Course Number:Quantum Mechanics-1

Course Title:Phy-3201

Black Body Radiation

A body which completely absorbs radiation of all wavelengths incident
on it is called a perfectly black body. Since a good absorber is also a good
emitter of radiation, a perfectly black body is the best possible emitter
at any given temperature. The radiation emitted by such a body is called
black body radiation or full radiation or temperature radiation.

A perfectly black body is an ideal conception. There is no known surface

which can be regarded as perfectly black. Lamp black or platinum black
is nearest approach to a perfectly black body. Lamp black can absorbs
about 96% of the radiant energy incident on it, and platinum black
absorbs about 98%. In practice an almost perfectly black body consists
of a double-walled hollow metal sphere. The sphere has a small hole O.
There is a conical projection P opposite to the hole. The inner surface of
the sphere is coated with lamp black. The space between the walls is
evacuated to prevent loss of heat by conduction or convection. When
any radiant energy enters the sphere through the hole, it suffers multiple
reflections as shown in the figure. At each reflection about 96% of the
incident radiant energy is absorbed. Hence after a few reflections all the
radiant energy is absorbed by the sphere. The function of the conical
projection is to prevent direct reflection of the radiant energy from the
surface opposite to the hole. The O in the sphere thus acts as a perfectly
black body because it absorbs all the radiant energy incident on it. When
the sphere is heated black body radiation is emitted from the hole.
To study the distribution of the radiant energy over different
wavelengths, at constant temperature, the sphere is heated to and
maintained at that temperature. By means of the infrared spectrometer
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and a bolometer (an instrument for measurement of the intensity of

radiation) the intensities of the radiation of different wavelengths are
measured.
Question: Draw the graph of experimental findings of black body radiations.
Write the conclusions from these graph. Graph can be either Emissive power
vs wavelength or Emissive power vs frequency for different temperatures.
The experimental results as obtained by Lummer and Pringsheim are
shown in fig 1.The curves are for temperatures of the black body, ranging
from 1000K to 1650K. The ordinates represent the emissive powers E λ
and the abscissa wavelengths.

The emissive power Eλ is defined in such a way that the quantity Eλdλ is
the energy radiated per unit area per second for wavelength in the range
between λ and λ+dλ.
Thus
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𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐.𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 λ to λ+dλ
Eλ =
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑λ

Unit of Eλ is I watt per square meter per Angstrom unit, and the SI unit
is I watt per square meter per nanometer(10-9).
From these curves the following conclusions are drawn:
(1) As the temperature increases, Eλ for every wavelengths increases.
(2) At constant temperature as λ increases Eλ till it becomes maximum at
a certain wavelengths λm and then with further increases of λ, Eλ
decreases. At a higher temperature the wavelengths λm at which Eλ is
maximum, shifts towards a shorter wavelength. The wavelength λ m and
the absolute temperature T are connected by the relation
λmT=constant
This equation is known as Wien’s displacement law.
The value of the constant in eq (1) 2.898x107 AK or 2.898x10-3 mK. By
measuring the wavelength λm spectroscopically the temperature of a
black-body can be determined BY using Eq. (1). This method has been
used extensively in determining temperatures of stars. In Fig. 1 the
dotted curve is the locus of the peaks of the distribution curves for
different temperature.
(3) The maximum value, Em of the emissive power for the wavelength λm
and the absolute temperature T are connected by the relation
𝐸𝑚
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇5
(4) The area enclosed by the curve at temperature T and the axis of λ
represents the total radiation emitted per unit area per second by a
black-body er second over all wavelengths

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∞

∫ 𝐸 ⅆ𝜆
0

The total radiation emitted per unit area per second by a black body at a
given temperatue T is called the total emissive power E of the body.For
black body it found that
∝

𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸𝜆 ⅆ𝜆 = 𝜎𝑇 4
0

Where is a Stefan’s constant. It’s value is

𝜎=5.6697x10-8W/m2K4

Eq. (3) is called Stefan’s law for the total radiation from a black body.

Theoretical Laws of Black Radiation

Questions: What is Ultraviolet catastrophe?
Include/add the answer with graph.
Questions: Write down only the theoretical formulas (classical) and draw the
graphs (from each formulas) that can explain the portion of experimental black
radiation curve.
Late in the nineteenth century a number of attempts were made to explain the
spectral distribution of the intensity of radiation from a black body on the basis of
classical mechanics and the electromagnetic theory. A summary of many important
classical developments in the radiation theory is given below.
1. Wien’s Displacement Law in Terms of Eƛ and T

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In 1983 Wien showed that the energy Eƛaƛ radiated per unit area per second within
the wavelength range ƛ and ƛ+dƛ of electromagnetic radiation by a black body at
temperature T is given by
𝐴
𝐸ⅆƛ = f(ƛT)dƛ
ƛ

