Biology is the natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their physical structure, chemical

processes, molecular interactions, physiological mechanisms, development and evolution.[1] Despite the
complexity of the science, there are certain unifying concepts that consolidate it into a single, coherent field.
Biology recognizes the cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the
engine that propels the creation and extinction of species. Living organisms are open systems that survive by
transforming energy and decreasing their local entropy[2] to maintain a stable and vital condition defined
as homeostasis.[3]
Sub-disciplines of biology are defined by the research methods employed and the kind of system
studied: theoretical biology uses mathematical methods to formulate quantitative models while experimental
biology performs empirical experiments to test the validity of proposed theories and understand the
mechanisms underlying life and how it appeared and evolved from non-living matter about 4 billion years ago
through a gradual increase in the complexity of the system.[4][5][6] See branches of biology.

Etymology
Biology derives from the Ancient Greek words of βίος; romanized bíos meaning "life" and -λογία; romanized
logía (-logy) meaning "branch of study" or "to speak". Those combined make the Greek word βιολογία;
romanized biología meaning biology. Despite this, the term βιολογία as a whole didn't exist in Ancient Greek.
The first to borrow it were the English and French (biologie). Since the advent of the scientific
era, reanalyzable as a compound using the combining forms bio + logy.[clarification needed]

History
Main article: History of biology

A Diagram of a fly from Robert Hooke's innovative Micrographia, 1665

The term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, vios, "life" and the suffix -λογία, -logia, "study of."[7][8] The
Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné)
used biologi in his Bibliotheca Botanica. It was used again in 1766 in a work entitled Philosophiae naturalis sive
physicae: tomus III, continens geologian, biologian, phytologian generalis, by Michael Christoph Hanov, a
disciple of Christian Wolff. The first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus' work. In 1797,
Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, Grundzüge der Lehre van der
Lebenskraft. Karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human
beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective (Propädeutik zum Studien der
gesammten Heilkunst). The term came into its modern usage with the six-volume treatise Biologie, oder
Philosophie der lebenden Natur (1802–22) by Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus, who announced:[9]
The objects of our research will be the different forms and manifestations of life, the conditions and
laws under which these phenomena occur, and the causes through which they have been effected.
The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the name biology [Biologie] or
the doctrine of life [Lebenslehre].
Although modern biology is a relatively recent development, sciences related to and included within it have
been studied since ancient times. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations
of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, and China. However, the origins of modern biology and
its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece.[10][11] While the formal
study of medicine dates back to Pharaonic Egypt, it was Aristotle (384–322 BC) who contributed most
extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works
where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation
and the diversity of life. Aristotle's successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books
on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into
the Middle Ages.[12]
Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz (781–869), Al-
Dīnawarī (828–896), who wrote on botany,[13] and Rhazes (865–925) who wrote
on anatomy and physiology. Medicine was especially well studied by Islamic scholars working in Greek
philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought, especially in upholding a
fixed hierarchy of life.
Biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's dramatic improvement of
the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria and the diversity of
microscopic life. Investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to
develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining.[14]
Advances in microscopy also had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a
number of biologists pointed to the central importance of the cell. Then, in
1838, Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of
organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed
the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells. Thanks to the work of Robert
Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets of what came
to be known as cell theory.[15][16]
Meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians. Carl Linnaeus published a
basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 (variations of which have been in use ever since), and in the
1750s introduced scientific names for all his species.[17] Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, treated
species as artificial categories and living forms as malleable—even suggesting the possibility of common
descent. Although he was opposed to evolution, Buffon is a key figure in the history of evolutionary
thought; his work influenced the evolutionary theories of both Lamarck and Darwin.[18]
Serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, who was the first to
present a coherent theory of evolution.[19] He posited that evolution was the result of environmental stress
on properties of animals, meaning that the more frequently and rigorously an organ was used, the more
complex and efficient it would become, thus adapting the animal to its environment. Lamarck believed that
these acquired traits could then be passed on to the animal's offspring, who would further develop and
perfect them.[20] However, it was the British naturalist Charles Darwin, combining the biogeographical
approach of Humboldt, the uniformitarian geology of Lyell, Malthus's writings on population growth, and his
own morphological expertise and extensive natural observations, who forged a more successful
evolutionary theory based on natural selection; similar reasoning and evidence led Alfred Russel
Wallace to independently reach the same conclusions.[21][22] Although it was the subject
of controversy (which continues to this day), Darwin's theory quickly spread through the scientific
community and soon became a central axiom of the rapidly developing science of biology.
The discovery of the physical representation of heredity came along with evolutionary principles
and population genetics. In the 1940s and early 1950s, experiments pointed to DNA as the component
of chromosomes that held the trait-carrying units that had become known as genes. A focus on new kinds
of model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double helical structure
of DNA in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics. From the 1950s to present times,
biology has been vastly extended in the molecular domain. The genetic code was cracked by Har Gobind
Khorana, Robert W. Holley and Marshall Warren Nirenberg after DNA was understood to contain codons.
Finally, the Human Genome Project was launched in 1990 with the goal of mapping the general
human genome. This project was essentially completed in 2003,[23] with further analysis still being
published. The Human Genome Project was the first step in a globalized effort to incorporate accumulated
knowledge of biology into a functional, molecular definition of the human body and the bodies of other
organisms.

