Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 54e69

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Review article

Seismic stratigraphy and hydrocarbon prospectivity of the Lower

Cretaceous Knurr Sandstone lobes along the southern margin of Loppa
High, Hammerfest Basin, Barents Sea
Nauman Sattar a, *, Christopher Juhlin a, Hemin Koyi a, Nadeem Ahmad b
a
Dept. of Earth Sciences, Geocentrum, Uppsala University, Sweden
b
United Energy Pakistan (previously BP Pakistan), Karachi, Pakistan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Lower Cretaceous Knurr Sandstone deposited along the southern slope of Loppa High and overlain
Received 19 June 2016 by the Kolje and Kolmule seals forms an attractive play in the Hammerfest Basin of the Barents Sea. Late
Received in revised form Jurassic organic-rich Hekkingen shale directly underlies the Knurr Sandstone and acts as a source to
12 April 2017
provide effective charge. Three wells, 7120/2-2, 7122/2-1 and 7120/1-2, have proven the Knurr-Kolje play
Accepted 14 April 2017
Available online 15 April 2017
in structural traps, with an oil discovery in 7120/1-2. Prospectivity related to stratigraphic traps is,
however, highly under-explored.
In order to document and map the reservoir distribution and stratigraphic-trap fairway, the Lower
Keywords:
Barents sea
Cretaceous sedimentary package containing the Knurr Sandstone is divided into a number of deposi-
Knurr sandstone tional sequences and systems tracts using key regional seismic profiles calibrated with logs. Mapping of
Seismic stratigraphy the key surfaces bounding the Knurr sandstone has been carried out using all the seismic vintages
Turbidite lobes available from Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD).The thick massive nature of the sandstone (123 m
Hammerfest basin in well 7122/2-1), sedimentary features characteristic of gravity flow deposits, high-resolution internal
seismic reflections and stratal geometries (truncations and lapout patterns), and sequence stratigraphic
position of the Knurr Sandstone on seismic profiles confirm that the lobes identified on the seismic
section are gravity driven base of the slope lobes. These Knurr lobes and slope aprons were formed as a
result of uplift of the Loppa paleo-high in the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous times which caused
subaerial exposure and incision. The characteristic mounded, lobate geometry evident on the seismic can
be mapped along the toe-of-slope and records multiple stacked lobes fed by multiple feeder canyons.
Lateral partitioning and separation of the lobes along the toe-of-slope could potentially create strati-
graphic traps. The existing 2D seismic coverage is, however, not sufficient to capture lateral stratigraphic
heterogeneity to identify stratigraphic traps. 3D seismic coverage with optimum acquisition parameters
(high spatial and vertical resolution, appropriate seismic frequency and fold, long offsets and original
amplitudes preserved) can allow for the reconstruction of 3D geomorphologic elements to de-risk po-
tential stratigraphic traps prior to exploratory drilling.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.1. Regional setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.2. Knurr play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2. Exploration history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3. Dataset and interpretation strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4. Seismic stratigraphic interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5. Chronostratigraphy and sequence stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

* Corresponding author. Dept. of Earth Sciences, Geocentrum, Uppsala University, Sweden. Tel.: þ47 99086946.
E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Sattar).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2017.04.008
0264-8172/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 N. Sattar et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 54e69 55

5.1. Sequence stratigraphy of Knurr system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

6. Reconstruction of geomorphic elements and depositional model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.1. Seismic facies and internal character of the Knurr Sandstone lobes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.2. Canyons and feeder systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.3. Controls of canyons and lobe systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7. Model for Knurr depositional system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8. Hydrocarbon potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
9. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

1. Introduction attempt to document a high-resolution stratigraphic framework

and architecture of the Lower Cretaceous depositional sequences
Turbidite reservoir sands were deposited in a number of set- and the controls on sandstone deposition. The high-resolution
tings, which includes; channels, levee-overbank, and as sheet sands sequence stratigraphic framework has helped us delineate the
and/or lobes (Sangree et al., 1988; Mitchum et al., 1990; Armentrout sandstone bodies, geometry and their stratigraphic relationship
et al., 1991). Turbidite lobes are spatially localized accumulations of with the underlying, overlying and laterally contemporaneous
sandy turbidites found at the downstream end-of-slope channels shale/mudstone. An attempt has also been made to address the
(Mutti et al., 1987; Mutti and Normark, 1991). Mounded lobe facies geological uncertainties related to the presence of reservoir, seal
are sand and gravel rich and consist of amalgamated coarse-grained and entrapment and set future exploration directions in the Knurr-
turbidites. Mounded-lobe sand bodies range from a few meters to Kolje play fairway.
many tens of meters in thickness and typically are up to a few ki-
lometers in width (Galloway, 1998). The lobe areas on modern 1.1. Regional setting
systems lie immediately downslope from the main channel. In
ancient systems, sandstone lobes are represented by roughly The Barents Shelf is a large epicontinental platform within the
tabular, nonchannelized bodies that have individual thicknesses Arctic Circle. Water depths within the area are generally greater
generally of 3e15 m (Mutti and Normark, 1987, 1991). A number of than 200 m, in some parts reaching 500 m. The Barents Shelf is
studies on turbidites and depositional lobes have been conducted bounded on all sides by distinct physiographic elements, to the
(Shanmugam and Moiola, 1991; Richards and Bowman, 1998; south by the Fennoscandian Shield and to the north by the Arctic
Shanmugam, 2000; Satur et al., 2000; Ito, 2008; Mulder, 2011). Ocean. To the west, it is bounded by the present-day passive
Recent works show that lobes are sedimentary bodies that form Atlantic continental margin and to the east by the Urals fold belt
high reflectivity patches on acoustic-reflectivity maps (Mulder, (Novaya Zemlya). Physiographic and tectonic features of the
2011). A comparison of submarine lobes variability from six Barents Sea have been described by many (Rønnevik et al., 1984,
different systems was done to compare lobe dimensions, lobe 1984; Faleide et al., 1984; Riis et al., 1986; Gabrielsen et al., 1990).
volumes and morphologies. (Pre
lat et al., 2010). Gervais et al. Loppa High forms the northern limit of the Hammerfest Basin
(2006b) has described the internal geometry and architecture of (Fig. 1). This High developed during the Late Mesozoic rifting, with
sandy modern turbidite lobe using high resolution, seismic profiles the Asterias Fault Complex forming its southern bounding fault
and multibeam echo sounder data of the sandy Golo turbidite (Do
re and Lundin, 1996). Thick sedimentary succession was
system, located on the eastern margin of Corsica. Along the sour- deposited in the Jurassic and early Cretaceous times (Faleide et al.,
thern Loppa High Margin, the Knurr Formation, which is the focus 1993). Regional seismic profiles presented in the present work
of this study, is deposited in the form of turbidite system. A number show that the High was exposed to subaerial conditions with
of well-developed turbidite sandstone lobes can be recognized on erosion throughout the Cretaceous. A large part of the Jurassic and
the seismic and well logs. early Cretaceous was eroded from the High and re-deposited on the
Over the last decade, the Barents Sea has received an extraor- slope and toe-of-slope towards the Hammerfest Basin. Subsequent
dinary amount of attention from explorationists from around the sea-level rise and continued sedimentation in the Cretaceous
world due to the unique business and exploration model that the deposited thick aggradational-to-progradational sequences in the
Norwegian Petroleum Directorate has created (NPD official web- Hammerfest Basin.
site). Out of the seven play types outlined in the NPD FactPages, the
Lower Cretaceous Knurr e Kolje Play offers interesting exploration 1.2. Knurr play
opportunities in the northern Hammerfest Basin along the south-
ern margin of Loppa High (Fig. 1). The play comprises the Knurr The deeper plays in the region are thought to be within the
Sandstone and thick overlying shale and marls of the Kolje For- Permian and Carboniferous of the Finmark Platform and Loppa
mation. Direct access to the underlying, proven mature source rock High (Norwegian Petroleum Directorate Plays, 2014). Traditionally,
of the Hekkingen Formation, possibilities of stratigraphic traps and hydrocarbon exploration has focused on the petroleum systems of
shallow drilling depth make this play both prospective and the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The reservoir in the Knurr-Kolje play is
attractive. However, the architecture and lateral heterogeneity of provided by the Lower Cretaceous Knurr Sandstone that was
the Knurr sandstone bodies and their lateral seal elements have not deposited as a lowstand systems tract on the slope and toe-of-slope
been documented or fully understood within a sequence strati- of the Cretaceous paleo-high (Sattar, 2008) (Fig. 2). The sandstone
graphic framework. Key sequence stratigraphic surfaces and possesses proven reservoir quality with porosity of 12e16% and
distinct reservoir-seal packages within this stratigraphic frame- average horizontal permeability 636 mD in well 7122/2-1 (NPD
work can be identified and mapped by integrating data from cores, Factpages, 2016). The reservoir directly overlies the regionally
mud logs, wireline logs and seismic reflection data. This paper is an extensive organic-rich source rock, the Hekkingen Shale,
56 N. Sattar et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 54e69