And Eƛdƛ=AT5F(ƛT)dƛ
Where A is a constant and f() and F() are functions of the product ƛT.From Eqs. (1)
and (2) it is evident that
T5F(ƛT)= 1/ƛ5f(ƛT)
Or
F(ƛT)= (ƛT)-5f(ƛT)
Wien obtained Eqs. (1) and (2) by considering the radiation field having
thermodynamic properties such as temperature, pressure, entropy etc. Eq. (2) shows
that for any black body
Eƛ/T5 = AF(ƛT)
This if E , E …. are the emissive powers for the respective wavelengths ƛ1 ƛ2….
And if T1 ,T2, … are the corresponding temperatures of black body ,then
Eƛ1/T15 = AF(ƛ1T1) , Eƛ2/T25=AF(ƛ2T2),….
If the wavelengths are inversely proportional to the corresponding temperatures,i.e.
if
ƛ1T1 = ƛ2T2= ….., then we have
Eƛ1/T51=Eƛ2/T25=Eƛ3/T53=….= constant.
Thus the emissive power E of a perfectly black body for wavelength ƛ is directly
proportional to the fifth power of the absolute temperature, if the wavelength is
inversely proportional to the absolute temperature. This conclusion is known as the
Wien displacement law in terms of Eƛ and T.
2. Wien’s Radiation Formula
In 1986 Wien derived the following formula for radiation from black body

Where C1 and C2 are constants.

For obtaining the formula the following arbit rary assumptions were made:
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(1) The radiation inside a hollow enclosure is produced by resonators of

molecular dimensions.
(2) The frequency of the radiation emitted is proportional to the kinetic
energy of the resonator.
(3) The intensity of radiation of any particular wavelength is proportional
to the number of resonators having required amount of energy’
The formula explains the experimental results fairy well for low values of
ƛT, but for higher values it gives values of Eƛ lower than the experimental
values.

3. Rayleigh-Jeans Law
In 1900 Lord Rayleigh applied the principle of equipartition of energy to
the electromagnetic vibrations. Then with a contribution from J.H. Jeans
this attempt led to the deduction of a formula for energy per unit volume
inside an enclosure with perfectly reflecting walls. This formula is called
the Rayleigh-Jeans law. According to this law the energy density Uv dv i.e.
the amount of energy per unit volume of the enclosure in the frequency
range from v to v+dv is given by
8𝜋𝑣 2 𝑘𝑇
Uvdv = dv
𝑐3

Where Uv is the energy per unit volume per unit frequency range at
frequency v,k is Boultzmann’s constant and c is the speed of light in free
space.
The Rayleigh Jeans formula can be transformed in terms of the wavelength
by using relation
𝑐
v=
ƛ

𝑐
dv=- 2 dƛ
ƛ

And
The energy Uv ,dv contained in a corresponding wavelength interval
between and +d ,and an increase in frequency corresponds to a decrease
in wavelength.

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Uƛdƛ= - Uvdv
8𝜋 𝑐 𝑐
=- ( )kT(− 2)dƛ
𝑐3 ƛ ƛ
8𝜋𝑘𝑇
= ⅆƛ
ƛ4

This equation is another form of the Rayleigh-Jeans law. The law explains

The experimental facts for very long wavelengths , but not for shorter wavelengths
. According to the law as ƛ decreases, the energy density Uƛ approaches infinity (Fig.
1.3). this is contrary to the experimental results.
The law leads to an absurd result which is as follows. The total energy of radiation
per unit volume of the enclosure for all wavelengths from zero to infinity is given
by
∞ ∞ 8𝜋𝑘𝑇
U= ∫0 ∪dƛ = ∫0 ⅆƛ
ƛ4

𝑖
=8𝜋𝑘𝑇[ ]0∞ = ∞
3ƛ3

This result shows that for a given quantity of radiant energy all the energy will finally
be confined in vibrations of very small wavelengths. Thus if the classical treatment

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is correct, on opening a shutter in the black body cavity ,we would be bombarded
with radiation of extremely short wavelengths .But experimental results show that
Uƛdƛ→0 as ƛ→0. This discrepancy between the theoretical conclusion and the
experimental result is called “ultraviolet” catastrophe.” This absurd result is because
of the assumption that energy can be absorbed or emitted by the atomic oscillators
in any amount.

Question: Write the planck’s quantum hypothesis.

