is
still a good conductor.[15] Contactors with
overload protection devices are often used
to start motors.[16]

Force-guided contacts relay

A 'force-guided contacts relay' has relay
contacts that are mechanically linked
together, so that when the relay coil is
energized or de-energized, all of the linked
contacts move together. If one set of
contacts in the relay becomes
immobilized, no other contact of the same
relay will be able to move. The function of
force-guided contacts is to enable the
safety circuit to check the status of the
relay. Force-guided contacts are also
known as "positive-guided contacts",
"captive contacts", "locked contacts",
"mechanically linked contacts", or "safety
relays".
These safety relays have to follow design
rules and manufacturing rules that are
defined in one main machinery standard
EN 50205 : Relays with forcibly guided
(mechanically linked) contacts. These
rules for the safety design are the one that
are defined in type B standards such as EN
13849-2 as Basic safety principles and
Well-tried safety principles for machinery
that applies to all machines.

Force-guided contacts by themselves can

not guarantee that all contacts are in the
same state, however they do guarantee,
subject to no gross mechanical fault, that
no contacts are in opposite states.
Otherwise, a relay with several normally
open (NO) contacts may stick when
energised, with some contacts closed and
others still slightly open, due to
mechanical tolerances. Similarly, a relay
with several normally closed (NC) contacts
may stick to the unenergised position, so
that when energised, the circuit through
one set of contacts is broken, with a
marginal gap, while the other remains
closed. By introducing both NO and NC
contacts, or more commonly, changeover
contacts, on the same relay, it then
becomes possible to guarantee that if any
NC contact is closed, all NO contacts are
open, and conversely, if any NO contact is
closed, all NC contacts are open. It is not
possible to reliably ensure that any
particular contact is closed, except by
potentially intrusive and safety-degrading
sensing of its circuit conditions, however
in safety systems it is usually the NO state
that is most important, and as explained
above, this is reliably verifiable by
detecting the closure of a contact of
opposite sense.

Force-guided contact relays are made with

different main contact sets, either NO, NC
or changeover, and one or more auxiliary
contact sets, often of reduced current or
voltage rating, used for the monitoring
system. Contacts may be all NO, all NC,
changeover, or a mixture of these, for the
monitoring contacts, so that the safety
system designer can select the correct
configuration for the particular application.
Safety relays are used as part of an
engineered safety system.

Latching relay

Latching relay with permanent magnet

A latching relay (also called "latch",
"impulse", "bistable", "keep", or "stay"
relays) maintains either contact position
indefinitely without power applied to the
coil. The advantage is that one coil
consumes power only for an instant while
the relay is being switched, and the relay
contacts retain this setting across a power
outage. A latching relay allows remote
control of building lighting without the
hum that may be produced from a
continuously (AC) energized coil.

In one mechanism, two opposing coils

with an over-center spring or permanent
magnet hold the contacts in position after
the coil is de-energized. A pulse to one coil
turns the relay on and a pulse to the
opposite coil turns the relay off. This type
is widely used where control is from
simple switches or single-ended outputs
of a control system, and such relays are
found in avionics and numerous industrial
applications.

Another latching type has a remanent core

that retains the contacts in the operated
position by the remanent magnetism in the
core. This type requires a current pulse of
opposite polarity to release the contacts. A
variation uses a permanent magnet that
produces part of the force required to
close the contact; the coil supplies
sufficient force to move the contact open
or closed by aiding or opposing the field of
the permanent magnet.[17] A polarity
controlled relay needs changeover
switches or an H bridge drive circuit to
control it. The relay may be less expensive
than other types, but this is partly offset by
the increased costs in the external circuit.

In another type, a ratchet relay has a

ratchet mechanism that holds the
contacts closed after the coil is
momentarily energized. A second impulse,
in the same or a separate coil, releases the
contacts.[17] This type may be found in
certain cars, for headlamp dipping and
other functions where alternating
operation on each switch actuation is
needed.

A stepping relay is a specialized kind of

multi-way latching relay designed for early
automatic telephone exchanges.

An earth leakage circuit breaker includes a

specialized latching relay.