Fig. 1. Map showing the southwestern Barents Shelf around the Loppa High and key tectonic elements (after NPD online FactMaps). Also shown are the wells and key seismic
re et al., 2008).
profiles used for the current study (small map modified from Barre

containing Type-II kerogen, Total Organic Carbon (TOC) 2e13%, and project) in the Jurassic play in 2011 and 2012 respectively. Opti-
a Hydrogen Index in the range of 200e300 mgHC/g (Exploration mism has further strengthened with the discoveries of “Wisting”
well: 7122/2-1, The NPD Factpages, 2016). The source rock is mature (7324/8-1), “Gohta” 7120/1-3 and “Alta” 7220/11-1 in 2013 and
for oil generation and is proven in nearby fields such as Snøhvit 2014. However, exploration potential of the Knurr-Kolje play is still
(Fig. 1). The overlying Kolje and Kolmule formations comprise shale under-explored with a commercial discovery yet to be made
and marl which provide a regionally extensive top seal (Figs. 2 and (Table 2).
3).

3. Dataset and interpretation strategy

2. Exploration history
The data for this study consist of conventional multichannel
Seismic surveys in the Barents Sea started in the 1970's. The seismic reflection profiles and wireline logs (Fig. 1). 2D regional
southwestern Barents Sea was opened for exploration in 1979. The seismic data were provided by the Norwegian Petroleum Direc-
first exploration well was drilled in 1980 and the first discovery torate (NPD) for research at Uppsala University, Sweden (Table 1).
followed in 1981. To date 120 exploration wells have been drilled, of In addition to the seismic sections, eight in-line and offset wells
which about 100 are wildcats (Sissel Eriksen, Exploration Revived, were also selected to tie with the seismic and for regional strati-
2015). Optimism was high in the early 1980s, when several gas graphic correlation (Table 2).
discoveries were made. After 1986, the wells were either dry or Although seismic coverage is sufficient for regional studies in
made only minor discoveries. During the 1990s, the most of the the northern Hammerfest Basin, data quality is an issue. Many of
activities were concentrated in the Hammerfest Basin which hosts the old surveys have low frequency content with significant noise
the Snøhvit, Askeladd and Albatross fields. One oil well 7128/6-1 in the form of multiples (Surveys NPD-TR-82, NH8306). We have
drilled by Conoco in the East Finnmark region in 1991 encountered chosen seismic lines from the surveys LHSG-89, FWGS-84, NPD-TR-
oil shows in the Permian carbonates. The Goliat structure was 82 to conduct seismic stratigraphic interpretation because of their
drilled in 2001 by 7122/7-2 showing a 76 m thick oil column in the better frequency and signal-to-noise ratio. These surveys cover part
Jurassic and Triassic reservoirs (Seldal, 2005). Rejuvenation of of the southern Loppa High and the seismic reflection geometries
exploration efforts occurred in Barents Sea after successful hydro- and terminations allow the identification of a number of deposi-
carbon finds within Skrugard (7220/8-1) and Havis (7220/7-1) tional sequences and system tracts. Key bounding surfaces and
structures (now become part of Johan Castberg Field development sequences have been picked and correlated across the seismic
 N. Sattar et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 54e69 57

Fig. 2. Play schematics of the Knurr play at the toe- and base-of-slope of the Loppa High towards the Northern Hammerfest Basin. Interpretation is based on a seismic section
shown in Fig. 5b. HST: highstand systems tract, LST: lowstand systems tract, mfs: maximum flooding surface, fs: flooding surface, SB: sequence boundary, HST: highstand systems
tract, TS: transgressive surface.

Fig. 3. Late Jurassic to Neogene stratigraphy of the Hammerfest Basin and key surfaces, where BTU: Base Tertiary Unconformity, SB: Sequence Boundary, fs: Flooding Surface
(modified after Worsley et al., 1988).
58 N. Sattar et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 54e69

Table 1
Seismic vintages used for seismic stratigraphic interpretation in the study.

Survey Name CDP Fold Survey Type Record Length (S) Data Type Source Type

FWGS-84 24 2D Regional 7 MIG-FIN Airgun

NH8306 52 2D Regional 6 MIG-RAW Airgun
NPD-TR-82 26 2D Regional 6e7 MIG-RAW Airgun
LHSG-89 24e48 2D Regional 6 MIG-FIN Aigun
SH-8601 24 2D Detail 7 MIG-FIN Airgun

Table 2
Summary of the exploration wells in the study area. Source: NPD FactPages (2016).

Well ID TD SS, m TD Formation Age at TD Findings Reservoir Source Rock

7120/1-2 2630 Fruholmen Formation Triassic Oil Lower Cretaceous Late Jurassic
Hekkingen Fm.
7120/2-1 3502 Basement Unknown Oil shows Permian Karstified Limestone U. Devonian-Lower Carboniferous shale, Triassic shale
7120/2-2 2794 Stø Formation Middle Jurassic Oil shows Knurr Fm. Hekkingen. TOC (3e12%)
Stø Fm.
7121/1-1 5000 Ørn Formation Carbonife- rous Gas shows Permian mounded carbonates Triassic & Devonian e Carboniferous shales
7122/2-1 2120 Stø Formation Middle Jurassic dry Knurr (636 mD), Stø Fm. Hekkingen, TOC þ2%. Kolje Fm TOC
þ3%
7122/4-1 3015 Snadd Fm. Triassic Shows Sto Fm., Hekkingen Fm,
Nordmela Fm
7122/6-1 2707 Snadd Formation Middle Jurassic Gas/Condensate Stø Fm., Snadd Fm. Hekkingen, TOC (10e15%),
Nordmela,Tubåen formations
7122/7-2 1418 Snadd Formation Triassic Oil Kapp Toscana Hekkingen Fm.
Stein Kobbe