In order to explain the distribution of energy in the spectrum of a black body. Max
planck in 1900, put forward the quantum theory of radiation. He assumed that the
atoms in the walls of a black-body behave like simple harmonic oscillators, and each
has a characteristic frequency of oscillation. In his theory he made the following two
radical assumption about the atomic oscillators. 1. A
simple harmonic oscillator cannot have any arbitrary values of energy biy only those
values of the total E that are given by the relation
E=nhv
Where n=1,2,3,4,……..; n is called the quantum number v is the frquecy of
oscillation, and h is a universal constant called plancks constant ( ℎ = 6.625 ×
10−34 𝐽𝑆 . In this relation ℎ𝑣 is the basic unit of energy and it is called a quantum of
energy. Thus the relation shows that the totatl energy of an oscillation I quantized.
(2)As long as the oscillator has energy equal to one of the allowed values given by
the relation 𝐸 = 𝑛ℎ𝑣, it cannot emit or absorb energy. Therefore the oscillator is said
to be in a stationary state or a quantum state of energy. The emission or absorption
od energy occurs only when the oscillator jumps form one energy state to another.
If the oscillator jumps down form a higher energy state of quantum number 𝑛2 to a
lower energy state of quantum number𝑛1 , the energy emitted is given by
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )hv
If 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 = 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝑣
Similarly an oscillator absorbs a quantum ℎ𝑣 of energy when it jumps up.
According to planck the quantum theory Is applicable only to the process of emission
and absorption of radiant energy.
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In 1905 Einstein extended Planck’s quantum theory by assuming that a

monochromatic radiation of frequency 𝑣 consists of a stream of photons each of
energy ℎ𝜈 and the photons travel through space with the speed of light.

Planck’s radiation law

Question: Just try to understand derivation of radiation law, BUT not for CT.
On the basis of the quantum theory, Planck’s obtained the formula for an average
energy of an oscillator :
ℎ𝑣
𝐸= …..(2)
𝑒 ℎ𝑣/𝑘𝑇 −1

It can be shown that the number of oscillations of degrees of freedom per unit
volume in the frequency range 𝑣 and 𝑣 + ⅆ𝑣 is given by
8𝜋𝑣 2
𝑁(𝑣)ⅆ𝑣 = ⅆ𝑣 ……..(3)
𝑐3

Where c is the speed of light in vacuum .

Then assuming that the average value of the energies of the various modes of
oscillation in black-body radiation is given by Eq. (2). Planck obtained the equation
8𝜋ℎ𝑣 3 1
𝑈𝑣 ⅆ𝑣 = ⅆ𝑣 …..(4)
𝑐3 𝑒 ℎ𝑣/𝑘𝑇 −1

Where 𝑈𝑣 ⅆ𝑣 is the energy per unit volume in the frequency range 𝑣 and 𝑣 + ⅆ𝑐 and
𝑈𝑣 , u is the energy per unit volume per unit frequency range ant frequency 𝑣. In
terms of the wavelength of the radiation this equation is :
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
𝑈𝜆 ⅆ𝜆 = ⅆ𝜆…….(5)
𝑐 3 𝑒 ℎ𝑐/𝜆𝑇−1

Eqs (4) and(5) are two forms of plancks radiation law .

When the values of 𝑈𝜆 as obtained from eq (5)for different values of 𝜆 are plotted
against the corresponding values 𝜆 we get curve as showen in Fig 1.4. these curves
agree very wll with the experimental results over the whole range of wavelengths.
From Planck’s law in the form of Eq(5) the Rayleigh-jeans law, Wien’s law
and the Stefan-Blotzmann formula are obtaind as mathematical consequences

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(1) Raylegh-jeans law. For small values of ℎ𝑐⁄𝜆𝜅𝑇 i.e, in the region of long
wavelengths, the exponential term in Eq (5) can be expressed and retaining only the
first term, we get
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1 8𝜋𝑘𝑇
𝑈𝜆 ⅆ𝜆 = ⅆ𝜆 = ⅆ𝜆……(6)
𝜆5 ℎ𝑐/𝜆𝜅T 𝜆4

This is the Raylegh-Jeans law.

(2) Wien’s radiation formula. In the region of law wavelength ℎ𝑐⁄𝜆𝜅𝑇

becomes large. Hence 1 in the denominator on the right hand side of EQ(5) can be
neglected in comparison with the exponential term. Therefore, we get
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
𝑈𝜆 ⅆ𝜆 = ⅆ𝜆
𝜆5 𝑒 ℎ𝑐/𝜆𝜅Τ
8𝜋ℎ𝑐
= 𝑒 −ℎ𝑐/𝜆𝜅Τ ⅆ𝜆
𝜆5

It can be shown that for any black-body 𝐸𝜆 is related to 𝑈𝜆 at the same temperature
bt the equation
𝑐𝑈𝜆 4𝐸𝜆
𝐸𝜆 = , or 𝑈𝜆 =
4 𝑐

Now substituting for 𝑈𝜆 in the above equation we get

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2𝜋ℎ𝑐 2 −ℎ𝑐/𝜆𝜅Τ
𝐸𝜆 ⅆ𝜆 = 𝑒
𝜆5
𝐶1
= 𝑒 −ℎ𝑐/𝜆𝑘𝑇 …….(7)
𝜆5

Where 𝐶1 = 2𝜋ℎ𝑐 2 and 𝐶2 = ℎ𝑐/𝑘 Eq(7) is Wien’s radiation law

From planck’s radiation law we have
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
𝑈𝜆 = …….(8)
𝜆5 𝑒 −ℎ𝑐/𝜆𝑘𝑇 −1