Very early computers often stored bits in a

magnetically latching relay, such as
ferreed or the later remreed in the 1ESS
switch.
Some early computers used ordinary
relays as a kind of latch—they store bits in
ordinary wire spring relays or reed relays
by feeding an output wire back as an input,
resulting in a feedback loop or sequential
circuit. Such an electrically latching relay
requires continuous power to maintain
state, unlike magnetically latching relays
or mechanically racheting relays.

In computer memories, latching relays and

other relays were replaced by delay line
memory, which in turn was replaced by a
series of ever-faster and ever-smaller
memory technologies.
Machine tool relay

A machine tool relay is a type

standardized for industrial control of
machine tools, transfer machines, and
other sequential control. They are
characterized by a large number of
contacts (sometimes extendable in the
field) which are easily converted from
normally open to normally closed status,
easily replaceable coils, and a form factor
that allows compactly installing many
relays in a control panel. Although such
relays once were the backbone of
automation in such industries as
automobile assembly, the programmable
logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced the
machine tool relay from sequential control
applications.

A relay allows circuits to be switched by

electrical equipment: for example, a timer
circuit with a relay could switch power at a
preset time. For many years relays were
the standard method of controlling
industrial electronic systems. A number of
relays could be used together to carry out
complex functions (relay logic). The
principle of relay logic is based on relays
which energize and de-energize
associated contacts. Relay logic is the
predecessor of ladder logic, which is
commonly used in programmable logic
controllers.

Mercury relay

A mercury relay is a relay that uses

mercury as the switching element. They
are used where contact erosion would be a
problem for conventional relay contacts.
Owing to environmental considerations
about significant amount of mercury used
and modern alternatives, they are now
comparatively uncommon.

Mercury-wetted relay
A mercury-wetted reed relay

A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of

reed relay in which the contacts are wetted
with mercury. Such relays are used to
switch low-voltage signals (one volt or
less) where the mercury reduces the
contact resistance and associated voltage
drop, for low-current signals where surface
contamination may make for a poor
contact, or for high-speed applications
where the mercury eliminates contact
bounce. Mercury wetted relays are
position-sensitive and must be mounted
according to the manufacturer's
specifications to work properly. Because
of the toxicity and expense of liquid
mercury, these relays are now rarely used.

The mercury-wetted relay has one

particular advantage, in that the contact
closure appears to be virtually
instantaneous, as the mercury globules on
each contact coalesce. The current rise
time through the contacts is generally
considered to be a few picoseconds,
however in a practical circuit it will be
limited by the inductance of the contacts
and wiring. It was quite common, before
the restrictions on the use of mercury, to
use a mercury-wetted relay in the
laboratory as a convenient means of
generating fast rise time pulses, however
although the rise time may be
picoseconds, the exact timing of the event
is, like all other types of relay, subject to
considerable jitter, possibly milliseconds,
due to mechanical imperfections.

The same coalescence process causes

another effect, which is a nuisance in
some applications. The contact resistance
is not stable immediately after contact
closure, and drifts, mostly downwards, for
several seconds after closure, the change
perhaps being 0.5 ohm.

Multi-voltage relays

Multi-voltage relays are devices designed

to work for wide voltage ranges such as 24
to 240 VAC and VDC and wide frequency
ranges such as 0 to 300 Hz. They are
indicated for use in installations that do
not have stable supply voltages.

Overload protection relay

Electric motors need overcurrent

protection to prevent damage from over-
loading the motor, or to protect against
short circuits in connecting cables or
internal faults in the motor windings.[18]
The overload sensing devices are a form
of heat operated relay where a coil heats a
bimetallic strip, or where a solder pot
melts, to operate auxiliary contacts. These
auxiliary contacts are in series with the
motor's contactor coil, so they turn off the
motor when it overheats.[19]

This thermal protection operates relatively

slowly allowing the motor to draw higher
starting currents before the protection
relay will trip. Where the overload relay is
exposed to the same ambient temperature
as the motor, a useful though crude
compensation for motor ambient
temperature is provided.[20]

The other common overload protection

system uses an electromagnet coil in
series with the motor circuit that directly
operates contacts. This is similar to a
control relay but requires a rather high
fault current to operate the contacts. To
prevent short over current spikes from
causing nuisance triggering the armature
movement is damped with a dashpot. The
thermal and magnetic overload detections
are typically used together in a motor
protection relay.
Electronic overload protection relays
measure motor current and can estimate
motor winding temperature using a
"thermal model" of the motor armature
system that can be set to provide more
accurate motor protection. Some motor
protection relays include temperature
detector inputs for direct measurement
from a thermocouple or resistance
thermometer sensor embedded in the
winding.