vintage in order to map their geometry and extent throughout the (Fig. 5d). The basin's paleo-physiography has been delineated in
study area. terms of incised valleys on the Loppa High and the implications for
Seismic polarity is identified using synthetic seismograms and the Early Cretaceous Knurr depositional system are discussed.
by analyzing the sea floor reflection; for survey LHSG-89 (Table 1) Furthermore, a comparison is made between an undrilled inter-
(Fig. 4), the sea floor is increase in acoustic impedance (i.e. positive preted turbidite lobe and its drilled analog (Well 7122/2-1) in order
amplitude is given by black on grey scale and red in colour scale to demonstrate the conceptual framework of reservoir distribution,
while negative amplitude in blue). Seismic polarity is close to zero- trapping mechanism and potential seal failure.
phase and is interpreted as normal polarity following the Society of
Exploration Geophysicists (SEG) polarity convention. Frequency at 4. Seismic stratigraphic interpretation
the target level is 25e40 Hz with the resolution limit down to a
stratal thickness of around 40 m at Base Cretaceous Unconformity On regional seismic lines, the Hekkingen Shale is characterized
(BCU) level. Multiples mostly relate to the sea floor as evident on by relatively weak amplitude but more or less parallel reflections.
some lines at the shallower levels. At places, the multiples seem to On lower frequency seismic vintages, a strongly layered seismic
interfere with the seismic reflectors and occasionally deteriorate character is evident. This seismic unit is present all along the toe-
the seismic reflection geometries at the target level, making the of-slope of the Loppa High and exhibits a subtle roll-over (struc-
seismic stratigraphic interpretation cumbersome (Fig. 5a). tural bend) at the toe-of-slope. The unit is successively down-
Regionally extensive major through-going surfaces have been thrown towards the south through a series of steep south-
marked on the seismic sections (Fig. 5b, c). Faults have been iden- dipping faults comprising the Asterias Fault system (Fig. 1). The
tified and two-way-time (TWT) grids were prepared for structural erosional truncation of this unit is evident on the upper slope of the
interpretation. Loppa High where the younger Kolmule reflectors directly overlie
Key seismic characteristics used for the seismic stratigraphic the Triassic Loppa High (Fig. 5b).
analysis include amplitude strength and continuity, reflection ge- The top of the Hekkingen is characterized by a strong contin-
ometries (e.g., sigmoidal, oblique, mounded, etc.), and stratal uous reflector, appearing as a ‘peak over trough’. On the synthetic
termination patterns such as onlap, downlap, toplap, truncation seismogram, this reflector correlates with the base of Knurr Sand-
etc. Reflection configuration and geometry are used to reveal gross stone (Fig. 4). The overlying seismic interval is characterized by
stratification patterns from which depositional processes, erosion weak and chaotic reflections, in places semi-transparent. This semi-
and paleo-topography has been interpreted. Geological character- transparent part is lens-to mound-shaped and bounded laterally by
ization of the seismic reflection geometries has been done based on bright reflectors forming a pinch-out. While in some lines the body
the lithology of the corresponding borehole intervals using well has chaotic internal reflections, subtle sigmoidal reflection geom-
cuttings, wireline logs and log motifs. Key stratigraphic surfaces etries and a lateral nesting character also exist, suggesting pro-
such as sequence boundaries (SB), flooding surfaces (fs), and gradational deposition at the toe-of-slope. Onlapping reflections
maximum flooding surfaces (mfs) have been marked and stratal gradually back-step northwards against the lower slope. The
stacking patterns such as progradational, aggradational and retro- overlying reflector correlates with the base of Kolje Formation. The
gradational have been inferred to divide the entire Knurr - Lower chaotic to weak reflectors lap out against the sub-horizontal re-
Kolje succession into a number of depositional system tracts, rep- flectors of the near-top Knurr and further northward as the lower
resenting varying phases of accommodation. A chronostratigraphic slope of the Loppa High is approached. The Kolje reflectors suc-
chart was constructed to document the spatial and temporal re- cessively onlap northwards to finally overstep the top Knurr
lationships of these depositional systems and systems tracts reflector. These Kolje reflectors onlap against the top of the
 N. Sattar et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 54e69 59

Fig. 4. Well 7122/2-1 projected on the seismic section. Seismic response calibrated with the synthetic seismogram. Prominent seismic reflectors are marked over the seismic
section. See Fig. 1 for location of the line.

Fig. 5. A Un-interpreted type section LHSG-89-429 along the slope of Loppa High. See Fig. 1 for location of the line. b Interpreted version of Fig. 5a. Reflection termination patterns
(onlap, downlap, toplap and erosional truncations) have been picked and prominent surfaces are marked (SB, TS, MFS). Based on reflection geometry the Cretaceous succession is
subdivided into three depositional sequences (S1, S2, S3) and further into system tracts. c Schematic diagram showing a number of system tracts (LST, TST, HST) and prominent
through-going surfaces (MFS, SB, FS). See Fig. 1 for location of the line. d. Chronostratigraphic representation of seismic profile in Fig. 5b showing the distribution of different system
tracts and their spatial arrangement. Proximal direction is northward. See Fig. 5b for abbreviations.

Hekkingen Shale at the south dipping lower slope of the Loppa sedimentary wedge thickens west and southwestwards (Fig. 5b).
High. These stratal patterns suggest syndepositional subsidence along
Laterally along the toe-of-slope towards the west, the near top the Loppa High's toe-of-slope to induce a subtle northward tilt.
Knurr reflector develops a gentle northward dip and the Based on the seismic reflection geometries, the strata's inter-
60 N. Sattar et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 54e69

relationships and their termination patterns, a hierarchy of strati- slope of the Loppa High. A prominent through going surface is
graphic surfaces and sequences can be defined. (Mitchum et al., recognized as maximum flooding surface (MFS), throughout
1977c) A N e S oriented line (Fig. 5a to c) shows a number of sys- downlaps are evident on this surface. Overlying MFS clinoform
tem tracts recognized on the basis of bounding surfaces and in- package is progradational in nature, building outward and towards
ternal stratigraphic patterns. This interpreted seismic profile is the Hammerfest Basin. Over the MFS strong amplitude reflections
used as type section. Three third order sequences can be identified along the toe of clinoforms, in the distal part can be traced. Within
and are described below. sequence S2 MFS separates aggradational sedimentation along the
Seismic Sequence S1 has a sequence boundary (SB) at its base, margin to basinward progradational package (HST). In the proximal
the contact between the transgressive black shale of the Hekkingen part HST package is onlapping with the Loppa High Margin and in
Formation and the Knurr Sandstone turbidites. The lower SB has the distal part basinward downlapping over the MFS.
been recognized on the basis of truncation of the older seismic The section overlying the SB2 is interpreted as a lowstand sys-
reflectors as a result of erosion at the margin and slope of Loppa tem tract (LST) filling in the accommodation space. A downward
High in a proximal position and a downward shift in coastal onlap shift in coastal onlap is indicative of relative sea-level fall or still-
against the slope. The upper surface of the Knurr Formation is stand during the Early Aptian (Vail et al., 1977). Overlying the LST, a
scoured and a cut-and-fill geometry is evident on the seismic progradational clinoform package built outward and upward to-
profiles (Fig. 5b), indicative of a potential shale plug. The overlying ward the basin and is recognized as a high stand system tract (HST).
Kolje Formation shale above Top Knurr Formation represents This has been recognized by constant downlaps over MFS when
condensed sedimentation during a short pulse of sediment star- subsiding margin becomes more stable overlying syn-tectonic
vation during which deep marine pelagic muds were deposited sediments below MFS. This MFS also indicates a change in depo-
indicated by high Gamma ray log values (Fig. 5aec, 6). sitional trend from simple aggradationl accommodation filling to
Stratal relationships and well logs suggest that these sediments progradationl clinoform package. When possibly movement along
were eroded from the previous possible highstand (Jurassic top- the Asterias Fault Complex was decreased. Strong amplitude re-
sets) and deposited in the form of basin floor fans/lobes during flections along the toe of the clinoforms are interpreted as sedi-
relative sea-level fall in Early Cretaceous times (Fig. 5b). Subse- ments reworked during transgressive ravinement erosion i.e.
quently, Barremian Kolje sediments were deposited as a lowstand “healing phase” transgressive deposits (Posamentier and Allen,
wedge above the Valaniginian/Hauterivian Knurr Sandstone lobes, 1993).
filling in the Early Cretaceous accommodation space. The older Seismic sequence S3 is bounded at its base by a SB3, which is
lobes and the subsequent late lowstand wedge (LSW) together are recognized by subtle incision features at the proximal, northern
interpreted as Lowstand Systems Tracts (LST). Overlying this LST is side of the basin (Fig. 5a to c). A seismic reflection pattern is
the High Stands System Tract, bounded at its top by SB2. Trans- onlapping over the SB3 in a proximal setting and a downward shift
gressive Systems Tract (TST) is too thin to resolve on the seismic in onlaps can be traced. Over the slope distinct high-angle pro-
section. gradational clinoform wedges can be traced, downlapping on the
The early Aptian seismic sequence S2 (Fig. 5a to c) is bounded at SB3. Though the data resolution is poor and multiples are evident, a
its base by a sequence boundary described above. Overlying this through going surface within the sequence is recognized as MFS. In
SB2 onlap fill seismic facies are recognized onlapping against the the distal part it is difficult to trace due to seismic data quality.