At constant temperature 𝑇 black-body, the wavelength 𝜆𝑚 an which the energy

density is maximum is given by
ⅆ𝑈𝜆
⌈ ⌉=0
ⅆ𝜆
Taking logarithm of both the sides of Eq(8), we have
ℎ𝑐
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑈𝜆 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (8𝜋ℎ𝑐) − 5𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝜆 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝑒 𝜆𝜅𝑇 − 1)
Differentiating the equation with respect to 𝜆

1 ⅆ𝑈𝜆 5 1 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
=0− −[ ℎ𝑐 ] (𝑒 𝜆𝜅𝑇 ) (− )
𝑈𝜆 ⅆ𝜆 𝜆 𝜆2 𝑘𝑇
𝑒 𝜆𝜅𝑇 −1

𝑑𝑈𝜆
At 𝜆 = 𝜆𝑚 , =0
𝑑𝜆
ℎ𝑐
ℎ𝑐 𝑒 𝜆𝑚𝑘𝑇
∴ −5 + { ℎ𝑐 }=0
𝜆𝑚 𝑘𝑇 𝜆 𝑘𝑇
𝑒 𝑚 −1
ℎ𝑐
Let =𝑥
𝜆𝑚 𝑘𝑇

𝑥𝑒 𝑥
Then −5 + =0
𝑒 𝑥 −1
𝑥𝑒 𝑥
Or =5
𝑒 𝑥 −1

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On solving this equation by trial and error, we will get

𝑥 = 4.9651
ℎ𝑐
I,e. = 4.9651
𝜆𝑚 𝑘𝑇
ℎ𝑐
∴ 𝜆𝑚 =
4.9651×𝑘
6.62×10−34 ×3×108 6.62×3×10−3
= =
4,9651×1.38×10−23 4.9651×1.38

= 2.898 × 10−3

4. Stefan-Blotzmann Law
On the basis of experimental data of tyndol and the Dulong and peli Stefan in 1879
deduced empiriacally that the total radiant energy of any J.wavelengths emitted per
unit area per second by a heated body is proportional to the fourth power is its
absolute temperature. In 1884 Botzmann derived the fourth power law by
considering the black-body radiation as the working substance for the ideal Carnot
Cycle. He showed that the law is strictly applicable to the radiation from a black-
body. The law is, therefore, generally called the Stefan-Botzmann Law. The law can
be obtained directly from the derivation is as follows
The energy density of the total radiation of all wavelength in black-body
enclosure at temperature 𝑇 is given by
∞ ∞
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
𝑈 = ∫ 𝑈𝜆 ⅆ𝜆 = ∫ 5
ⅆ𝜆
0 0 𝜆 𝑒 ℎ𝑐/𝜆𝑘𝑡 − 1
ℎ𝑐
Let 𝑥=
𝜆𝑘𝑇
ℎ𝑐
𝜆=
𝑥𝑘𝑇
ℎ𝑐
And ⅆ𝜆 = − ⅆ𝑥
𝑘𝑇𝑥 2

Where
0 8𝜋ℎ𝑐 𝑘𝑇𝑥 5 1 ℎ𝑐
Hence 𝑈 = ∫∞ ( ℎ𝑐 ) (− 𝑘𝑇𝑥 2 ⅆ𝑥)
1 𝑒𝑥

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0 8𝜋𝑘 4 𝑇 4 𝑥3
= − ∫∞ ( ) 𝑒 𝑥−1 ⅆ𝑥
ℎ3 𝑐 3

8𝜋𝑘 4 𝑇 4 ∞ 𝑥 3
= ∫ ⅆ𝑥
ℎ3 𝑐 3 0 𝑒 𝑥 − 1
𝜋4
The of the integral is
15

8𝜋𝑘 4 𝑇 4 𝜋4 4 2 𝜋5 𝑘 4
𝑈=
ℎ3 𝑐 3 15
= (
𝑐 15 ℎ3 𝑐 2
) 𝑇 4 …….(8)

It can be shown that for any black body the total radiation of all wavelengths
emitted per unit area per second at a given temperature i.e. the total emissive
power 𝐸 is related to 𝑈 at the same temperature by the equation
𝑐𝑈 4𝐸
𝐸= , 𝑜𝑟 𝑈= …….(9)
4 𝑐

Substituting for 𝑈 in Eq(8), we get

2𝜋5 𝑘 4
𝐸=(
15ℎ3 𝑐 2
) 𝑇 4 …(10)

OR 𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 4 …(11)
2𝜋5 𝑘 4
Where 𝜎= ….(12)
15ℎ3 𝑐 2

