CHP 1 –

 The present name of the country “India” refers to ancient “Bharatavarsha” or the
Land of Bharata of mythological fame.
 The Indian cultural tradition is unique. The notions of dharma (normative order),
karma (personal moral commitment] and jati (caste) as the hierarchical principles of
social stratification are basic to Indian culture.
 Culture is defined as a people’s way of life. It also entails how they dress, how they
speak, the type of food they eat, the manner in which they worship, and their art
among many other things.
 The Indian culture is a blend of various cultures belonging to belonging to diverse
religion, castes, regions follow their own tradition and culture.
 India is a land of unity in diversity where people of different sects, caste and religion
live together. India is also called the land of unity in diversity as different groups of
people co-operate with each other to live in a single society.

RELIGION –

 India is a land where people of different religions and cultures live in harmony.
 This harmony is seen in the celebrations of festivals. The message of love and
brotherhood is expressed by all the religion and cultures of India.
 All the major religions of the world are found here.
 Mention may be made of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism,
Zoroastrianism etc. People of different religions live here in sizeable numbers.
 All these religions have grown here quite freely with their different sects and sub-
sects.

LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY –

 Racial diversity of India has its direct reflection on the linguistic variety of India. As
per the Linguistic Survey of India, India possesses 179 languages and 544 dialects.
These languages and dialects are spoken by the people of different regions and
different races.
 The Consti-tution of India, in its Eighth Schedule, recognises two official and 22
national languages.
 The two official languages are English and Hindi (Devanagri script), whereas national
languages include Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam,
Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Konkani, Manipuri,
Nepali, Bodo, Maithali, Dogri and Santhali.
 In undivided India, over 73 per cent of the people spoke the Indo-Aryan languages,
20 per cent the Dravidian languages, 1.3 per cent the Austric languages and only 0.85
per cent spoke the Sino-Tibetan languages.
 RACES & ETHNICITY –

 An ethnic group may think that it is a living being of a unique kind.

 Its members generally think in terms of a real or fictitious common-ality based on
common ancestory, cultural heritage, language, religion and even economic
interests.
 Internally, all ethnic groups are stratified despite their claim of commonality in all
respects.
 India is a fascinating country where people of many different communities and
religions live together in unity. Indian Population is polygenetic and is an amazing
amalgamation of various races and cultures.

There are many diverse ethnic groups among the people of India. The 6 main
ethnic groups are as follows.

1. Negrito: The Negritos from Africa were the earliest people to have come to India.
They have survived in their original habitat in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

2. Proto - Australoids or Austrics: These groups were the next to come to India after
the Negritos. They are people with wavy hair lavishly distributed all over their brown
bodies, long headed with low foreheads and prominent eye ridges, noses with low
and broad roots, thick jaws, large palates and teeth and small chins. They cultivated
rice and vegetables and made sugar from sugarcane.

3. Mongoloids: These people are found in the North eastern part of India in the states
of Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, and Tripura.
They are also found in Northern parts of West Bengal, Sikkim, and Ladakh. Generally
they are people with yellow complexion, oblique eyes, high cheekbones, sparse hair
and medium height.

4. Mediterranean or Dravidian: These are the people of South India. They are reputed
to have built up the city civilization of the Indus valley, whose remains have been
found at Mohenjo- daro and Harappa and other Indus cities.

5. Western Brachycephals: The Parsis and Kodavas also fall in this category. They are
the broad headed people living mainly on the western side of the country such as
the Ganga Valley and the delta, parts of Kashmir, Kathiawar, Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

6. Nordic Aryans: This group were the last one to immigrate to India. They came to
India somewhere between 2000 and 1500 B.C. They are now mainly found in the
northern and central part of India.
CASTE SYSTEM –
1. BRAHMINS: the first and the highest class; they were landowners, scholars and
priests.
2. KSHATRIYAS: were inherently Rajas and Sattva, the ruling and military elite. Their
role was to protect society by fighting in wartime and governing in peacetime.
3. VAISHYAS: were believed to possess Rajas qualities inherently. They were
shopkeepetrs, farmers, banking, agriculturalists, cattle rearers, and traders.
4. SHUDRAS: They served the other Varnas and were the original slave-like or peasant-
like population.
5. DALITS: were the class of untouchables. They did menial and despised jobs and were
thus believed to be “polluted

HINDUSIM –

 Hinduism is the oldest religion in the world. Hinduism is world's third largest religion
after Christianity and Islam. Hinduism is the dominant religion in India, where Hindus
form about 84 per cent of the total population. Hinduism is also known as "Sanatan
Dharma" or the everlasting religion.
 Hindu religion is based on the concept that human and animal spirits come back to
earth to live many times in different forms.
 The Hindus believe that a soul moves up and down hierarchy on the basis of
behavior.
 According to Hinduism a person is born into the higher class because he/she must
have done good deeds in past life whereas a person is born into poverty and shame
because of misdeeds in past life.
 Ramayana, Bhagavad Geeta, Vedas and the Upanishads are the holy books of the
Hindus.
 They worship idols and murtis which is considered as a reflection of God
 There are many festivals celebrated: Diwali, Holi, Ganesh Chaturthi etc.