Fig. 6. Seismic profile LHSG-89-242 showing a turbidite lobe calibrated with a gamma log. The well 7122/2-1 encountered a thick massive turbidite sandstone wedge overlying high
gamma ray Hekkingen formation shales. The gamma log showing a well-developed blocky log motif (low gamma-ray readings) within the Knurr Sandstone. Above the lobe facies, a
flooding event is marked by a high gamma response and a second coarsening up sequence is marked with a flooding surface at Top Kolje level. See Fig. 1 for location of the line and
Fig. 5b for abbreviations.
 N. Sattar et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 54e69 61

Seismic facies within sequence S3 is transparent in the proximal plotted in order of age, with an equal time increment given to each
shelf area and in the distal part oblique hummocky clinoform reflection. The chronostratigraphic chart which was prepared on
package that grade into semi-transparent chaotic sub-parallel the basis of seismic stratigraphic interpretation shows the spatial
seismic configuration. distribution of a number of depositional elements, i.e., zones of
The downlapping seismic reflection geometry represents a progradation, erosion, non-deposition and condensation (Fig. 5d).
lowstand system tract (LST) lying above the S2 shelf, shelf margin The chronostratigraphic chart has been constructed following the
and slope wedges. The bundle of reflectors above the MFS is procedure described in Mitchum et al. (1977a, b) and Haq et al.
interpreted as a HST. The top of S3 is interpreted as a thin sedi- (1988). The chronostratigraphic chart shows a major unconfor-
mentary bypass zone and marks the Base Tertiary unconformity mity at Base Cretaceous (BCU) level. When throughout most of
(BTU), picked as a sequence boundary. Sediments of mid- and late Cretaceous times both the Finmark Platform Area and the Loppa
Paleocene age are separated from late Cretaceous (Cenomanian to High were topographic highs, uplifted and eroded due to several
Campanian) sediments by a hiatus, which is represented by a reactivations along the main fault zones. Cretaceous sediments are
regional seismic reflector referred to as the base Tertiary. In the present as coastal onlap sequences onlapping and filling-in
Hammerfest Basin, mid/late Paleocene to early Eocene sediments erosional valley cuts into Triassic sequences (Berglund et al.,
overlie the base Tertiary unconformity (Knutsen and Vorren, 1991). 1986). The maximum flooding surface as indicated by the
maximum landward onlap and subsequent downlaps on to it
separate the mud-prone transgressive system from the overlying
5. Chronostratigraphy and sequence stratigraphy silty and marly highstand systems tract, both conducive for a
regional prime top seal (Fig. 5b).
Representation of a stratigraphic unit in a space-time frame-
work is a fundamental step in sequence stratigraphy, which is
evolving (from 2D to 4D) with the progression of automated solu- 5.1. Sequence stratigraphy of Knurr system
tions (Qayyum et al., 2015). Interpretation of chronostratigraphic
charts requires identification of systems tracts, and recognition of Definition of stratal packages at higher resolution and docu-
sequence stratigraphic significant surfaces that serve as systems mentation of their internal architecture have been attempted
tracts boundaries. The interpretation of systems tracts is based on through an integration of well log signatures with the seismic
the observation of stratal stacking patterns, which are defined by section at the location of Well 7122/2-1 (Fig. 6). Based on the
combinations of depositional trends such as progradation, retro- gamma ray log across Valinginian-Barremian units (over top Hik-
gradation and transgression. (Emery and Myres, 1996; Saller et al., kingen Formation within S1 sequence), two high-frequency flood-
2004; Catuneanu et al., 2009, 2011; Mansurbeg et al., 2013; Phelps, ing surfaces and coarsening up (motifs shown by arrows) can be
2015). A chronostratigraphic chart was constructed for the area delineated (Figs. 6 and 7). A blocky gamma ray log motif with sharp
with a vertical time axis (Fig. 5). The seismic reflections have been contacts is indicative of massive turbidite basin-floor lobe facies.

Fig. 7. Well 7122/2-1 composite log shows gamma ray, density, neutron porosity and resistivity logs for the Lower Cretaceous interval. The Knurr sandstone gives a classical blocky
log motif overlying the Hekkingen transgressive shales and encased from above by the Kolje Formation. Core photograph shows fine to coarse grained turbidite sequences and
debrite intervals within the succession.
62 N. Sattar et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 54e69