Polarized relay

A polarized relay places the armature

between the poles of a permanent magnet
to increase sensitivity. Polarized relays
were used in middle 20th Century
telephone exchanges to detect faint
pulses and correct telegraphic distortion.

Reed relay

(from top) Single-pole reed switch, four-pole reed

switch and single-pole reed relay. Scale in centimeters.

A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a

solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts
inside an evacuated or inert gas-filled
glass tube that protects the contacts
against atmospheric corrosion; the
contacts are made of magnetic material
that makes them move under the influence
of the field of the enclosing solenoid or an
external magnet.

Reed relays can switch faster than larger

relays and require very little power from
the control circuit. However, they have
relatively low switching current and
voltage ratings. Though rare, the reeds can
become magnetized over time, which
makes them stick "on", even when no
current is present; changing the
orientation of the reeds or degaussing the
switch with respect to the solenoid's
magnetic field can resolve this problem.

Sealed contacts with mercury-wetted

contacts have longer operating lives and
less contact chatter than any other kind of
relay.[21]

Safety relays

Safety relays are devices which generally

implement safety functions. In the event of
a hazard, the task of such a safety
function is to use appropriate measures to
reduce the existing risk to an acceptable
level.[22]

Solid-state contactor

A solid-state contactor is a heavy-duty

solid state relay, including the necessary
heat sink, used where frequent on-off
cycles are required, such as with electric
heaters, small electric motors, and lighting
loads. There are no moving parts to wear
out and there is no contact bounce due to
vibration. They are activated by AC control
signals or DC control signals from
programmable logic controllers (PLCs),
PCs, transistor-transistor logic (TTL)
sources, or other microprocessor and
microcontroller controls.

Solid-state relay

Solid-state relays have no moving parts.

25 A and 40 A solid state contactors

A solid-state relay (SSR) is a solid state
electronic component that provides a
function similar to an electromechanical
relay but does not have any moving
components, increasing long-term
reliability. A solid-state relay uses a
thyristor, TRIAC or other solid-state
switching device, activated by the control
signal, to switch the controlled load,
instead of a solenoid. An optocoupler (a
light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a
photo transistor) can be used to isolate
control and controlled circuits.[23]
Static relay

A static relay consists of electronic

circuitry to emulate all those
characteristics which are achieved by
moving parts in an electro-magnetic relay.

Time delay relay

Timing relays are arranged for an

intentional delay in operating their
contacts. A very short (a fraction of a
second) delay would use a copper disk
between the armature and moving blade
assembly. Current flowing in the disk
maintains magnetic field for a short time,
lengthening release time. For a slightly
longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is
used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid
that is allowed to escape slowly; both air-
filled and oil-filled dashpots are used. The
time period can be varied by increasing or
decreasing the flow rate. For longer time
periods, a mechanical clockwork timer is
installed. Relays may be arranged for a
fixed timing period, or may be field
adjustable, or remotely set from a control
panel. Modern microprocessor-based
timing relays provide precision timing over
a great range.
Some relays are constructed with a kind of
"shock absorber" mechanism attached to
the armature which prevents immediate,
full motion when the coil is either
energized or de-energized. This addition
gives the relay the property of time-delay
actuation. Time-delay relays can be
constructed to delay armature motion on
coil energization, de-energization, or both.

Time-delay relay contacts must be

specified not only as either normally open
or normally closed, but whether the delay
operates in the direction of closing or in
the direction of opening. The following is a
description of the four basic types of time-
delay relay contacts.

First we have the normally open, timed-

closed (NOTC) contact. This type of
contact is normally open when the coil is
unpowered (de-energized). The contact is
closed by the application of power to the
relay coil, but only after the coil has been
continuously powered for the specified
amount of time. In other words, the
direction of the contact's motion (either to
close or to open) is identical to a regular
NO contact, but there is a delay in closing
direction. Because the delay occurs in the
direction of coil energization, this type of
contact is alternatively known as a
normally open, on-delay.

Vacuum relays

A sensitive relay having its contacts

mounted in a highly evacuated glass
housing, to permit handling radio-
frequency voltages as high as 20,000 volts
without flashover between contacts even
though contact spacing is but a few
hundredths of an inch when open.