ISLAM –

 One of the prominent religions of India, Islam forms about 12 per cent of India's
population.
 Though India's contact with Islam had begun much earlier, the real push came in the
8th century when the province of Sindh was conquered. Though the Muslims form
only 12 per cent of the total population of India but the influence of Islam on Indian
society is much stronger.
 In India the Muslims are divided into two main sects- Sunni and Shia. Each one of
these two sects has many different schools.
  In south India in the state of Kerala, the famous Mopillah community is said to have
descended from Arab merchants. Another well known Indian Muslim community is
Pathan. The Pathans are Muslims who arrived from Afghanistan to India. The
Pathans put their surname as Khan. They are regarded as brave, honest and
righteous.
 Holy Book: Quran
 Believe in Allah & follow the teachings of Prophet Muhammad
 Hajj is an annual pilgrimage to Mecca
 Place of Worship: Mosque /Masjid
 Festivals: Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Zuha and Muharram

SIKHISM –

 Sikhs form about 2 per cent of Indian population. It preaches the existence of only
one God and teaches universally acceptable ideals of honesty, compassion,
humbleness, piousness, social commitment and tolerance for other religions.
 Guru Nanak Dev included the good beliefs of other religions in Sikhism. Some the
inhuman Indian customs like the caste system and Sati (burning of the widow) was
discarded in Sikhism.
 In Sikhism everyone has equal rights irrespective of caste, creed, color, race, sex or
religion. Sikhism rejects unnecessary rituals.
 Gurdwara is Sikh's place of worship. As Sikhism believes that God is everywhere it
does not support pilgrimage to holy places.
 The Hari Mandir (the Golden temple) at Amritsar is considered the holiest shrine of
Sikhism. One of the distinct features of Sikhism is the common kitchen called Langar.

BUDDHISM –

 At present Buddhism is one of the major world religions. The philosophy of

Buddhism is based on the teachings of Lord Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama (563 and
483 BC), a royal prince of Kapilvastu, India.
 The fundamental principle of Buddhism is to follow the middle path. Buddhism
teaches its followers to perform good and wholesome actions and to purify and train
the mind.
 Buddhist emphasizes the principles of harmlessness and moderation.
 Buddhism does believe in the existence of supernatural beings but it does not
ascribe the power for creation, salvation or judgment to them. Buddhism believes
that the supernatural beings have the power to affect only worldly events.
 Most of Buddhist are Dalits who converted from Hinduism due to discrimination in
Caste System.
 There is around 75% of total Buddhist population of the country
  Buddhist are concentrated majorly in the state of Maharashtra
JAINISM –

 India has a population of around 45 lakhs Jainism followers.

 Jain population is just 0.37% but its impact on Indian economy is very high.
 For centuries, Jains are famous as community of traders and merchants. The states
of Gujarat and Rajasthan have the highest concentration of Jain population in India.
 It is believed that Jains are most educated and wealthy community in India &
therefore it maintains its impact on politics & business of India
 The Jain religion rests on complete inactivity and absolute nonviolence (ahimsa)
against all living beings.
 Daily rituals of the Jains may include meditation, bathing the images, offering food,
flowers and light lamps for the images.
 It is interesting to note that the Jains also worship local gods and participate in Hindu
or Muslim celebrations without compromising their fundamental path.

CHRISTANITY –

 Christianity is one of the prominent religions in India. At present there are about 25
million Christians in India.
 Kerala, Goa and Mizoram states have high concentration of Christian population in
India. Kerala has the largest number of Christians among the states.
 Christians including Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants form the third largest group
in India.
 The Christians worship and believe in Jesus Christ, whom they consider as the savior
of humanity and the son of God.
 Christmas is the major festival of Christians.
 Good Friday, All Souls Day and Easter are some other festivals celebrated by the
people of this religion in the country
ZOROASTRIAN

 Though the total number of Zoroastrians in Indian population is very less yet they
continue to be one of the important religious communities of India.
 According to the 2001 census, there were around 70,000 members of the
Zoroastrian faith in India. Most of the Parsis (Zoroastrians) live in Maharashtra
(mainly in Mumbai) and the rest in Gujarat.

ADI SHANKARACHARYA

 One of the greatest philosophers of India, Adi Shankaracharya founded the

Advaita Vedanta, which is one of the sub-schools of Vedanta.
  Adi Shankaracharya whole-heartedly believed in the concept of the Vedas but
at the same time advocated against the rituals and religious practices that
were over exaggerated.

RURAL COMMUNITY : CHARACTERISTICS

a. Size of the Community:

The village communities are smaller in area than the urban communities. As the
village communities are small, the population is also low.
b. Density of Population:
As the density of population is low, the people have intimate relationships and
face-to-face contacts with each other. In a village, everyone knows everyone.
c. Agriculture is the Main Occupation:
Agriculture is the fundamental occupa-tion of the rural people and forms the
basis of rural economy. A farmer has to perform various agricultural activities for
which he needs the cooperation of other members.
d. Close Contact with Nature:
The rural people are in close contact with nature as most of their daily activities
revolve around the natural environment. This is the reason why a ruralite is more
influenced by nature than an urbanite. The villagers consider land as their real
mother as they depend on it for their food, clothing and shelter.

e. Homogeneity of Population:
The village communities are homogenous in nature. Most of their inhabitants are
connected with agriculture and its allied occupations, though there are people
belonging to different castes, religions and classes.