Overlying the upper sharp boundry are hemipelagic shale or position are proximal to toe-of-slope of the Loppa High. Towards
channel/overbank apron facies, indicated by high gamma ray the west, the lobes become massive, more mounded and internally
response (Vail, 1988; Vail and Wornardt, 1991). Immediately below characterless to chaotic hummocky, lying as more detached wedges
the SB1 the Hekkingen organic-rich shale is present, where high over the SB1. A lobe in Fig. 8 shows synsedimentary synthetic and
gamma ray readings match with Late Jurassic transgressive event. antithetic faults that possibly controls its geometry at a local scale
Within S1 the Kolje TST and HST packages shows a slight coars- and could potentially compartmentalize reservoir. The lobe drilled
ening upward trend that is indicative of an interbedded sandstone by the Hydro well 7122/2-1 encountered massive, good reservoir-
and siltstone succession (Figs. 6 and 7). Core photographs of the quality turbidite sandstone (Knurr Sandstone), but wholly water
Knurr sequence indicates gravity flow sediments which range from bearing (Fig. 6). These turbidites have been transported during
fine grained turbidites to high density coarse grained sandstones Early Cretaceous times through the updip Loppa Canyons System
with clasts possibly indicative of debrites (Fig. 7). (Fig. 13). Significant width and depth of canyons is indicative that
possibly these canyons act as a point source feeder system for in-
6. Reconstruction of geomorphic elements and depositional dividual lobes.
model
6.2. Canyons and feeder systems
Seismic facies analysis has allowed us to recognize different
features which are helpful to interpret the depositional Incised valleys and depositional structures have been discussed
environment. by a number of authors (Talling, 1998; Ito et al., 2014; Shepard,
1981). The origin of canyon formation and persistence is still an
6.1. Seismic facies and internal character of the Knurr Sandstone unsolved question. Four processes produce canyons: (1) after a
lobes phase of subaerial erosion by a river system, (2) backward retro-
gressive submarine erosion, (3) forward erosion by continuous
A number of well-developed Knurr Sandstone seismic lobes steady flows and (4) bypassing on rapidly prograding margins
have been identified on seismic sections along the southern margin (Mulder et al., 2004; Mulder, 2011). Prominent erosional features
of the Loppa High (Figs. 8e12), overlying the Base Cretaceous Un- evident on the E-W seismic profiles along the slope of the Loppa
conformity (SB1). Lobe's external form varies from mounded High are deeply incised canyons (Fig. 13). A range of these high
convex upward (Figs. 8, 10e12) to wedge shaped pinching out in gradient V-shaped canyons can be traced on E  W oriented seismic
the distal direction (Fig. 9). The internal seismic character of the profiles along the strike direction. The base canyon reflector is
lobes changes from northeast to southwest along the Loppa High discontinuous, and truncates the underlying Mesozoic strata by
Margin. Seismic character within these lobes varies between deep incision. Hence, the base canyon is an angular unconformity
strong, parallel, hummocky chaotic, irregular-discontinuous and (Prytz, 2016). The deepest canyon in the west reaches upto 1100 ms
semi-transparent. High amplitude reflections can be traced that deep. These canyons cross cut high amplitude parallel to subpar-
show bi-directional downlap at the base of the mound, onlapping allel reflections of the paleo Loppa High. Canyons margins are well
in the proximal direction. Possible subtle channel and scour fea- defined with internal reflection geometry onlapping on both
tures have also been observed in some of the lobes (Figs. 9, 11 and canyon margins. Reflections that characterize canyon-fill facies are
12). Multiple aggradational geometries are possibly indicative of horizontal to gently dipping, parallel to divergent onlapping with
multiple stacked lobes (Figs. 9 and 11). In the northeast, the lobes the canyon walls. Reflection continuity varies from good to poor,

Fig. 8. LHSG89-431 seismic section showing sigmoidal lobate geometry. The internal reflection character is mounded chaotic, fuzzy somewhat weak to strong (proximal to distal
part). Faulting (synthetic and antithetic) can also be traced which can possibly compartmentalize or breach these turbidite reservoirs. See Fig. 1 for location of the line.
 N. Sattar et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 54e69 63

Fig. 9. LHSG89-429 seismic section showing a lobe resting on the toe of the slope with internal reflection character of parallel mounded. High amplitudes reflections are
downlapping and shaling out in the distal part. Possible scour feature can also be seen that can be interpreted as a channel scour filled with mud (mud/shale plug). Strong
continuous aggradational reflectors may indicate stacked multiple lobes within the Knurr Formation. See Fig. 1 for location of the line.

Fig. 10. Seismic section LHSG89-428 showing a well-developed moundedesigmoidal lobe lying away from the toe of the slope. The reflection pattern within is hummocky to
chaotic and bounded from above with potential plastic lithology and injectite facies. The lobe is downlapping on both sides over the Hekkingen organic rich shales. The lobe also
shows lateral pinch-out geometries that overlie the Base Cretaceous Unconformity (BCU). See Fig. 1 for location of the line.

amplitude is variable, and frequency is not uniform. Canyon fill 6.3. Controls of canyons and lobe systems
reflections have significantly lower amplitudes (semi-transparent)
relative to Loppa High interfluves reflections possibly cutting into The Hammrefest Basin and Loppa High were influenced by
well compact older sediments. Richard (2016) described some of Jurassic rifting without large scale post-rift subsidence (Faleide
these canyons as meandering in shape and their branching out et al., 1993). Onlap of the Barremian, Aptian and Albian reflectors
character. This canyon system appears to be NE e SW oriented and onto the eroded Loppa High indicates that uplift took place along
is interpreted to be the feeder system for the Knurr Sandstone the Asterias Fault Complex in Early Cretaceous (Fig. 1). During most
turbidite lobes. of the Cretaceous, the Loppa High was exposed to subaerial erosion
64 N. Sattar et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 54e69

Fig. 11. Seismic dip section LHSG89-439 showing the stacking and overlapping of two lobes over each other. The reflection character is strong to weak with bidirectional downlaps.
The breaking reflection within the lobe may be channels. The lobes are enveloped within the Hekkingen transgressive shale and the Kolje shale. Note lateral pinchout geometries of
internal bi-directional downlaps over BCU (Base Cretaceous Unconformity) Sequence Boundary. See Fig. 1 for location of the line.

Fig. 12. E  W oriented Seismic profile FWGS84-132 along the Loppa High margin showing the seismic lobe facies with bidirectional dowlaps over SB1 and onlapping reflections in
the proximal part. A possible channel-levee complex geometry within the lobe can also be traced. See Fig. 1 for location of the line.

with deep canyons cutting into the Triassic sequence. The controls accommodation space was generated for the Early Cretaceous se-
for these feeder systems appear to be relative sea level fall, the quences in the western part. According to Mongat (2011), the As-
Loppa High uplift, sedimentation and faulting along the southern terias Fault Complex is subdivided into a western, a central and an
Loppa High Margin (Fig. 13). eastern segment on the basis of geometry and structural trend
The pattern of sedimentation in the Hammerfest Basin varies identified at Base Cretaceous level. A time thickness map between
from the east to west. There is a general increase in sediment Intra Triassic and Base Cretaceous reflectors reveals thickening of
thickness during the Early Cretaceous from east to west along the sediments in the north-western side of the Hammerfest Basin to-
Loppa High toe-of-slope (Figs. 14 and 15). This is possibly related to wards the Asterias Fault Complex, which indicates that this part of
variable fault displacement along the Asterias Fault Complex along the study area has experienced more subsidence as compared to
the Loppa High slope that was active during the sedimentation. Due the other parts. Deep basement faults along the toe of slope pro-
to growth of sediment input, subsidence increased, implying more duced cover faults on the Loppa High margin (Fig. 15), which are the
 N. Sattar et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 54e69 65

Fig. 13. E  W oriented seismic profile showing a canyon system along the Southern Loppa High Margin. Controls of these incised valleys are the Loppa High uplift, faulting and
sedimentation. These valleys are deeply cut into the Triassic sediments of the Loppa High and removed Jurassic sediments from the Loppa High. These are the feeder systems for the
Knurr turbidite system. See Fig. 1 for line location.