Pole and throw

Circuit symbols of relays (C denotes the common

terminal in SPDT and DPDT types.)

Since relays are switches, the terminology

applied to switches is also applied to
relays; a relay switches one or more poles,
each of whose contacts can be thrown by
energizing the coil. Normally open (NO)
contacts connect the circuit when the
relay is activated; the circuit is
disconnected when the relay is inactive.
Normally closed (NC) contacts disconnect
the circuit when the relay is activated; the
circuit is connected when the relay is
inactive. All of the contact forms involve
combinations of NO and NC connections.

The National Association of Relay

Manufacturers and its successor, the
Relay and Switch Industry Association
define 23 distinct electrical contact forms
found in relays and switches.[24] Of these,
the following are commonly encountered:

SPST-NO (Single-Pole Single-Throw,

Normally-Open) relays have a single
Form A contact or make contact. These
have two terminals which can be
connected or disconnected. Including
two for the coil, such a relay has four
terminals in total.
SPST-NC (Single-Pole Single-Throw,
Normally-Closed) relays have a single
Form B or break contact. As with an
SPST-NO relay, such a relay has four
terminals in total.
SPDT (Single-Pole Double-Throw) relays
have a single set of Form C, break before
make or transfer contacts. That is, a
common terminal connects to either of
two others, never connecting to both at
the same time. Including two for the
coil, such a relay has a total of five
terminals.
DPST – Double-Pole Single-Throw relays
are equivalent to a pair of SPST
switches or relays actuated by a single
coil. Including two for the coil, such a
relay has a total of six terminals. The
poles may be Form A or Form B (or one
of each; the designations NO and NC
should be used to resolve the
ambiguity).
DPDT – Double-Pole Double-Throw
relays have two sets of Form C contacts.
These are equivalent to two SPDT
 switches or relays actuated by a single
coil. Such a relay has eight terminals,
including the coil
Form D – make before break[25]
Form E – combination of D and B[25]

The S (single) or D (double) designator for

the pole count may be replaced with a
number, indicating multiple contacts
connected to a single actuator. For
example, 4PDT indicates a four-pole
double-throw relay that has 12 switching
terminals.

EN 50005 are among applicable standards

for relay terminal numbering; a typical EN
50005-compliant SPDT relay's terminals
would be numbered 11, 12, 14, A1 and A2
for the C, NC, NO, and coil connections,
respectively.[26]

DIN 72552 defines contact numbers in

relays for automotive use;

85 = relay coil -
86 = relay coil +
87 = common contact
87a = normally closed contact
87b = normally open contact

Applications
A DPDT AC coil relay with "ice cube" packaging

Relays are used wherever it is necessary

to control a high power or high voltage
circuit with a low power circuit, especially
when galvanic isolation is desirable. The
first application of relays was in long
telegraph lines, where the weak signal
received at an intermediate station could
control a contact, regenerating the signal
for further transmission. High-voltage or
high-current devices can be controlled with
small, low voltage wiring and pilots
switches. Operators can be isolated from
the high voltage circuit. Low power
devices such as microprocessors can
drive relays to control electrical loads
beyond their direct drive capability. In an
automobile, a starter relay allows the high
current of the cranking motor to be
controlled with small wiring and contacts
in the ignition key.

Electromechanical switching systems

including Strowger and Crossbar
telephone exchanges made extensive use
of relays in ancillary control circuits. The
Relay Automatic Telephone Company also
manufactured telephone exchanges based
solely on relay switching techniques
designed by Gotthilf Ansgarius Betulander.
The first public relay based telephone
exchange in the UK was installed in
Fleetwood on 15 July 1922 and remained
in service until 1959.[27][28]

The use of relays for the logical control of

complex switching systems like telephone
exchanges was studied by Claude
Shannon, who formalized the application
of Boolean algebra to relay circuit design
in A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and
Switching Circuits. Relays can perform the
basic operations of Boolean combinatorial
logic. For example, the boolean AND
function is realised by connecting normally
open relay contacts in series, the OR
function by connecting normally open
contacts in parallel. Inversion of a logical
input can be done with a normally closed
contact. Relays were used for control of
automated systems for machine tools and
production lines. The Ladder programming
language is often used for designing relay
logic networks.