f. Social Stratification:
In rural society, social stratification is a traditional characteristic, based on caste.
The rural society is divided into various strata on the basis of caste.
g. Social Interaction:
The frequency of social interaction in rural areas is com-paratively lower than in
urban areas. However, the interaction level possesses more stability and
continuity. The relationships and interactions in the prima-ry groups are
intimate. The family fulfills the needs of the members and exer-cises control over
them.

h. Social Mobility:
In rural areas, mobility is rigid as all the occupations are based on caste. Shifting
from one occupation to another is difficult as caste is determined by birth. Thus,
caste hierarchy determines the social status of the rural people.

i. Social Solidarity:
The degree of social solidarity is greater in villages as com-pared to urban areas.
Common experience, purposes, customs and traditions form the basis of unity in
the villages.

CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN COMMUNITY –

1. . LARGE SIZE AND HIGH DENSITY OF POPULATION:

The size of the urban community is much larger than the rural community. Not
only this, in urban areas, there is high density of population. Density increases
the number of short-term, impersonal and utilitarian social relationships a
person is likely to have.
2. HETEROGENEITY:
Urban population is heterogeneous. It consists of various shades of people—
different castes, classes, ethnic groups, religions, etc. They are not all alike.
Urban community is noteworthy for its diversity.
3. ANONYMITY:
The sheer pressure of number marks for anonymity. Anonymity is a loss of
identity and sense of belongingness. The heterogeneity of city life with its
mixture of people of all races, castes, classes, creeds, occupations and ethnic
origins heightens the sense of anonymity.
4. MOBILITY AND TRANSIENCY:
Urban life is dynamic. Social relations are temporary. Therefore, permanency
does not develop in urban relations. There is a high rate of geographical as well
as social mobility in urban areas. In America, on an average, a person changes his
job (occupational mobility) within six years.

5. FORMALITY OF RELATIONS:
In urban social life, relations are not intimate and kinship based. Most routine
social contacts in the city are impersonal and segmented. Formal politeness takes
the place of genuine friendliness. The impersonality of urban life is a necessary
and convenient way of urban living.
6. SOCIAL DISTANCE:
City people are physically crowded but socially distant. Social distance is a
product of anonymity, impersonality and heterogeneity. Occupational
differences may be even more important sources of social distance.

7. REGIMENTATION:
The city is always in hurry. The life (work and entertainment) in the urban
community becomes ‘clock regulated’. Order, regularity and the punctuality are
the charac-teristics of urban life. On the streets, his movement is controlled by
traffic lights, on railway stations and other places by elevators and escalators.

8. SEGMENTATION OF PERSONALITY:
Most routine urban contacts are of secondary group rather than primary group
nature. Most contacts are instrumental, that is, we use another person as a
necessary functionary to fulfill our purposes. We do not neces-sarily interact with
entire persons but with people in terms of their formal roles as postman, bus
driver, office assistant, policeman and other functionaries. We thus interact with
only a segment of the person, not with the whole person.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRIBES IN INDIA –
1. Definite Common Topography:
Tribal people live within a definite topography and it is a common place for all
the members of a particular tribe occupying that region.
2. Sense of Unity:
Unless and until, a group living in a particular area and using that area as a
common residence, does not possess the sense of unity, it cannot be called a
tribe. Sense of unity is an invariable necessity for a true tribal life. The very
existence of a tribe depends upon the tribal’s sense of unity during the times of
peace and war.
3. Ties of Blood-relationship:
Blood-relation is the greatest bond and most powerful force inculcating sense of
unity among the tribals.
4. Endogamous Group:
Tribal people generally do not marry outside their tribe and marriage within the
tribe is highly appreciated and much applauded. But the pressing effects of
changes following the forces of mobility have also changed the attitude of tribals
and now, inter-tribe marriages are becoming more and more common.

5. Common Dialect:
Members of a tribe exchange their views in a common dialect. This element
further strengthens their sense of unity

6. Protection Awareness:
Tribal people always need protection from intrusion and infiltration and for this a
single political authority is established and all the powers are vested in this
authority. The safety of the tribal is left to the skill and mental power of the
person enjoying political authority.. The chief of a group works according to the
directives received by him from the tribal chief.
COMMON CULTURE:
Common culture of a tribe springs out from the sense of unity, common
language, common religion, common political organisation. Common culture
produces a life of homogeneity among the tribals.

IMPORTANCE OF KINSHIP:

Kinship forms the basis of tribal social organization. Most tribes are divided into
exogamous clans and lineages. The marriage among tribals is based on the rule
of tribal endogamy. Marriage is viewed as a contract and there are no prohibition
on divorce and remarriage.