site for syn-tectonic-sedimentation. The oil discovery well 7120/1- 8. Hydrocarbon potential
2 encountered one such Valinginian/Hauterivian clastic wedge on
one of these cover faults. Another evidence of basin tilt towards the The Late Jurassic organic-rich Hekkingen shale, equivalent to the
west is the depth to width ratio of incised valleys on E  W strike Spekk Formation (Norwegian Sea)/Kimmeridgian clay (UK) source
profiles, which becomes more pronounced (deeper and wider) rock in the North Sea represents a regional flooding event
towards the west (Fig. 13). Possibly indicating fault displacement throughout the Arctic and acts as a prolific source rock in the
along the Asterias Fault Complex was greater in the west during southern Loppa High area, which is in the oil window in the study
Knurr/Kølje sedimentation. This may have caused severe erosion of location (NPD Factpages, 2016). In the southeastern Loppa High
the western segment of the Loppa High and created a thicker margin, organic geochemical analyses showed that the maturity of
sedimentary package within Barremian time (Figs. 13 and 15). the penetrated sections in well 7122/2-1 ranges from immature/
early mature in the Lower Cretaceous (800 m/%Ro ca 0.47) to peak
7. Model for Knurr depositional system mature in the Lower Jurassic (2120 m/%Ro ca 0.75). Both the source
rock sections, the Middle Barremian to Early Aptian Kolje Forma-
A paleogeographic model has been constructed to show the Late tion and the Late Jurassic Hekkingen Formation, are mature with
Jurassic e Early Cretaceous Loppa High margin and Knurr lobe respect to oil generation. Towards west, organic geochemical
depositional system. In the Knurr depositional model, lobe’s extent analysis shows that an excellent source-rock interval was pene-
has been mapped by using seismic facies, external mound forms trated in the Late Jurassic Hekkingen Formation at 2503 m. This
and internal seismic character on seismic profiles (Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11, package is 154 m thick and contains from 3 to 12% total organic
12 and 16). During Early Cretaceous sedimentation was focused carbon (TOC) with a hydrogen index ranging from 180 to 250 mg
through multiple point source feeders system (Fig. 13) in the HC/g TOC. Vitrinite reflection was measured in the range from 0.51
Hammerfest Basin when the whole Loppa High was exposed to to 0.71 and Tmax in the range from 442 deg C to 446 deg C in well
subaerial erosion where canyons were incised into the Triassic 7120/2-2 (NPD Factpages, 2016). As discussed, during the Early
section. Sediments transported down the canyons were re- Cretaceous the Loppa High was the source for sediment that fed
deposited in the form of the Knurr Sandstone lobes in the Ham- turbidite lobes along the slope. These turbidites have good reser-
merfest Basin. However, with limited seismic data on the Loppa voir quality sandstone successions. Well 7122/2-1 drilled one such
High it is hard to predict the exact orientation, either NE or NW, of turbidity lobe and encountered a massive (123 m) sand wedge with
these paleo-canyons. An E  W seismic profile show these deeply average core permeability of 636.3 mD (Fig. 7). This is an example
incised valleys acted as a feeder system (Fig. 13). There is a high that reservoir quality and permeability are very good for these
possibility, in the east the Knurr Sandstone lobes appear to be gravity flow deposits.
coalesced and stacked over each other (Figs. 6 and 16), while to- An analysis of well 7122/2-1 failure is done by comparing
wards the west they are more separated. Possible major control to different lobe's seismic geomorphology, geometry and spatial
the Knurr lobes depositional system was the displacement of the location to the toe of slope. The drilled analogue for a Knurr
Asterias Fault Complex during Late Jurassic e Early Cretaceous turbidite lobe (well 7122/2-1) encountered high reservoir quality
times, which varies from the east to west along the Loppa High turbidite sandstone of 123 m thick with net-to-gross 0.87 and
margin superimposed by sedimentation from updip canyons feeder average porosity of 17.1% but was water bearing (Fig. 17). This lobe is
system. On the Loppa High most of these faults are steeply dipping underlain by the Hekkingen shale, which acts as bottom seal and is
and synthetic in nature (Figs. 14 and 15). overlain by transgressive shale (the Kolje Formation). There
66 N. Sattar et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 54e69

Fig. 14. Seismic profile LHSG-89-432 showing a normal basin filling sedimentation pattern along the SE part of the Loppa High slope. The slope of the Loppa High is gentler as
compared to the southwestern part. For line location see Fig. 1.

Fig. 15. Seismic profile 2015-82 showing a pronounced increase in the sedimentary thickness towards the Loppa High slope caused by deep seated faults. Cover faults were
produced along the shelf margin as a result of deeper faults and some of the Valanginian age wedges were trapped there. Please note the slope of the Loppa High is much steeper
along the Loppa western margin. For line location see Fig. 1.

appears to be a seal failure since this lobe is very close to the slope, 9. Conclusions
where possibly bottom Hekkingen seal is intact, but the top seal,
the transgressive shale, is deeply eroded away in the updip direc- A thick Cretaceous sedimentary succession along the southern
tion along the main fault. Towards the west, another such undrilled slopes of the Loppa High is divided into a number of sequences and
lobe (Fig. 18) is located away from the Loppa High slope as a de- system tracts based on seismic reflection geometry, terminations
tached mounded wedge with a characteristic lobate geometry and stacking patterns and logs. Seismic characterization of lobes
which pinches out in both proximal and distal directions. Because along the toe-of-slope and facies interpretation indicate that
of its distal location, this lobe has a better chance of having seismic signature of lobes and internal geomorphology vary from
competent lateral and top seals. the east to west. High resolution sequence stratigraphy is employed
 N. Sattar et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 54e69 67

Fig. 16. . 3D Depositional Model for Early Cretaceous progradation and accommodation space filling along the slope. The Early Cretaceous Knurr turbidite lobes were deposited over
the Hekkingen shales in a basinal setting. The Knurr lobes depositional system is shifted towards the W e SW as a result of basin tilt. Towards the northeast lobes appear to be
stacked and lying within the gentle Loppa High slope as compared to the west, where the basin bounding fault is much steeper.

on a reservoir scale (turbidite lobes) using gamma-ray log patterns subsequently caused the lobe switching. As a result, the lobes
which show high frequency flooding events over the Knurr lobes. become thicker and more pronounced southwestward. Proximity
Seismic facies analysis shows meaningful geomorphological fea- of the Knurr turbidites to the feeders, overlying transgressive shales
tures such as; lobes internal stacking pattern, channels, levee, etc. and directly underlying organic-rich Hekkingen shales make this
Emphasis is given to the Knurr lobes which have excellent reservoir play a promising target for future exploration. Seal failure, thief
quality sands. A westward tilt in the basin physiography during sands on the slope towards the north and preferential hydrocarbon
Early Cretaceous can be one of the potential explanation for the migration towards the nearby Snøhvit gas field in the south are the
whole Knurr deposystem’s shift toward the west, which geological uncertainties and key exploration risks related to this

Fig. 17. Possible cause of failure in well 7122/2-1, on line FWGS84-134A. The Knurr sandstone lobe is lying as a slope fan along the Loppa High slope. The Hekkingen shales which act
as the bottom and lateral updip seal are deeply eroded along the slope which may cause hydrocarbon escape. For line location see Fig. 1.
68 N. Sattar et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 54e69

Fig. 18. Seismic profile LHSG-89-428 showing seismic lobe. This Knurr sandstone turbidite lobe is lying as a detached fan shaling out in the distal direction overlying the mature
Upper Jurassic Hekkingen Formation. The Hekkingen shales also appear to be intact as a bottom seal. This lobe is located SE of the drilled well 7122/2-1. For line location see Fig. 1.