Early electro-mechanical computers such

as the ARRA, Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and
Zuse Z3 used relays for logic and working
registers. However, electronic devices
proved faster and easier to use.

Because relays are much more resistant

than semiconductors to nuclear radiation,
they are widely used in safety-critical logic,
such as the control panels of radioactive
waste-handling machinery.
Electromechanical protective relays are
used to detect overload and other faults
on electrical lines by opening and closing
circuit breakers.

Relay application
considerations
Several 30-contact relays in "Connector" circuits in mid-
20th century 1XB switch and 5XB switch telephone
exchanges; cover removed on one.

Selection of an appropriate relay for a

particular application requires evaluation
of many different factors:

Number and type of contacts —

normally open, normally closed, (double-
throw)
Contact sequence — "make before
break" or "break before make". For
example, the old style telephone
exchanges required make-before-break
so that the connection didn't get
dropped while dialing the number.
Contact current rating — small relays
switch a few amperes, large contactors
are rated for up to 3000 amperes,
alternating or direct current
Contact voltage rating — typical control
relays rated 300 VAC or 600 VAC,
automotive types to 50 VDC, special
high-voltage relays to about 15,000 V
Operating lifetime, useful life — the
number of times the relay can be
expected to operate reliably. There is
both a mechanical life and a contact life.
The contact life is affected by the type
of load switched. Breaking load current
causes undesired arcing between the
contacts, eventually leading to contacts
that weld shut or contacts that fail due
to erosion by the arc.[29]
Coil voltage — machine-tool relays
usually 24 VDC, 120 or 250 VAC, relays
for switchgear may have 125 V or 250
VDC coils,
Coil current — Minimum current required
for reliable operation and minimum
holding current, as well as effects of
power dissipation on coil temperature at
various duty cycles. "Sensitive" relays
operate on a few milliamperes.
Package/enclosure — open, touch-safe,
double-voltage for isolation between
circuits, explosion proof, outdoor, oil and
splash resistant, washable for printed
circuit board assembly
Operating environment — minimum and
maximum operating temperature and
other environmental considerations,
such as effects of humidity and salt
Assembly — Some relays feature a
sticker that keeps the enclosure sealed
to allow PCB post soldering cleaning,
which is removed once assembly is
complete.
Mounting — sockets, plug board, rail
mount, panel mount, through-panel
mount, enclosure for mounting on walls
or equipment
Switching time — where high speed is
required
"Dry" contacts — when switching very
low level signals, special contact
materials may be needed such as gold-
plated contacts
Contact protection — suppress arcing in
very inductive circuits
Coil protection — suppress the surge
voltage produced when switching the
coil current
Isolation between coil contacts
Aerospace or radiation-resistant testing,
special quality assurance
Expected mechanical loads due to
acceleration — some relays used in
aerospace applications are designed to
function in shock loads of 50 g, or more.
Size — smaller relays often resist
mechanical vibration and shock better
than larger relays, because of the lower
 inertia of the moving parts and the
higher natural frequencies of smaller
parts.[21] Larger relays often handle
higher voltage and current than smaller
relays.
Accessories such as timers, auxiliary
contacts, pilot lamps, and test buttons.
Regulatory approvals.
Stray magnetic linkage between coils of
adjacent relays on a printed circuit
board.

There are many considerations involved in

the correct selection of a control relay for
a particular application, including factors
such as speed of operation, sensitivity, and
hysteresis. Although typical control relays
operate in the 5 ms to 20 ms range, relays
with switching speeds as fast as 100 μs
are available. Reed relays which are
actuated by low currents and switch fast
are suitable for controlling small currents.

As with any switch, the contact current

(unrelated to the coil current) must not
exceed a given value to avoid damage. In
high-inductance circuits such as motors,
other issues must be addressed. When an
inductance is connected to a power
source, an input surge current or
electromotor starting current larger than
the steady-state current exists. When the
circuit is broken, the current cannot
change instantaneously, which creates a
potentially damaging arc across the
separating contacts.

Consequently, for relays used to control

inductive loads, we must specify the
maximum current that may flow through
the relay contacts when it actuates, the
make rating; the continuous rating; and the
break rating. The make rating may be
several times larger than the continuous
rating, which is larger than the break
rating.