EGALITARIAN VALUES:
The tribal social organization is based on the egalitarian principle. Thus there are
no institutionalized inequalities like the caste system or sex based inequalities.
Thus men and women enjoyed equal status and freedom. However some
degrees of social inequality may be found in case of tribal chiefs or tribal kings
who enjoy a higher social status, exercise political power and posses wealth.
 CHP – 3
Foundation course 1
Unit 3- Concept of Disparity II
Part 1- Caste, System & Intergroup Conflicts
Caste? –

 In Indian society the group comes first, unlike our own society that gives so much
importance to the individual personality.
 Indians still often identify themselves by the community they belong to and caste is
still a factor in marriage selection. In addition, caste has allowed countless groups
that have migrated into India to find a place and to play an important role.
 The caste system, as it actually works in India is called jati. The term jati appears in
almost all Indian languages and is related to the idea of lineage or kinship group.
 The system which divides Hindus into rigid hierarchical groups based on their karma
(work) and dharma (the Hindi word for religion, but here it means duty) is generally
accepted to be more than 3,000 years old.
 The caste system divides Hindus into four main categories - Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and the Shudras. Many believe that the groups originated from Brahma,
the Hindu God of creation

Characteristics of caste system: -

1. Segmental division:

So far as caste system is concerned, each caste is an autonomous group independent

of the other. Membership in a caste is based on birth. Hence it is unchangeable.
For this reason mobility from one caste to another is impossible.

2. Hierarchy:

The caste system is hierarchical in nature. It comprises four varnas or castes. These
in descending order of ranking are Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
There are many castes between the two extremes-the Brahmins and the Shudras.
Their social status depends upon their distance from the Brahmins.

3. Endogamy:

Westermark regards endogamy as the essence of the caste system.

Endogamy refers to marriage within the caste. The principle of endogamy forbids its
members to marry outside the caste.
 The violation of the rule of endogamy would mean ostracism and loss of caste.
Marriage within the Gotra or clan is prohibited.
This rule of exogamy is observed strictly in the rural setting.

4. Fixity of occupation:

Caste system is characterized by fixity of occupation. Occupations are hereditary and

the members of a caste are expected to follow their traditional occupation without
fail. Brahmins are engaged in performing religious ceremonies.
Washermen regard it their duty to wash clothes of other caste people. Some
occupations like trade, agriculture, military service are, however, regarded as
anybody’s callings.

5. Commensality:
Commensality refers to the beliefs, practices, rules and regulations that determine
inter-caste relationships and are observed with regard to the kind of food and water
taken. The members of a caste accept ‘kachcha food’ only from either their own
caste or castes ritually higher than their own.
They are also required to observe certain restrictions while accepting water from
members of other castes. The Brahmins do not eat onions, garlic, cabbage, carrot,
beatroot etc. Eating beef is not permissible except for the untouchables.
6. Purity and Pollution:
The caste system is said to be founded on the concepts of purity and pollution. The
concepts of purity and pollution provide one of the main criteria for determining the
position of a caste or sub-caste in the hierarchical order.
The Brahmin is said to be the purest group. He is placed at the zenith of the caste
hierarchy. On the other hand, Harijans, not included in the Varna scheme are
considered as the most polluting and rank the lowest.

Inequalities caused by the caste system –

 Inequality is at the core of the caste system. Those who fall outside thecaste
system are considered “lesser human beings”, “impure” and thus “polluting” to
other caste groups. ... “Untouchables” are often forcibly assigned the most dirty,
menial and hazardous jobs, such as cleaning human waste.

1. Unequal social status- lower caste do not enjoy any social status. Person is
repeatedly reminded of their lower position.
 2. Literacy- Although there has been increased literacy rate and school participation
rate across the country. The lower castes still have much higher rate of illiteracy
than higher castes
3. Primary Education- Despite the positive development, SC children are still way
behind. Only 65.7% Of SC children age 7-17 are currently attending school
compared to 81.3% of higher caste groups. 20.8% Children never attended
school compared to 7.6% of high caste.
4. Poverty- With higher incidence of wage labour, associated with high rate of
underemployment, the SCs tend to suffer from low income and greater level of
poverty.
5. Access to safe drinking water
6. Housing
7. Health Indicators
8. Inequalities within castes.

Part 2- communalism –

What is communalism?

It is basically an ideology which consists of three elements:-

 A belief that people who follow the same religion have common secular interests i.e.
they have same political, economic and social interests. So, here socio- political
communalities arises.
 A notion that, in a multi-religious society like India, these common secular interests
of one religion are dissimilar and divergent from the interests of the follower of
another religion.
 The interests of the follower of the different religion or of different ‘communities’
are seen to be completely incompatible, antagonist and hostile.

Examples of communal conflicts in India –

1. Sikh Riots 1984: The 1984 Sikh Massacre was erupted in 1 November
1984,after the assassination of Indira Gandhi and continued for days,
killing around 800 Sikhs. The national capital Delhi were the worst
affected area along with Yamuna river areas
2. Kashmirr Riots 1986: The communal riots was broke out in the Muslim-
majority state of Kashmir against the Kashmiri Hindus in 1986. Violence
against Kashmiri Hindus was reported in the Anantnag area and a massive
communal riots occurred in the resul
3. Bombayy Riots 1992: Bombay Riots was the worst riots in India,
appeared in December 1992 and January 1993. Riots in Mumbai was a
communal riots between Hindu and Muslim,in which over 1,000 people
 were killed. Babri Mosque demolition is the reason and Bombay Riots,
1993 Bombay bomb blasts was the result.

4. 2013 Muzaffarnagar riots: Its again clashes between the Hindu and
Muslim communities, have claimed 48 lives and injured 93 in
the Muzaffarnagar district, Uttar Pradesh. It is one of the worst religious
violence in India
5. Aligarhh Riots 2006: Aligarh is well known as one of the communal prone
zone in Uttar Pradesh, on 5 April 2006 the incidents of violence is
occurred between Muslims and Hindus. At least six to seven people died
due to communal riots began during the Hindu festival Ram Navami.