play. Also, undoubtedly the late Oligocene uplift and erosion of Facies and Sedimentary Processes of Submarine Fans and Turbidite Systems.
Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 223e239.
almost 1000 m of sediments throughout the Hammerfest Basin has re, C., Ebbing, J., Gernigon, L., 2008. Offshore prolongation of Caledonian
Barre
its implications for the preservation of any hydrocarbon accumu- structuresand basement characterisation in the western Barents Sea from
lation (Cavanagh et al., 2006) and temperature gradients which in geophysical modeling. Geol. Surv. Nor. Tectonophys. 470, 72.
turn control porosity-permeability and reservoir quality. But Oil Berglund, L.T., Augustoson, J., Færseth, R., Gjelberg, J., Ramber -Moe, H., 1986. The
evolution of the Hamerfest basin. In: Spencer, A.M., et al. (Eds.), Habitat of
discovery in well 7120/1-2 in the neighboring area through one Hydrocarbons on the Norwegian Continental Shelf. Graham & Trotman, Lon-
such Early Cretaceous wedge provides an excellent analogue for the don, pp. 319e338.
presence of a working petroleum system and confirms that the play Catuneanu, O., Abreu, V., Bhattacharya, J.P., Blum, M.D., Dalrymple, R.W.,
Eriksson, P.G., Fielding, C.R., Fisher, W.L., Galloway, W.E., Gibling, M.R.,
works at the toe-of-slope of the Loppa High. The Knurr turbidites in Giles, K.A., Holbrook, J.M., Jordan, R., Kendall, C.G., St, C., Macurda, B.,
the Hammerfest Basin is a promising play for future exploration. Martinsen, O.J., Miall, A.D., Neal, J.E., Nummedal, D., Pomar, L.,
However, derisking of key geological uncertainties highlighted Posamentier, H.W., Pratt, B.R., Sarg, J.F., Shanley, K.W., Steel, R.J., Strasser, A.,
Tucker, M.E., Winker, C., 2009. Toward the standardization of sequence stra-
above may be done through future customized 3D seismic acqui- tigraphy. Earth-Science Rev. 92, 1e33.
sition and integrated use of sequence stratigraphy, attribute maps Catuneanu, O., Galloway, W.E., Kendall, C.G.S.T.C., Miall, A.D., Posamentier, H.W.,
and 3D seismic geomorphology maps. This can be a winning Strasser, A., Tucker, M.E., 2011. Sequence stratigraphy: methodology and
nomenclature. Newsl. Stratigr. 44, 173e245.
exploration strategy for targeting stratigraphic traps in the region. Cavanagh, A., diPrimio, R., Scheck-Wenderoth, M., Horsfield, B., 2006. Severity and
timing of cenozoic exhumation in the southwestern Barents sea. J. Geol. Soc.
Acknowledgement 163 (5), 761e774.
Dore
, A.G., Lundin, E.R., 1996. Cenozoic compressional structures on the NE Atlantic
margins: nature, origin and potential significance for hydrocarbon exploration.
This work was primarily undertaken during MS degree in Pet. Geosci. 2, 299e311.
Geophysics at Uppsala University, Sweden by Nauman Sattar (Un- Emery, D., Myers, K., 1996. Sequence Stratigraphy. Blackwell Science, Cambridge,
Mass., Oxford.
published data) under the supervision and guidance of Dr. Chris-
Eriksen, Sissel H., 2015. The Barents Sea e Exploration History and Future Possi-
topher Juhlin and Dr. Nadeem Ahmad. We are thankful to the bilities; Presentation in Exploration Revived 2015.
Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Sweden for Faleide, J.I., Gudlaugsson, S.T., Jacquart, G., 1984. Evolution of the western Barents
providing the logistics and software support to carry out this sea. Mar. Petroleum Geol. 1, 123e150.
Faleide, J.I., Vågnes, E., Gudlaugsson, S.T., 1993. Late mesozoicecenozoic evolution of
research This manuscript has benefited from early reviews of Dr. the South-western Barents sea. In: Parker, J.R. (Ed.), Petroleum Geology of the
David Gee, Dr. Donatella Mellere and Graham Bull. Norwegian Pe- Northwest Europe. Proceeding of the 4th Conference. Geological Society, Lon-
troleum Directorate is acknowledged for providing seismic and don, pp. 933e950.
Gabrielsen, R.H., Færseth, R.B., Jensen, L.N., Kalheim, j. E., Riis, F., 1990. Structural
well data for this research project. In addition, we are thankful to elments of the Norwegian continental shelfdPart 1: the Barents sea region
Professor Dr. Snorre Olaussen and Farrukh Qayyum for their Norway petroleum. Direct. Bull. 6, 33.
constructive comments. Thanks are also due to dGB Earth Sciences Galloway, W.E., 1998. Siliciclastic slope and base-of-slope depositional systems:
component facies, stratigraphic architecture, and classification. Am. Assoc. Pet.
for the software to prepare synthetic seismogram. The manuscript Geol. Bull. 82, 569e595.
significantly benefited from detailed in-depth review of anony- Gervais, A., Savoye, B., Mulder, T., Gonthier, E., 2006b. Sandy modern turbidite
mous reviewers and Dr. Makoto Ito. lobes: a new insight from high resolution seismic data. Mar. Petroleum Geol. 23,
485e502.
Haq, B.U., Hardenbol, J., Vail, P.R., 1988. Mesozoic and Cenozoic chronostratigraphy
References and cycles of sea-level change. In: Wilgus, C.K., Hastings, B.S., Ross, C.A.,
Posamentier, H., Van Wagoner, J., Kendall, C.G.S.C. (Eds.), Sea- Level Changes -
Armentrout, J.M., Malecek, S.J., Braithwaite, P., Beeman, C.R., 1991. Seismic facies of an Integrated Approach, vol. 42. SEPM Spec. Publ., pp. 71e108
slope basin turbidite-reservoirs, east breaks 160-161 field: pliocene e pleisto- Ito, M., 2008. Downfan transformation from turbidity currents to debris flows at a
cene, Northwestern Gulf of Mexico. In: Weimer, P., Link, M.H. (Eds.), Seismic channel-to-Lobe transitional zone: the lower pleistocene otadai formation,
 N. Sattar et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 54e69 69