Eq(11) is the Stefan-Botzmann law of radiation. The constant 𝜎 is called Stefan-

Botzmann constat. The experimental value of this constant is
𝜎 = 5.67 × 10−8 𝑊/𝑚2 𝑘 4
10−8 𝑊
When the values 𝜎 = 5.67 × (this was the value knows at that time). 𝑘 =
𝑚2 𝑘 4
10−23 𝐽
1.38 × , 𝑐 = 3 × 108 are the substituted in Eq(12) the value of ℎ is
𝐾
found 6.57 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠 . This was the first calculated value of ℎ . the recent
recommended value of ℎ which is now widely used is
6.6256 × 10−34

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This value if substituted in Eq(5) for obtaining the values of 𝑈𝜆 it is found that the
theoretical distribution curves agree excellently with the experimental curves over
the whole of wavelength
This success of Planck’s hypothesis in explaining the distribution of energy
in the spectrum of black body was the beginning of quantum mechanics. We now
describe some more important phenomena which are explained by this hypothesis.
Question: Describe the Classical theory of specific heat of solid and what is its
limitation.
The law of Dulong and Petit states that the product of the specific heat capacity of a solid element and
its mass per mole is constant.

The value of the constant may be found from the principle of equipartition of energy.
Let R be the molar gas constant and T the thermodynamic temperature.
The motion of lattice units involving kinetic and potential energies requires an energy equal to RT (per
mole and per degree of freedom).
The molar heat capacity for 3 degrees of freedom is 3R or 25JK−1mol−125JK−1mol−1.

Therefore, the heat capacity of most solid crystalline substances is 3R per mole of substance which is
actually constant.

PHOTO-ELECTRIC EFFECT :
Question: What is photo electric effect?
We now turn from thermal radiation to another portion of the electromagnetic spectrum and consider an
effect which is due to radiation of higher frequency.Liberation of electrons from matter under the
influence of sufficiently high frequency electromagnetic radiation, particularly ultraviolet and X-rays, is
known as the photo electric effect. This phenomenon was discovered in 1887 by Hallwachs when he
observed that zinc irradiated with ultraviolet light lost negative charge. He proposed that somehow
radiation causes zinc to eject negative charge.

The theory of electron conductivity assumes the existence of free electrons within the metals. From this
point of view the phenomenon of photo-electricity itself, that is, liberation of electrons by the electric

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field of light wave, is easily understood. However, quantitative measurements of this effect do not support
this view.

Question: Describe experiment of photo electric effect and mentions its

findings. We describe below an experiment (fig. 2) that brings out a number of conclusions regarding
photo-electric effect.

A glass tube A has a quartz window W and is highly evacuated. A radiation source S supplies ultraviolet
rays that pass through quartz window and fall on the photosensitive surface E. The electrons emitted from
it are collected by C which is made positive with respect to the surface E . The arrangement, for applying
varying potentials to the collector has been shown. The current resulting from the flow of electrons in the
external circuit is measured by a sensitive ammeter A.

(i) Variation of current with intensity of light: We first make C sufficiently positive. The electrons are
liberated as soon as the light is allowed to fall on E. It is found that the rate of electron emission which is
equivalent to current is proportional to light intensity. If we vary the frequency of light the slope of line

changes as shown in Fig. 3 (a).

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(ii) Variation of current with negative potential on C : When C is made negative with respect to E, the
electrons will move in a retarding field. In this way curves of fig. 3 (b) are obtained, using monochromatic
radiation when suitable filter is interposed between source and quartz window. It is observed that the
current decreases rapidly and vanishes at V=-V0. If the intensity of radiation is increased, current increases
correspondingly in the positive region of potentials, but it is again zero when V=-V0. V0 is therefore called
stopping potential for the radiation frequency and material used.

(iii) Variation of stopping potential with frequency : If the experiment is repeated with a series of
different frequencies, the magnitude of stopping potential increases linearly with frequency. This is shown
by sketching stopping potential against frequency. It is apparent from the graph (fig. 4) that below a
certain frequency v0, stopping potentials do not exist. In fact, below this frequency, called the threshold
frequency of the photo-sensitive material, no electrons are emitted irrespective of high intensity of light
employed.

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These experiments lead to following conclusions :

(i) Photo-electric current is proportional to the intensity of light.

Fig:4.Stopping Potentials versus frequency

(ii) Stopping potential, which is related to the kinetic energy of most energetic electron*, is independent
of the intensity of light.

(iii) Stopping potential (or K.E. of most energetic electron) is proportional to the frequency of light above
a certain minimum V0, called the threshold frequency for a particular material. Below this, no emission is
possible.

Question: Drawbacks of classical mechanics to explain the findings of Photo

electric effect.
We shall now interpret these conclusions. The above laws cannot be explained in terms of
electromagnetic theory of light. In fact, the theory suggests that the more intense radiation, having a
stronger electric field, would produce more energetic electrons. Also, the existence of a threshold
frequency is difficult to explain. We might assume that some frequencies are more favourable for ejection
of electrons in a given metal, commensurate with the natural frequencies of vibration of electrons in the
metal. However, this is contradictory to observations.