Arcing
Switching while "wet" (under load) causes
undesired arcing between the contacts,
eventually leading to contacts that weld
shut or contacts that fail due to a buildup
of surface damage caused by the
destructive arc energy.[29]

Inside the Number One Electronic

Switching System (1ESS) crossbar switch
and certain other high-reliability designs,
the reed switches are always switched
"dry" (without load) to avoid that problem,
leading to much longer contact life.[30]

Without adequate contact protection, the

occurrence of electric current arcing
causes significant degradation of the
contacts, which suffer significant and
visible damage. Every time the relay
contacts open or close under load, an
electrical arc can occur between the
contacts of the relay, either a break arc
(when opening), or a make / bounce arc
(when closing). In many situations, the
break arc is more energetic and thus more
destructive, in particular with inductive
loads, but this can be mitigated by
bridging the contacts with a snubber
circuit. The inrush current of tungsten
filament incandescent lamps is typically
ten times the normal operating current.
Thus, relays intended for tungsten loads
may use special contact composition, or
the relay may have lower contact ratings
for tungsten loads than for purely resistive
loads.

An electrical arc across relay contacts can

be very hot — thousands of degrees
Fahrenheit — causing the metal on the
contact surfaces to melt, pool, and migrate
with the current. The extremely high
temperature of the arc splits the
surrounding gas molecules, creating
ozone, carbon monoxide, and other
compounds. Over time, the arc energy
slowly destroys the contact metal, causing
some material to escape into the air as
fine particulate matter. This action causes
the material in the contacts to degrade,
resulting in device failure. This contact
degradation drastically limits the overall
life of a relay to a range of about 10,000 to
100,000 operations, a level far below the
mechanical life of the device, which can be
in excess of 20 million operations.[31]

Protective relays
For protection of electrical apparatus and
transmission lines, electromechanical
relays with accurate operating
characteristics were used to detect
overload, short-circuits, and other faults.
While many such relays remain in use,
digital protective relays now provide
equivalent and more complex protective
functions.

Railway signalling

Part of a relay interlocking using UK Q-style miniature

plug-in relays

Railway signalling relays are large

considering the mostly small voltages
(less than 120 V) and currents (perhaps
100 mA) that they switch. Contacts are
widely spaced to prevent flashovers and
short circuits over a lifetime that may
exceed fifty years.

Since rail signal circuits must be highly

reliable, special techniques are used to
detect and prevent failures in the relay
system. To protect against false feeds,
double switching relay contacts are often
used on both the positive and negative
side of a circuit, so that two false feeds
are needed to cause a false signal. Not all
relay circuits can be proved so there is
reliance on construction features such as
carbon to silver contacts to resist lightning
induced contact welding and to provide AC
immunity.

Opto-isolators are also used in some

instances with railway signalling,
especially where only a single contact is to
be switched.

See also
Analogue switch
Buchholz relay
Dry contact
Flyback diode
Nanoelectromechanical relay
Race condition
 Stepping switch, a kind of multi-position
relay
Wire spring relay

References
1. https://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tel/mo
rse/morse.htm#H1
2. Icons of Invention: The Makers of the
Modern World from Gutenberg to
Gates . ABC-CLIO. 2009. p. 153.
ISBN 9780313347436.
3. "The electromechanical relay of
Joseph Henry" . Georgi Dalakov.
4. Scientific American Inventions and
Discoveries: All the Milestones in
Ingenuity--From the Discovery of Fire
to the Invention of the Microwave
Oven . John Wiley & Sons. 2005-01-28.
p. 311. ISBN 9780471660248.
5. Thomas Coulson (1950). Joseph
Henry: His Life and Work. Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
6. Gibberd, William (1966). "Edward
Davy" . Australian Dictionary of
Biography. Canberra: Australian
National University. Retrieved 7 June
2012.
7. US 1647 ,
‹See Tfd› Morse, Samuel E.B.,
‹See Tfd›