boso peninsula, Japan. J. Sediment. Res. 78 (10), 668e682. Posamentier, H.W., Allen, G.P., 1993. Variability of the sequence stratigraphic model:
Ito, M., Ishikawa, K., Nishida, N., 2014. Distinctive erosional and depositional effects of local basin factors. Sediment. Geol. 86, 91e109.
structures formed at a canyon mouth: a lower Pleistocene deep-water suc-
lat, A., Covault, J.A., Hodgson, D.M., Fildani, A., Flint, S.S., 2010. Intrinsic controls
Pre
cession in the Kazusa forearc basin on the Boso Peninsula, Japan. Sedimen- on the range of volumes, morphologies and dimensions of submarine lobes.
tology 61 (Issue 7), 2042e2062. Sediment. Geol. 232, 66e76.
Knutsen, S.-M., Vorren, T.O., 1991. Early cenozoic sedimentation in the Hammerfest Prytz, R., 2016. Seabed depressions in the Ingøydjupet Trough and their relation to
Basin. Mar. Geol. 101, 31e48. buried canyons on the Loppa High, Barents Sea, Master Thesis. University of
Mansurbeg, H., Morad, S., Plink-Bjo € rklund, P., El-Ghali, M.A.K., Caja, M.A., Marfil, R., Tromsø, Norway.
2013. Diagenetic alterations related to falling stage and lowstand systems tracts Qayyum, F., Catuneanu, O., de Groot, P., 2015. Historical developments in Wheeler
of shelf, slope and Basin Floor sandstones (Eocene central basin, Spitsbergen). diagrams and future directions. Basin Res. 27 (3), 336e350.
In: Morad, S., Ketzer, J.M., De Ros, L.F. (Eds.), Linking Diagenesis to Sequence Richards, M., Bowman, M., 1998. Submarine fans and related depositional systems
Stratigraphy. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, West Sussex, UK. http://dx.doi.org/ II: variability in reservoir architecture and wireline log character. Mar. Petro-
10.1002/9781118485347.ch15. leum Geol. 15, 821e839.
Mitchum Jr., R.M., Vail, P.R., Thompson III, S., 1977a. Seismic stratigraphy and global Riis, F., Vollset, J., Sand, M., 1986. Tectonic development of the western margin of the
changes of sea-level, part2: the depositional sequences as a basic unit for Barents Sea and adjacent areas. In: Halbouty, M.T. (Ed.), Future Petroleum
stratigraphic analysis. In: Payton, C.E. (Ed.), Seismic Stratigraphy e Applications Provinces of the World, vol. 40. Memoir of the Am. Assoc. pet. Geol. Mem,
to Hydrocarbon Exploration, vol. 26. Memoir of the Am. Assoc. pet. Geol. Mem, pp. 661e676.
pp. 53e62. Rønnevik, H.C., Beskow, B., Jacobsen, H.P., 1984. Structures and basins in the western
Mitchum Jr., R.M., Vail, P.R., Sangree, J.B., 1977b. Seismic stratigrpahy and global Barents sea. In: Spencer, E.A.M. (Ed.), Petroleum Geology of the North European
changes of sea-level part 7: seismic stratigraphic interpretation procedure. In: Margin, pp. 19e32. Graham and Trotman, London.
Payton, C.E. (Ed.), Seismic Stratigraphy e Application to Hydrocarbon Explora- Saller, A.H., Noah, J.T., Ruzuar, A.P., Schneider, R., 2004. Linked lowstand delta to
tion, vol. 26. Memoir of the Am. Assoc. pet. Geol. Mem, pp. 135e143. basin-floor deposition, off-shore Indonesia: an analog for deepwater reservoir
Mitchum Jr., R.M., Vail, P.R., Sangree, J.B., 1977c. Seismic stratigraphy and global systems. AAPG Bull. 88, 21e46.
changes of sea-level, Part 6: stratigraphic interpretation of seismic reflection Sangree, J.B., Vail, P.R., Sneider, R.M., 1988. Evolution of facies interpretation of the
patterns in depositional sequences. In: Payton, C.E. (Ed.), Seismic Stratigraphy e shelf-slope: application of the new eustatic framework to the Gulf of Mexico.
Application to Hydrocarbon Exploration, vol. 26. Memoir of the Am. Assoc. pet. Offshore Tech. Conf. Proc. 5695, 133e144.
Geol. Mem, pp. 117e133. Sattar, N., 2008. Mapping Lower Cretaceous Turbidite Lobes within a Sequence
Mitchum, R.M., Sangree, J.B., Vail, P.R., 1990. Sequence Stratigraphy in Neogene Stratigraphic Frame Work (Master Thesis). Uppsala University, Uppsala,
Expanded Sections, vol. 74. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull., Gulf of Mexico, p. 722 Sweden.
(abstr.). Satur, N., Hurst, A., Cronin, B.T., Kelling, G., Gurbuz, K., 2000. 'Sand body geometry in
Mongat, M.M., 2011. Structural Analysis of the Asterias Fault Complex in the SW a sand-rich, deep-water clastic system, Miocene Cingoz Formation of southern
Barents Sea (Master Thesis). University of Oslo, Norway. Turkey'. Mar. Petroleum Geol. 17, 239e252.
Mulder, T., 2011. Gravity processes and deposits on continental slope, rise and Seldal J., 2005, Lower Cretaceous: the next target for oil exploration in the Barents
abyssal plains. In: Huneke, H., Mulder, T. (Eds.), Deep-sea Sediments. De- Sea? Petroleum Geology: North-West Europe and Global Perspectives e Pro-
velopments in Sedimentology, vol. 63. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 25e148. ceedings of the 6th Petroleum Geology Conference, V. 6, p 231e240.
Mulder, T., Cirac, P., Gaudin, M., Bourillet, J.-F., Tranier, J., Normand, A., et al., 2004. Shanmugam, G., Moiola, R.J., 1991. Types of submarine fan lobes: models and im-
Understanding continent-ocean sediment transfer. EOS Am. Geophys. Union plications. AAPG Bull. 75 (1), 156e179.
Transaction 257, 261e262. Shanmugam, G., 2000. 50 years of the turbidite paradigm (1950s e 1960s): deep-
Mutti, E., Normark, W.R., 1987. Comparing examples of modern and ancient tur- water processes and facies modelsda critical perspective. Mar. Petroleum Geol.
bidtie systems: problems and concepts. In: Leggett, J.R., Zuffa, G.G. (Eds.), Ma- 17, 285e342.
rine clastic Sedimentology: Concepts and Case Studies, pp. 1e37. London, Shepard, F.P., 1981. Submarine canyons: multiple causes and long-time persistence.
Graham and Trotman. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull. 65, 1062e1077.
Mutti, E., Normark, W.R., 1991. An integrated approach to the study of turbidite Talling, P.J., 1998. How and where do incised valleys form if sea level remains above
systems. In: Weimer, P., Link, M.H. (Eds.), Seismic Facies and Sedimentary the shelf edge? Geology 26 (no. 1), 87e90.
Processes of Submarine Fans and Turbidite Systems. Springer-Verlag, New York, Vail, P. R., 1988, Sequence stratigraphy workbook, fundamentals of sequence stra-
pp. 75e106. tigraphy: 1988 Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Annual Convention Short Course:
Mutti, E., Normark, W.R., Park, M., 1987. Comparing examples of modern and Sequence stratigraphy interpretation of seismic well and outcrop data, pre-
ancient turbidite systems: problems and Galloway 593 concepts. In: Legget, J.K., sented by P. R. Vail and J. B. Sangree, March 19, 1988, Houston, Texas.
Zuffa, G.G. (Eds.), Marine clastic Sedimentology, pp. 1e38. London, Graham and Vail, P.R., Wornardt, W.W., 1991. An integrated approach to exploration and
Trotman. development in the 90s: well log-seismic sequence stratigraphy analysis. Gulf
Norwegian Petroleum Directorate Fact Pages 2016. http://www.npd.no/engelsk/ Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc. Trans. 41, 630e650.
cwi/pbl/en/index.htm. Vail, P.R., Mitchum Jr., R.M., Thompson II, S., 1977. Seismic stratigraphy and global
Norwegian Petroleum Directorate Plays, 2014. The Norwegian Petroleum Direc- changes of sea-level, Part4. Global cycles of relative changes of sea-level. In:
torate Archive of Geological Plays for the Southern Barents Sea. http://www. Payton, C.E. (Ed.), Seismic Stratigraphy e Applications to Hydrocarbon Explo-
npd.no/Topics/Geology/Geological-plays/. ration, vol. 26. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol., Mem, pp. 83e97.
Phelps, Anna S., 2015. Facies, Architecture, and Sequence Stratigraphy of the Worsley, D., Kristensen, S.E., Johansen, R., 1988. A Lithostratigraphic Scheme for the
Devonian-mississippian Sappington Formation. Bridger Range, Montana. The- Mesozoic and Cenozoic Succession Offshore Norway North of 620 N: Norwegian
ses, Dissertations, Professional Papers. Paper 4529. Petroleum Directorate.