Elster and Geital detected that there was not appriciable tiime lag (less than 3*10-9 sec.) in the
emission process. The effect was observed in a time of less than 3*10-9 sec. after the light is
incident on material. On the wave theory of light, the energy of wave is distributed equally over
the entire wave-front, whereas the electrons have a very small target area. Calculations show
that in case of sodium the time required for a photo-electron to absorb the energy 1/2 mv2max of
emission would be more than 100 days whereas experimentally the effect is almost
intanteneous.

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Evidently this implies that the explanation of photo-electric effect in terms of classical idea
is not possible.

Questions: Describe how the Einstein's theory of photo-electric effect does

explain the findings of photo electric effect.
It was left to Einstein to propose an entirely different explanation to these questions. He
postulated in 1905 that the radiation was always carried in the form oflight quanta or photons.
According to Einstein, monochromatic light of frequency v consist of photons of energy

E= hv, .......(1)

which move rectilinearly awa from the light source with the velocity of light. When a photon
strikes an atom, it completely gives up its energy to an orbital electron. According to Einstein, a
certain minimum amount of energy W0 is required to release an electron from a metal, so that
when a photon hv strikesan atom, the energy balance of hv - W0 is available for importrting
kinetic energy to an electron, then

hv - W0 = 1/2 mv2max .......(2)

This is known as the Einstein's photo electric equation. We have already seen that the atopping
potential gives a measure of vmax

1/2 mv2max = I e I V0

and in terms of V0 eq. 2 becomes

I e I V0 = hv - W0

V0 = (h/ I e I ) v - W0/I e I .......(3)

wich shows that the stopping potential is a linear function of frequency of the incident radiation.
The threshold frequency vo imparts just enough energy to the electron within the metal to eject
it with zero velocity, so that eq. (2) tells us that

hv - W0 = 0

Wo = hvo .........(4)

or

Wo is called the work function of photo sensitive material. This is the minimum work required to
extract an electron from inside the material . eintein's equation is some time written as

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1/2 mv2max = h(v - vo) .......(5)

We are now in a position to interpret the photo-electric effect. For light frequencies between
zero and threshold frequency , there are no photo-electrons produced, since incident pghotons
have less energy than the work function of the material. above tje threshold frequency , photo
emission takes place and the stopping potential in which measures maximum keinetic energy of
photo-electrons is directly prpportional to frequency of light in accordance with eq. (3). Thislinear
relation is shown in fig. 4. It is evident that the slope of the curve Vo versus frequency is equal to
h/ I e I and the negative intercept on axis of Vo is equal to - W0/I e I .

1.6. The Compton Effect

Question: What is Compton effect?
When a beam of monochromatic X-rays of wavelength λ is scattered by a light element like carbon, it
is observed that the scattered X-rays have maximum intensities at two wavelengths: one of them at the
same wavelength λ and the other at slightly longer wavelength λ‘. This cffect was discovered by A.H.
Compton in 1922 and its explanation was given by him in 1923. For this reason it is called the Compton
effect.

Question: Describe the experiment of Compton effect and mention

its findings.
The experimental arrangement of Compton's apparatus is shown in Fig. 1.10. In the figure, C is a small
graphite block, and T is the molybdenum target of an X-ray tube (not shown in the figure) kept inside
a lead box L. A monochromatic beam of X-rays from the target is made parallel when it passes through
the slits S. When the beam is incident on C, it is scattered in all directions. The beam scattered in the
direction CA emerges from the box L. The angle between the directions of the incident beam and the
scattered beam is the angle of scattering φ (Fig. 1.10). The scattered beam is allowed to fall on the
analyzing crystal B of a Bragg spectrometer. The reflected beam from the crystal B enters the ionization
chamber I. The ionization current produced by the X-ray beam is measured by the micrometer μA. The
angle of incidence at the crystal is varied by rotating the crystal and for each setting of the

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crystal, the ionization current is recorded. This procedure is repeated for different angles of scattering
.
The experimental results obtained by Compton using a graphite block and molybdenum Kα line (λ=
0.707 Å) are shown in Fig. 1.11 for the angles of scattering of 45˚, 90˚, and 135˚.
The results showed that the wavelength separation between the two intensity peaks in the scattered
radiation is given by
𝜆′ − 𝜆 = ∆𝜆 = 0.024(1 − cos 𝜑)Å

Where φ is the angle of scattering.

Question: Why classical mechanics cannot explain Compton effect?

The effect cannot be explained on the basis of the electro-magnetic theory of radiation (electromagnetic
theory is classical theory). According to this theory the electric intensity of an incident radiation of
frequency 𝜐 will cause the atomic electrons of the elements to oscillate with the same frequency. These
oscillating electrons will subsequently radiate elcctro-magnetic waves with the same frequency in
different directions. Thus according to this theory the scattered X-rays should have the same
wavelength as that of the incident X-rays but it is observed that the wave length of the scattered is
altered.