6. Gujarat Riots 2002: The another worst riots in India so far, Gujarat riots of
2002 was a series of communal violence incidents between Hindus and
Muslims. The Sabarmati Express train was burnt as a preplanned
conspiracy by Muslim mob. Gujarat riots was a definition of horror and
brutality of Human again human.

Causes of communalism-
1. Divide and Rule:
The “Divide and Rule” policy of the British Government served their colonial interest.
The partition of India was the ultimate outcome of their politics. Despite the emergence of
Pakistan, a large number of Muslims are staying in India.
India has adopted the principles of secularism and equality of the people. But communalism
as a legacy of past, is continuing and expressing itself in various form.
2.Religiouss Fundamentalism:
is a belief that one’s religion is the only true faith.
The belief that my religion is better than yours results in religious antagonism
3. Isolation of Muslims:
Indian Muslims have developed a tendency of isolationism even long after the creation of
Pakistan.
They remain aloof from the mainstream of national politics. Most of them are not interested
to take part in the secular-nationalistic politics of the country. They insist on to be treated as
a separate entity

4. Poverty:
Mass poverty and unemployment create a sense of frustration among the people. It
generates backwardness, illiteracy, ignorance, etc.
The unemployed youth of both the communities can be easily trapped by religious
fundamentalists and fanatics.
They are used by them to cause communal riots. Moreover, in comparison with the
Muslims, Hindus are better placed in service, industry and trade which cause a sense of
contempt among them. They weak economic status often breeds communalism.

5. Cross-Border Factors
Communal tensions in India sometimes are highly intensified due to the rule of two
neighbouring theocratic countries.
These countries try to create communal problems in the border states. The communal
problems of Punjab and Jammu Kashmir are caused due to provocation of Pakistan.
So long as this cross-border factor is not removed, communal problems are likely to stay in
India.

6. Failuree of Government:
Both the Union and the State Governments often fail to prevent communalism in the
country. Due to lack of prior information, they fail to take any preventive measures. So the
communal violence can easily take innocent lives and destroys property.

Measures to combat communal violence –

1. Derecognition of Communal Political Parties – if the political parties have the will and
the desire to stop communal violence and riots. The state should de-recognize
parties that promote or encourage communalism.
2. Strict punishment should be meted out to police personnel found guilty of neglecting
their duties or encouraging communal violence.
3. Role of Media- Is important in spreading caste and communal violence. The media
should restrain itself while reporting and the journalist reporting the same should be
impartial.
4. Role of Educational Institution- training in citizenship should take place in schools
and universities based in the high ideals of nationalism, secularism & democracy.
5. People should not mix religion & caste with politics to attain goal of common
brotherhood for the unity & integrity of the nation.
CHP 4 -THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

PREAMBLE
Preamble is an introductory statement, stating the aims and objectives of the
constitution. Accordingly, the preamble to the Indian constitution spells out
the basic philosophy contained in the body of the Indian Constitution.
“We the people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic and to secure to all its citizens
JUSTICE; social, economic and political, LIBERTY; of thought, expression, belief,
faith and worship.
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity and to promote among all its citizens;
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of
the nation.
In our Constituent Assembly this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do
hereby adopt, enact and give to ourselves this Constitution.”

SOVEREIGN:
 It means free from the control of any foreign power.
 India has a free government which is directly elected by the people &
makes laws that govern the people.
 Citizens of India also enjoy sovereign power to elect their
representatives through elections held for the parliament, state
legislature and local bodies as well.

SOCIALIST:
 It reflects the fact that India is committed to secure social, economic and
political justice for its entire people.
 India stands for ending all forms of exploitation as well as for securing
equitable distribution of income, resources and wealth.
SECULAR:
 Means the relationship between the government & the people which is
determined according to constitution & law.
 The government respects all religions
 It does not uplifts or degrade any particular religion
 It stands for the right to freedom of religion for all citizens.
DEMOCRATIC
 Democracy may properly be defined as that form of government in the
administration of which the mass of the adult population has some
direct or indirect share.
 Indicates that the Constitution has established a form of Government
which gets its authority from the will of the people. The rulers are
elected by the people and are responsible to them.

JUSTICE
 The preamble of the constitution of India professes to secure to all its
citizens political, economic and social justice.
 Social justice means the abolition of all sorts of inequities which may
result from the inequalities of wealth, opportunity, status, race, religion,
caste, title and the like. To achieve this ideal of social justice, the
constitution lays down the directives for the state in Part IV of the
constitution.

LIBERTY
 The preamble of the constitution of India professes to secure the liberty
of belief, thought, expression, faith, and worship which are essential to
the development of the individuals and the nation.
 Liberty or freedom signifies the absence of external impediments of
motion. It implies the absence of restraint. Liberty is the power of doing
what is allowed by law.
EQUALITY
 Guaranteeing of certain rights to each individual is meaningless unless
all equality is banished from the social structure, and each individual is
assured of equal status and opportunity for the development of what is
best in him.
 One of the main tasks of the constitution makers was to ensure equality
of status and opportunity for all and to provide the basis for ultimately
establishing an egalitarian society. They proceeded to achieve these
objectives by incorporating a set of fundamental principles into the
Constitution.