Foundations of modern biology

Main article: Cell theory

Cell theory states that the cell is the fundamental unit of life, that all living things are composed of one or
more cells, and that all cells arise from pre-existing cells through cell division. In multicellular organisms,
every cell in the organism's body derives ultimately from a single cell in a fertilized egg. The cell is also
considered to be the basic unit in many pathological processes.[24] In addition, the phenomenon of energy
flow occurs in cells in processes that are part of the function known as metabolism. Finally, cells contain
hereditary information (DNA), which is passed from cell to cell during cell division. Research into the origin
of life, abiogenesis, amounts to an attempt to discover the origin of the first cells.

Evolution

Natural selection of a population for dark coloration.

Main article: Evolution

A central organizing concept in biology is that life changes and develops through evolution, and that all life-
forms known have a common origin. The theory of evolution postulates that all organisms on the Earth,
both living and extinct, have descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral gene pool. This universal
common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about 3.5 billion years ago.[25] Biologists
regard the ubiquity of the genetic code as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common
descent for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes (see: origin of life).[26]
The term "evolution" was introduced into the scientific lexicon by Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck in 1809,[27] and
fifty years later Charles Darwin posited a scientific model of natural selection as evolution's driving
force.[28][29][30] (Alfred Russel Wallace is recognized as the co-discoverer of this concept as he helped
research and experiment with the concept of evolution.)[31] Evolution is now used to explain the great
variations of life found on Earth.
Darwin theorized that species flourish or die when subjected to the processes of natural
selection or selective breeding.[32] Genetic drift was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary
development in the modern synthesis of the theory.[33]
The evolutionary history of the species—which describes the characteristics of the various species from
which it descended—together with its genealogical relationship to every other species is known as
its phylogeny. Widely varied approaches to biology generate information about phylogeny. These include
the comparisons of DNA sequences, a product of molecular biology (more particularly genomics), and
comparisons of fossils or other records of ancient organisms, a product of paleontology.[34] Biologists
organize and analyze evolutionary relationships through various methods,
including phylogenetics, phenetics, and cladistics. (For a summary of major events in the evolution of life
as currently understood by biologists, see evolutionary timeline.)
Evolution is relevant to the understanding of the natural history of life forms and to the understanding of
the organization of current life forms. But, those organizations can only be understood in the light of how
they came to be by way of the process of evolution. Consequently, evolution is central to all fields of
biology.[35]

Genetics

A Punnett square depicting a cross between two pea plants heterozygous for purple (B) and white (b) blossoms

Main article: Genetics

Genes are the primary units of inheritance in all organisms. A gene is a unit of heredity and corresponds to
a region of DNA that influences the form or function of an organism in specific ways. All organisms, from
bacteria to animals, share the same basic machinery that copies and translates DNA into proteins.
Cells transcribe a DNA gene into an RNA version of the gene, and a ribosome then translates the RNA
into a sequence of amino acids known as a protein. The translation code from RNA codon to amino acid is
the same for most organisms. For example, a sequence of DNA that codes for insulin in humans also
codes for insulin when inserted into other organisms, such as plants.[36]
DNA is found as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes. A
chromosome is an organized structure consisting of DNA and histones. The set of chromosomes in a cell
and any other hereditary information found in the mitochondria, chloroplasts, or other locations is
collectively known as a cell's genome. In eukaryotes, genomic DNA is localized in the cell nucleus, or with
small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts. In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly
shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.[37] The genetic information in a genome is held within
genes, and the complete assemblage of this information in an organism is called its genotype.[38]
Homeostasis
Main article: Homeostasis

The hypothalamus secretes CRH, which directs the pituitary gland to secrete ACTH. In turn, ACTH directs the adrenal
cortex to secrete glucocorticoids, such as cortisol. The GCs then reduce the rate of secretion by the hypothalamus and
the pituitary gland once a sufficient amount of GCs has been released. [39]

Homeostasis is the ability of an open system to regulate its internal environment to maintain stable
conditions by means of multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustments that are controlled by interrelated
regulation mechanisms. All living organisms, whether unicellular or multicellular, exhibit homeostasis.[40]
To maintain dynamic equilibrium and effectively carry out certain functions, a system must detect and
respond to perturbations. After the detection of a perturbation, a biological system normally responds
through negative feedback that stabilize conditions by reducing or increasing the activity of an organ or
system. One example is the release of glucagon when sugar levels are too low.

Basic overview of energy and human life.

Energy
The survival of a living organism depends on the continuous input of energy. Chemical reactions that are
responsible for its structure and function are tuned to extract energy from substances that act as its food
and transform them to help form new cells and sustain them. In this process, molecules of chemical
substances that constitute food play two roles; first, they contain energy that can be transformed and
reused in that organism's biological, chemical reactions; second, food can be transformed into new
molecular structures (biomolecules) that are of use to that organism.
The organisms responsible for the introduction of energy into an ecosystem are known as producers
or autotrophs. Nearly all such organisms originally draw their energy from the sun.[41] Plants and
other phototrophs use solar energy via a process known as photosynthesis to convert raw materials into
organic molecules, such as ATP, whose bonds can be broken to release energy.[42] A few ecosystems,
however, depend entirely on energy extracted by chemotrophs from methane, sulfides, or other non-
luminal energy sources.[43]
Some of the energy thus captured produces biomass and energy that is available for growth and
development of other life forms. The majority of the rest of this biomass and energy are lost as waste
molecules and heat. The most important processes for converting the energy trapped in chemical
substances into energy useful to sustain life are metabolism[44] and cellular respiration.[45]