Question: Write down the assumptions of quantum theory (QM) to explain the
Compton Effect.

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To explain the effect

Compton applied
Einstein's quantum theory
of light with the
assumption that the
incident photons possess
momentum. The postu-
lates on which the theory
is based are as follows

(1) A beam of
monochromatic
radiaion of
frequency υ
consists of a
stream of photons,
each of energy hυ,
travelling in the
direction of the
beam with the
speed of light.
Each photon has
energy,
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎʋ =
𝜆

and momentum
ℎ𝜈 ℎ
𝑝= =
𝑐 𝜆
Where h is the Planck’s constant c is the speed of light.

(2) The scattering of X-rays by atoms of an element is the result of elastic collisions between photons
and atomic clectrons. (In an elastic collision, there is conservation of kinetic energy and conservation
of momentum, i.e. in such a collision there is no loss of kinetic energy)
(3) Let a beam of monochromatic X-rays of frequency υ and of wavelength λ be incident on a target
O which is an element of low atomic number such as a graphite block. Suppose an incident photon
makes a perfectly elastic collision with an electron initially at rest.

Question: ( No need to take preparation for derivation at this stage)

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Suppose the photon is scattered through an angle φ and the electron moves in a direction θ (Fig. 1.12).
Let υ' be the frequency of the scattered photon, P the momentum of the recoil electron and m ˳ its rest
mass. We now have:
the energy of the incident photon =hʋ', and its momentum = hυ/c,

h′
The energy of scattered photon = h′ , and it’s momentum =
𝑐

The energy of electron at rest = 𝑚0 c 2, and it’s momentum = 0,

And the total relativistic energy of the electron having momentum p after the collision
1
= (𝑝2 c 2 + 𝑚0 2 c 4 )2

From the principle of conservation of energy, we have

total final energy = total initial energy

1
h′ + (𝑝2 c 2 + 𝑚0 2 c 4 )2 = h + 𝑚0 c 2
1
(𝑝2 c 2 + 𝑚0 2 c 4 )2 = h( - ′ ) + 𝑚0 c 2

Squaring this equation, we get

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𝑝2 c 2 + 𝑚0 2 c 4 = ℎ2 ( − ′ )2 + 2h( − ′ )𝑚0 c 2 + 𝑚0 2 c 4
𝑝 2 c2 𝑚0 c2
𝑜𝑟, ℎ2
= ( − ′ )2 + 2ℎ
( − ′ )

Momentum is a vector quantity and in collision between two bodies it is conserved in each of two mutually
perpendicular directions. In the present case resolving the momenta along and at right angles to the
direction of the incident photon, we get
h′ h
p cos + 𝑐
cos = 𝑐
𝑝𝑐
or, cos =  − ′ cos
ℎ

and (ii) in the direction at right angles to the direction of the incident photon
h′
psin = sin
𝑐
𝑝𝑐
ℎ
sin = ′ sin

To climinate , we square Eqs (2) and (3) and then add them. This gives
𝑝2 𝑐 2
ℎ2
= ( − ′ cos)2 + ′2 sin2 

= 2 - 2′ cos + ′2 cos2  + ′2 sin2 

= 2 - 2′ cos + ′2

= ( − ′ )2 + 2′ (1 − cos)

The left hand side of eqs (1) and (4) are the same, therefore, equating their right hand sides, we get
2𝑚0 c2
ℎ
( − ′ ) = 2′ (1 − cos)

−′ ℎ
= (1 − cos)
′ 𝑚0 c2

1 1 ℎ
′
−=𝑚 2 (1 − cos)
0c

To express this equation in terms of the wavelength 

𝑐 𝑐
′ = and  =
′ 

Where c is the speed of light in space

′  ℎ
𝑐
-𝑐=𝑚 2 (1 − cos)
0c

ℎ
′ -  =  = 𝑚 c (1 − cos)
0

2ℎ 
 = 𝑚 c sin2 2
0

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Eq. 6 or 7 is the expression for the Compton shift in the wavelength of the X-rays, scattered by electrons
in a light element. The numariacal value of the quantity is
ℎ 6.626  10−34
𝑚0 c
= 9.11  10−31  2.998  108 = 0.2426  10−11m = 0.02426 A

 = 0.02426(1 − cos) A

Thus, the theoretical expression derived by Compton is in excellent agreement with his experimental
results.
ℎ
The quantity 𝑚 c is called the Compton wavelength of the electron and is denoted by 𝑒 . Thus
0

ℎ
𝑒 = = 0.02426 A
𝑚0 c

The energy of a photon which has this wavelength is

ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
E = = h =  = ℎ = 𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝑒
𝑚0 𝑐

Thus, the Compton wavelength of the electron is the wavelength of radiation whose photon has energy
equal to the rest energy 𝑚0 𝑐 2 of the scattering electron.

2𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
𝐸 = ℎʋ
(1 + 𝛼)2 − 𝛼 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
The experimental values of E of recoil electrons determined by Compton and Simon in 1927 and by Bless
in 1927 agreed well with the theoretical values.