FRATERNITY
 Fraternity means the spirit of brotherhood, a feeling that all people are
children of the same soil, the same motherland.
 Brotherhood is a particular kind of relationship which links all human
beings, irrespective of gender and generation.
 A democratic system will function in a healthy manner only if there is a
spirit of brotherhood, oneness among the people of the land.
 The fraternity is not possible unless the dignity of each individual is
preserved and mutually respected.

FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES OF THE CITIZENS OF INDIA –

These are defined as the moral obligations of all citizens to help promote a
spirit of patriotism and to uphold the unity of India and concern the individuals
and the nation.
Included in Part IVA of the Constitution, like the Directive Principles, they are
not enforceable by the law.
According to the constitution, following are the duties to be followed by every
citizen of India.
1. To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and
institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem.
2. To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national
struggle for freedom.
3. To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of
India.
4. To defend the country and render national service when called
upon to do so.
5. To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood
amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic
and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices
derogatory to the dignity of women.
6. To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite
culture.
7. To protect and improve the natural environment including
forests, lakes, rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living
creatures.
8. To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of
inquiry and reform.
9. To safeguard public property and to abjure violence.
10. To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and
collective activity, so that the nation constantly rises to higher
levels of endeavor and achievement.
11. Who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for
education to his child, or as the case may be, ward between the
age of six to fourteen years.

TOLERANCE –

 The word tolerance means the willingness to accept

opinions or behaviour you may not agree with
 It means to behave sensibly with those who are not like
you.
 In tolerance person can show respect for the race, gender,
opinions, religion and ideologies of other people or groups.
 Individual admires the good qualities & good work of
others.
 Tolerance means to express one’s point of view in a decent
& respectful way while respecting the sentiments of others.
 It plays a vital role to establish peace & love, from the
smallest unit up to the highest unit of society.

IMPORTANCE OF TOLERANCE –

1. ACCEPTING RELIGIOUS DIFFRENCES:

Someone bashing a person’s religious can start a heated
battle very quickly
Everyone has the right to believe the way they want about
religion.
If there were more tolerance among people there would be
few battles for religious rights
2. BRINGS COMMUNITY TOGETHER:
Due to tolerance one can respect & value religious
differences & ethical beliefs.
Tolerance works as a barrier to prejudice & brings people of
community together.
3. RESPECT OTHERS IDEAS & THOUGHTS:
Tolerance create peace in which people can feel valued &
respected
There is a place for every person, each with their own ideas,
thoughts & dreams.
4. ESSENTIAL FOR PEACEFUL WORLD
Today all the powerful nations are on arms race. One is
trying to establish its supremacy over the other by
manufacturing more & more sophisticated weapons having
very great destructive ability.
In such situation tolerance is very essential to save the word
from destruction.
5. GOOD RELATIONSHIP
If a person believes that his knowledge on a subject is
absolute, it brings rigidity in his attitude. As a result he
cannot tolerate one who contradicts him.
 6. TEAM WORK & COORDINATION
Tolerance facilitates team work & coordination among
employees with different culture, background & religion
who are working together.

PEACE & HARMONY –

 Peace and Harmony is the basic requirement of any nation.

 The citizens of a country feel safe and secure and can
prosper only if a peaceful environment is maintained.
 While the people of India largely enjoy a peaceful
environment, however, the peace and harmony of the
country is disrupted many a times owing to various factors.
 Though the people of our country live peacefully with each
other, often the peace is disturbed owing to some political,
social, economic and religious factors. Price rise and
unemployment also creates unrest among the people.
 People often come forward to protest against these issues
due to which the normal functioning of the society is
disrupted.

IMPORTANCE OF PEACE & HARMONY:

1. It improves economic performance of the country

2. It helps bring cooperation among people of different
communities
3. It enables the people to be more tolerant
4. It develops a sense of brotherhood & reduces
communal clashes
5. It brings success in every individual’s life
6. Peace is important because we need a better world
for our next generations
7. It reduces crime in the society
8. It encourages new ideas & view
Salient Features of the Constitution of India –

1. WRITTEN AND DETAILED CONSTITUTION:

 It was fully debated and duly enacted by the Constitution Assembly of
India.
 It took the Assembly 2 years, 11 months and 18 days to write and enact
the Constitution.
 It consists of 395 Articles divided into 22 Parts with 12 Schedules and 94
constitutional amendments.
 It is a constitution of both the Centre and states of Indian Union It are
indeed much bigger than the US Constitution which has only 7 Articles
and the French Constitution with its 89 Articles.

2. DRAWN FROM DIFFERENT SOURCES:

 The Indian Constitution has been framed from multiple sources that
include the Government of India Act of 1935, and Constitutions of other
countries.
3. PARLIAMENTARY FORM OF GOVERNMENT:

 The Constitution of India provides for a parliamentary system of

government at the Centre as well as in every state of the Union.
 The President of India is the constitutional head of state with nominal
powers.
 The Union Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister is the real
executive. Ministers are essentially the members of the Union
Parliament.

4. DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY:

 Part IV of the Constitution - The Directive Principles are instructions to
the state for securing socio-economic developmental objectives through
its policies. These are to be implemented by both the Union for the
States.
 For example, Directive Principles direct the state to ensure for the
people adequate means of livelihood, fairer distribution of wealth, equal
pay for equal work, protection of children, women, labour and youth,
old age pension, social security, local self-government, protection of the
interests of the weaker sections of society; promotion of cottage
industries, rural development, international ‘peace friendship and co-
operation with other states etc.
 The aim of Part IV is to secure and strengthen socio-economic
democracy in India.

 5.MIXTURE OF RIGIDITY AND FLEXIBILITY:

 The Constitution of India is rigid in parts. Some of its provisions can be
amended in a difficult way while others can be amended very easily.
 In some cases, the Union Parliament can amend some parts of the
Constitution by passing a simple law.
 6. MIXTURE OF FEDERALISM AND UNITARIANISM:
 While describing India as a Union of States, the Constitution provides for
a federal structure with a unitary spirit.
 Scholars describe India as a ‘Quasi-Federation’ (K.C. Wheare) or as ‘a
federation with a unitary bias, or even as ‘a Unitarian federation.’
 Like a federation, the Constitution of India provides for:
 (i) A division of powers between the centre and states,
 (ii) A written, rigid and supreme constitution,
 (iii) Independent judiciary with the power to decide centre-state
disputes and
 (iv) Dual administration i.e. central and state administrations.

7. PREAMBLE OF THE CONSTITUTION:

 The Preamble to the Constitution of India is a well drafted document
which states the philosophy of the constitution.
 It declares India to be a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic
and a welfare state committed to secure justice, liberty and equality for
the people and for promoting fraternity, dignity the individual, and unity
and integrity of the nation.

8. Adult-Suffrage:
 Another feature of the Constitution is that it provides for universal adult
suffrage.
 All men and women enjoy an equal right to vote.
 Each adult man and woman above the age of 18 years has the right to
vote.
 All registered voters get the opportunity to vote in elections.

9. Single integrated State with Single Citizenship:

 India is the single Independent and Sovereign integrated state.
Presently it has 28 states and 7 Union Territories.
 All citizens enjoy a common uniform citizenship.
  They are entitled to equal rights and freedoms, and equal
protection of the state.”

10. Single Integrated Judiciary:

 The Constitution provides for a single integrated judicial system
common for the Union and the states.
 The Supreme Court of India works at the apex level, High Courts at
the state level and other courts work under the High Courts.

CHAPTER 5: SIGNIFICANT ASPECTS OF POLITICAL PROCESSES

CLASSIFICATIONS OF POLITICAL PARTIES IN INDIA

(i) All India political parties or National Parties:

 All-India political parties have been officially defined as those national
parties with broad-based national support and able to win at least six
per cent of valid votes polled in any four or more States at the general
elections to the Lok Sabha in addition win at least four seats in the Lok
Sabha from any State.
(ii) Regional Parties:
 The second group consists of regional parties, which clearly represent
sub- regional nationalism based upon the common language, culture and
history of a region.
 Their power base and voting strength are confined to a particular
geographic area. The following are the best known regional parties: DMK
and ADMK (Tamil Nadu); Telugu Desam (Andhra Pradesh), the National
Conference (Jammu & Kashmir), and Assam Gana Parishad (Assam).
(iii) COMMERCIAL PARTIES:
 The third group includes those parties and organizations that are
exclusive in their membership; that is, they accept as members only
those inhabitants of a particular religious or ethnic community.
 They seek to protect and promote the interest of that particular
community alone, are basically non-aggregative in their nature, and
generally mobilize their supporters by appealing to their particularistic
sentiments.
 The following parties fall into this category: Muslim League (Kerala) and
Akali Dal (Punjab).

(iv) AD HOC PARTIES:

 The last group of parties consists of those organized around powerful
persons or local and state issues.
 Such parties may not survive very long; some may appear only for a
short period and then disappear completely or merge into other parties.
The Bangla Congress, the Kerala Congress; the BKD of Charan Singh are
some examples of such ad hoc parties
LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT IN INDIA
  Local self-government means local or regional government.
 It is a part of the state or national government.
 It works on those subjects only which are related with the interest of the
local people
 It is not always possible for the central and the state Governments to
look after the main and urgent necessities and requirements of the
different localities under their administration.
 So corporations & Municipalities & district & local boards are established
for the maintenance and improvement of cities& towns& districts and
sub-divisions.
 These are conducted by the local people& and so this system is known
as local self Government.
RURAL GOVERNMENT BODIES:
 Rural local self government in India comprises of Indian administrative
bodies, which are managed only by the local people in rural areas to
solve certain local problems efficiently. More than 80 percent of the
Indian population lives in villages and the welfare of the people implies
an all-round improvement of the Indian villages.
 Thus, the quality of rural local self government plays an important role in
the developments brought about in the rural areas in India.
 Rural local self government in India has been very meticulous in bringing
about developments in the villages. The committee recommended for
the three-tier Panchayati Raj system in India-

1. The Gram-Panchayats at the village level or at the bottom,

2. The Panchayat Samiti at the block level or in the middle
3. The Zilla Parishad at the district level.
 1. Establishment of panchayats at three or two levels and a Gram
Sabha in each village was made mandatory.
2. Tenure of PRIs was fixed as five years, i.e., every five years, direct
election of all members at three panchayat levels was made
mandatory.
3. While election of chairman at the intermediate and district levels
was to be indirect, election of the chairman at the village level was
left to the state governments to decide.
4. A list of 29 functions was provided to panchayats. These relate to
rural development, infrastructure, social welfare, public
distribution system, maintenance of community assets, etc.
5. Seats were reserved for SCs, STs, and women at all three levels of
panchayats.
6. Finance Commission was set up to devolve funds and suggest
ways of financing panchayats.
7. Election Commission was empowered to conduct panchayat
elections.