"Improvement in the Mode of

Communicating Information by
Signals by the Application of
Electromagnetism", published June 20,
1840
8. "Relay" . EtymOnline.com.
9. Mason, C. R. "Art & Science of
Protective Relaying, Chapter 2, GE
Consumer & Electrical" . Retrieved
October 9, 2011.
10. Riba, J.R.; Espinosa, A.G.; Cusidó, J.;
Ortega, J.A.; Romeral, L. (November
2008). Design of Shading Coils for
Minimizing the Contact Bouncing of
AC Contactors . Electrical Contacts.
p. 130. Retrieved 2018-01-07.
11. Ian Sinclair, Passive Components for
Circuit Design, Elsevier, 2000
ISBN 008051359X,pp. 161-164
12. Fleckenstein, Joseph E. (2017). Three-
Phase Electrical Power. CRC Press.
p. 321. ISBN 978-1498737784.
13. Ian Sinclair, Passive Components for
Circuit Design, Newnes, 2000
ISBN 008051359X, page 170
14. Croft, Terrell; Summers, Wilford, eds.
(1987). American Electricians'
Handbook (Eleventh ed.). New York:
McGraw Hill. p. 7-124. ISBN 978-0-07-
013932-9.
15. Rexford, Kenneth B.; Giuliani, Peter R.
(2002). Electrical control for
machines (6th ed.). Cengage
Learning. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-7668-
6198-5.
16. "Contactor or Motor Starter – What is
the Difference?" . EECOOnline.com.
2015-01-13. Retrieved 2018-04-19.
17. Sinclair, Ian R. (2001), Sensors and
Transducers (3rd ed.), Elsevier, p. 262,
ISBN 978-0-7506-4932-2
18. Zocholl, Stan (2003). AC Motor
Protection. Schweitzer Engineering
Laboratories. ISBN 978-0972502610.
19. Edvard (2013-03-09). "Working
Principle of Thermal Motor Protection
Relay" . Electrical-Engineering-
Portal.com. Electrical Engineering
Portal. Retrieved 2017-12-30.
20. "Coordinated Power Systems
Protection". Department of the Army
Technical Manual. United States
Department of the Army (811–814):
3–1. 1991.
21. A. C. Keller. "Recent Developments in
Bell System Relays -- Particularly
Sealed Contact and Miniature Relays" .
The Bell System Technical Journal.
1964.
22. "Safety Compendium, Chapter 4 Safe
control technology" (PDF). p. 115.
23. "Optocoupler Tutorial" .
24. Section 1.6, Engineers' Relay
Handbook, 5th ed, Relay and Switch
Industry Association, Arlington, VA; 3rd
ed, National Association of Relay
Manufacturers, Elkhart Ind., 1980; 2nd
Ed. Hayden, New York, 1966; large
parts of the 5th edition are on line
here Archived 2017-07-05 at the
Wayback Machine.
25. Alexandrovich, George. "The Audio
Engineer's Handbook" (PDF). Db: The
Sound Engineering Magazine.
September 1968: 10.
26. EN 50005:1976 "Specification for low
voltage switchgear and controlgear for
industrial use. Terminal marking and
distinctive number. General rules."
(1976). In the UK published by BSI as
BS 5472:1977.
27. "Relay Automatic Telephone
Company" . Retrieved October 6, 2014.
28. "British Telecom History 1912-1968" .
Retrieved October 8, 2014.
29. "Arc Suppression to Protect Relays
From Destructive Arc Energy" .
Retrieved December 6, 2013.
30. Varney, Al L. (1991). "Questions About
The No. 1 ESS Switch" .
31. "Lab Note #105: Contact Life —
Unsuppressed vs. Suppressed
Arcing" . Arc Suppression
Technologies. April 2011. Retrieved
October 9, 2011.

External links

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related to Relay.

Engineer's Relay Handbook, 5th edition,

published by the Relay and Switch
Industry Association (RSIA) – formerly
NARM
Abdelmoumene, Abdelkader, and Hamid
Bentarzi. "A review on protective relays'
developments and trends." Journal of
Energy in Southern Africa 25.2 (2014):
91-95.
http://www.scielo.org.za/pdf/jesa/v25n
2/10.pdf
http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?
pid=S1021-
447X2014000200010&script=sci_arttext
&tlng=pt
Electromagnetic relays and Solid-State
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behaviour and design features
The Electromechanical Relay
 Information about relays and the
Latching Relay circuit
"Harry Porter's Relay Computer", a
computer made out of relays
"Relay Computer Two", by Jon Stanley
Interfacing Relay To Microcontroller
Relays Technical Write , by O/E/N India
Limited
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