Question: Write down theoretical expression derived by Compton and

mentions the leading conclusions.
 = 0.02426(1 − cos) A

Add the conclusions from the SP Singh books.

The study of the Compton effect leads to the conclusion that radiant energy in its interaction with the
matter behaves as a stream of discrete particles (photons) each of energy hv and momentum hv/c. In
other words, radiant energy is quantized. Therefore, the Compton-effect is considered as a decisive
phenomenon in support of quantization of energy.

1.7. Quantum States Of Energy

The idea that all matter is made up of atoms was proposed in 1803 by John Dalton and this atomic theory
of matter was firmly established during the nineteenth century. But the structure of atoms remained
unknown. Without any knowledge about the atomic structure it was impossible to apply Plank's quantum
theory to atomic phenomena such as the emission of spectra. Therefore, their origin remained
unexplained for a long time. The first attempt for correct explanation of the structure of the atoms was
made by Lord Rutherford in 1911 when he proposed the nuclear model of the atom on the basis of the

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scattering of alpha-particles from metallic foils. However Classical mechanics failed to explain the stability
of the atom on the basis of such a model. The first step in introducing the concept of quantum states of
energy was made by Niels Bohr in 1913. In order to explain the origin of the optical spectrum of hydrogen
and the stability of the atom he adopted the Rutherford model and applied Plank's quantum theory to it.
In his theory of the hydrogen atom, he made the following the three assumptions:

(1) The electron in the hydrogen atom revolves around the nucleus only in certain allowed circular
orbits. From these orbits no electromagnetic radiation is emitted in spite of the accelerated motion of the
electron. Corresponding to these orbits the atom is said to be in discrete stationary states of energy or
discrete energy level. These energy states are known as quantum states of energy of the atom.

(2) The angular momentum of the electron in motion are allowed circular orbits round the nucleus
of the hydrogen atom is an integral multiple of h/2π, i.e. the angular momentum = nh/2π, where
n=0,1,2,3,4....N

(3)When a quantum state of higher energy En2 changes to another quantum state of lower energy En1
the frequency ν of the radiation emitted by the atom is given by...
𝑬𝒏𝟐 −𝑬𝒏𝟏
ʋ= 𝒉

Based on these assumptions Bohr's theory explains quite successfully the spectrum of hydrogen and
hydrogen-like ions such as singly ionised helium and doubly ionised Lithium. But the theory does not
explain the experimental fact that each line of the spectrum of the hydrogen atom extends over a finite
wave-length range, consisting of a small number of lines close together, in order to explain this fine
structure of the spectral lines W. Wilson in 1915 and A. Sommerfeld in 1916 considered the motion of an
electron in an elliptical orbit round the nucleus, and they independently stated a general quantisation rule
in the case of an allowed elliptical orbit.

Conclusions: What are old quantum theories? Write down the Drawbacks of
the Old Quantum Theory.
Planck's quantum hypothesis with its application and extension to explain the black body radiation, the
photo-electric effect, the Compton effect, the variation of specific heat of solids with temperature and
the spectrum of hydrogen is now called the Old Quantum Theory. Though these phenomena are
successfully explained by the theory, there are numerous drawbacks of the theory. A few of them are as
follows:

1. Bohr's quantization rules are arbitrary. The theory does not provide physical explanation for the
assuniptions.

2. The old quantum theory cannot be applied to explain the spectra of helium and of more complex atoms.

3. lt can provide only a qualitative and incomplete explanation of the intensities of the spectral lines.

4. It cannot explain the dispersion of light.

5. The theory cannot be applied to explain non-harmonic vibrations of systems.

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1.9. Dual Character of Light

We know that interference and diffraction of light are produced by the super- position of beams of light.
Thus, these phenomena are the result of interaction of light with light. From experimental observations
on interference, diffraction and some other phenomena such as reflection, refraction and polarisation
and their interpretations it is concluded that light is a transverse wave motion. Therefore these
phenomena are completely explained by the wave theory and the electromagentic theory of radiation.

However, there is another class of phenomena: black body radiation, the photo-electric effect and the
Compton effect which are produced by interaction of radiation with matter, and these cannot be
explained by the wave theory or the electromagnetic theory of radiation. We have seen that in order to
explain these phenomena, radiant energy is considered as a stream of small packets of energy. These
packets of energy are known as light quanta or photons. The amount of energy assigned to each photon
is given by

E=hʋ

In interaction of radiant energy with matter, any one of the photons can transfer all its energy to an
electron of the matter.

"The frequency υ is determined from the measurement of the wavelength λ of radiation, using the
equation

υ=c/λ

The frequency or wavelength is a concept relevant to a wave, and quantum having the isolated energy
hʋ is the concept of a particle. Therefore, we conclude that radiation possesses dual character, and it
never exhibits both characteristics in any one experiments.

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