URBAN LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT

 The Municipal Corporation is the local self-government of a big city with

a population of 10 lakh people or more. There are approximately 75
Municipal Corporations in India.

TYPES OF MUNICIPALITY
1. NAGAR PANCHAYAT – for a transitional area which is in transition from
rural to urban area.
2. MUNICIPAL COUNCIL – for a smaller urban area (generally for area
population b/w 1 to 5 lakh).
3. MUNICIPAL CORPORATION – for a larger urban area (generally for area
population exceed 1 million). Also called MahaNagar Nigam or Nagar
Nigam.
Functions of Corporation and Municipality
 To take care of public health and sanitation is the first compulsory
function of local self-government.
 immunization of children at an early age against small pox, polio,
tuberculosis, cholera, diphtheria, tetanus, whooping cough, etc
 Setting up of hospitals and dispensaries under qualified doctors in
different localities;
 For restricting epidemics, inoculations and vaccinations are provided
free of cost;
 Women and child health care centres are also set-up.
 Develop parks, gardens, picnic spots, museum, zoo etc.
 Maintain rest houses, night shelters, children’s homes, orphanages,
Senior citizens homes, home for destitute women, etc.
 To run educational institutions like school, college, polytechnic, etc.
 To provide efficient and cheap local service, or any other mode of
transport.
 To arrange for toilets, bathrooms, bathing ghats, washing ghats, etc.
 Property tax and toll tax on use of roads and bridges.
 Tax on vehicles, parking places, markets and hawkers.
 Income from water and electricity supply.
 Income from rents of the property of the Municipal Corporation.
 Entertainment tax.
 Loans approved by the State Government.
The Role Of Indian Women In Politics
 A new dimension of women in politics emerged in recent years all over
the world. More and more women have now been entering into politics.
 The struggle for independence has seen many women revolutionaries
playing an important role. The Freedom Movement led many women
into the foray of politics and many of them made great sacrifices for the
nation.
 With the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, Indian women got an
equal share in the political administration of India.
  They are not only part of local and state administration, but are coming
forward to participate in national politics as well. They have achieved a
very significant role in the Parliament as well.
 In India, reform movements before and after independence has helped
women to gain some power in politics also.
 After independence they have achieved an unprecedented political
break-through with the reservation of seats for them in panchayats and
other public bodies.
 It is heartening to note that Indian women were among the earliest to
get their political rights (right to vote) without any political movement
like in die United States and many Western countries. They were among
the foremost to take active part in politics even in pre-independence
times.
 Indian women have a distinction to become UNO Secretary (Vijay laxmi
Pandit), Prime Minister (Indira Gandhi), Chief Minister (Sucheta Kriplani,
Jayalalitha, Uma Bharati, Mayawati and Vasundhara Raje) and even
President (Pratibha Patil).

 Panchayat women leaders have been especially active in bringing

education to their villages even though they are frequently held hostage
by caste politics and quotas. Rural education is a quagmire of poor
policies that nobody in government seems to have the will to change

Measures to overcome the challenges & increase participation of Women/

Problems faced by women in Politics:
1. Eliminate discrimination of participation:
 All parties should take measures to eliminate discrimination against
women in the political & public life
 All barriers that directly or indirectly discriminate against the
participation of women must be removed.
2. Promote gender equality:
 Gender equality, in particular, shall ensure that women are on equal
terms with men
 Also incorporating gender issues is their political agenda, taking
measures to ensure that women can participate in the leadership of
political parties on an equal basis with men will help in resolving the
issue to a certain extent.
3. Encourage to vote & participate in public & political associations:
 The women although having equal voting rights do not vote in all
elections. The government must encourage the women to vote.
 Women must be allowed to participate in non-governmental
organizations and associations concerned with the public and
political life of the country.
 This will help in building the confidence of the women.
4. Allow women to participate fully in all internal policy-making
structures:
 This includes passing legislation, amending constitutions,
repealing all laws that limit women’s rights and prevent them
from participating in all aspects of society.
 In our country women are limited to serving only one or two
terms as reserved seat in MPs

5. Changing traditional mind-sets:

 Men work in all sectors of society- politicians, religious leaders,
security officials, businessmen, etc.
 Therefore they are key to eliminating traditional mind-set
towards women & convincing others of the important role women
play.

6. Media Coverage:
 Equitable media coverage for female candidates for office will help the
public know about the work of women in politics
 Traditional media and social media both can be used at platforms which
can change mind-set of stereotypes.
7. Support in development:
 Advocacy campaign, taking support from women’s organizations and
civil society for women running for office.
 Arranging for development programs for women interested in entering
politics; providing financial support for female candidates; imposing
heavy penalties for people who violate the gender equality rules.