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Europace (2019) 0, 1–32 EHRA POSITION PAPER
doi:10.1093/europace/euz046
Management of asymptomatic arrhythmias: a
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European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA)
consensus document, endorsed by the Heart
Failure Association (HFA), Heart Rhythm
Society (HRS), Asia Pacific Heart Rhythm
Society (APHRS), Cardiac Arrhythmia Society
of Southern Africa (CASSA), and Latin America
Heart Rhythm Society (LAHRS)
David O. Arnar (Iceland, Chair)1*, Georges H. Mairesse (Belgium, Co-Chair)2,
Giuseppe Boriani (Italy)3, Hugh Calkins (USA, HRS representative)4,
Ashley Chin (South Africa, CASSA representative)5, Andrew Coats
(United Kingdom, HFA representative)6, Jean-Claude Deharo (France)7,
Jesper Hastrup Svendsen (Denmark)8,9, Hein Heidbüchel (Belgium)10,
Rodrigo Isa (Chile, LAHRS representative)11, Jonathan M. Kalman (Australia,
APHRS representative)12,13, Deirdre A. Lane (United Kingdom)14,15,
Ruan Louw (South Africa, CASSA representative)16, Gregory Y. H. Lip (United
Kingdom, Denmark)14,15, Philippe Maury (France)17, Tatjana Potpara (Serbia)18,
Frederic Sacher (France)19, Prashanthan Sanders (Australia, APHRS
representative)20, Niraj Varma (USA, HRS representative)21, and
Laurent Fauchier (France)22
ESC Scientific Document Group: Kristina Haugaa23,24, Peter Schwartz25, Andrea

Sarkozy26, Sanjay Sharma27, Erik Kongsgård28, Anneli Svensson29, Radoslaw
Lenarczyk30, Maurizio Volterrani31, Mintu Turakhia32, Isreal W.P. Obel33, Mauricio
Abello34, Janice Swampillai35, Zbigniew Kalarus36,37, Gulmira Kudaiberdieva38, and
Vassil B. Traykov39
1
Department of Medicine, Landspitali - The National University Hospital of Iceland and University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland; 2Department of Cardiology, Cliniques du Sud-
Luxembourg, Arlon, Belgium; 3Division of Cardiology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Policlinico di Modena,
Modena, Italy; 4Department of Arrhythmia Services, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions Baltimore, MD, USA; 5Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Groote Schuur
Hospital and University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; 6Department of Cardiology, University of Warwick, Warwickshire, UK; 7Department of Rhythmology, Hôpital
Universitaire La Timone, Marseille, France; 8Department of Cardiology, The Heart Centre, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark; 9Department
* Corresponding author. Tel: þ3545431000; fax: þ35-5436467. E-mail address: [email protected]

Published on behalf of the European Society of Cardiology. All rights reserved. V
C The Author(s) 2019. For permissions, please email: [email protected].
2 D.O. Arnar et al.
of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; 10Antwerp University Hospital, University of Antwerp, Edegem,
Belgium; 11Clı́nica RedSalud Vitacura and Hospital el Carmen de Maipú, Santiago, Chile; 12Department of Cardiology, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia;
13
Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; 14Liverpool Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Liverpool and Liverpool Heart &
Chest Hospital, Liverpool, UK; 15Aalborg Thrombosis Research Unit, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark; 16Department Cardiology (Electrophysiology), Mediclinic Midstream
Hospital, Centurion, South Africa; 17Cardiology, University Hospital Rangueil, Toulouse, France; 18Cardiology Clinic, Clinical Center of Serbia, School of Medicine, University of
Belgrade, Serbia; 19Service de Cardiologie, Institut Lyric, CHU de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France; 20Centre for Heart Rhythm Disorders, South Australian Health and Medical
Research Institute, University of Adelaide and Royal Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia; 21Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic,
Cleveland, OH, USA; 22Service de Cardiologie et Laboratoire d’Electrophysiologie Cardiaque, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Trousseau et Université François Rabelais, Tours,
France; 23Department of Cardiology, Center for Cardiological Innovation and Institute for Surgical Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; 24Institute of Clinical

Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; 25Istituto Auxologico Italiano, IRCCS, Center for Cardiac Arrhythmias of Genetic Origin, Milan, Italy; 26Heart Rhythm Management
Centre, UZ Brussel-VUB, Brussels, Belgium; 27St. George’s, University of London, UK; 28Department of Cardiology, OUS-Rikshospitalet, Oslo, Norway; 29Department of
Cardiology, University Hospital of Linkoping, Sweden; 30Silesian Center for Heart Disease, Zabrze, Poland; 31IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Roma, Italy; 32Stanford University,
Cardiac Arrhythmia & Electrophysiology Service, Stanford, USA; 33Parktown West, 2006, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa; 34Sanatorio Finochietto, Buenos Aires, Argentina;
35
Electrophysiologist & Cardiologist, Waikato Hospital, University of Auckland, New Zealand; 36SMDZ in Zabrze, Medical University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland; 37Department
of Cardiology, Silesian Center for Heart Diseases, Zabrze; 38Adana, Turkey; and 39Department of Invasive Electrophysiology and Cardiac Pacing, Clinic of Cardiology, Acibadem
City Clinic Tokuda Hospital, Sofia, Bulgaria
Received 18 February 2019; editorial decision 20 February 2019; accepted 24 February 2019
Asymptomatic arrhythmias are frequently encountered in clinical practice. Although studies specifically dedicated to these asymptomatic
arrhythmias are lacking, many arrhythmias still require proper diagnostic and prognostic evaluation and treatment to avoid severe conse-
quences, such as stroke or systemic emboli, heart failure, or sudden cardiac death. The present document reviews the evidence, where
available, and attempts to reach a consensus, where evidence is insufficient or conflicting.
...................................................................................................................................................................................................
Keywords Arrhythmias • Asymptomatic • Asystole • Atrial fibrillation • Atrial tachyarrhythmias • Bradycardia •
Extrasystoles • Heart failure • Stroke • Tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy • Ventricular tachycardia •
Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome
Table of contents experience other symptoms, in association with a documented car-

diac arrhythmia, such as fatigue, shortness of breath, dyspnoea, chest
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 discomfort, dizziness, or syncope. These symptoms are sometimes
Preamble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 referred to as ‘atypical presentations’ of a symptomatic arrhythmia.2
Arrhythmias and symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 On the other hand, individuals with cardiac arrhythmias can be
Premature atrial contractions and non-sustained atrial
asymptomatic. Arrhythmias that may in certain cases be asymp-
tachyarrhythmias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
tomatic, such as atrial fibrillation (AF), incessant supraventricular
Asymptomatic ventricular pre-excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Atrial fibrillation and flutter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 tachycardias (SVT) and non-sustained ventricular tachycardias
Atrial high-rate episodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 (NSVT) could, however, have important implications for patient
Premature ventricular contractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 outcomes.3–7 Asymptomatic AF may lead to stroke, asymptomatic
Ventricular tachycardia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 ventricular arrhythmias may result in sudden cardiac death (SCD),
Tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 and all forms of sustained or repetitive tachyarrhythmias of various
Asymptomatic bradycardia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 origins can possibly lead to deterioration of left ventricular (LV)
Patient perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
function. Moreover, in the same patient, the same type of arrhyth-
Areas of future concern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
mia can be symptomatic in some circumstances but asymptomatic
in others.8
It’s not clear whether asymptomatic arrhythmias should be eval-
Introduction
uated and managed differently than symptomatic arrhythmias. This
The perception of individuals with heart rhythm abnormalities can be is in large part because published studies on the approach to and
highly variable. While many patients are acutely aware of even minor therapy of arrhythmias have mainly included symptomatic individu-
heart beat irregularities, others may be completely unaware of epi- als. Asymptomatic arrhythmias are rather frequent in daily practice
sodes of rapid tachyarrhythmias. and are generally considered to be more benign compared to
Palpitations are the most common symptom reported by patients those that cause symptoms and not requiring treatment.
with cardiac arrhythmias of various types and duration. The term ‘pal- However, it is important for clinicians to recognize that there may
pitations’ refers to a subjective perception of an abnormal cardiac ac- be several exceptions and that asymptomatic arrhythmias may re-
tivity, described by patients as an uncomfortable sensation of quire a detailed evaluation and in certain cases, appropriate
pulsation or motion in the chest and/or adjacent areas.1 Some may treatment.
EHRA position paper: management of asymptomatic arrhythmias 3
Recently, there has been a rapid increase in the number of medi- one randomized trial, or is supported by strong observational evi-
cal devices and accessories that are available directly to consumers dence that it is beneficial and effective. A yellow heart indicates
and can aid in evaluating heart rate or even record a rhythm strip. general agreement and/or scientific evidence favouring a ‘may do
These devices have the potential to increase the diagnostic yield of this’ statement or the usefulness/efficacy of a treatment or proce-
heart rhythm disturbances and increase the prevalence of asymp- dure. A ‘yellow heart’ symbol may be supported by randomized
tomatic arrhythmias, perhaps even substantially, in the coming trials based on a small number of patients or results which are per-
years. haps not widely applicable. Treatment strategies for which there is

Given that the approach to asymptomatic arrhythmias is neither scientific evidence of potential harm and should not be used (‘do
particularly clear nor straightforward, the European Heart Rhythm not do this’) are indicated by a red heart (Table 1).
Association (EHRA), in collaboration with the Heart Failure Finally, this is a consensus document that includes evidence and ex-
Association (HFA), the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS), the Asia pert opinions from several countries. The pharmacologic and non-
Pacific (APHRS), the Cardiac Arrhythmia Society of Southern pharmacologic antiarrhythmic approaches discussed may, therefore,
Africa (CASSA), and the Latin American Heart Rhythm Society include drugs that do not have the approval of governmental regula-
(LAHRS), convened a Task Force to review the clinical manage-
tory agencies in all countries.
ment of specific types of asymptomatic arrhythmias. The goal was
to emphasize evidence-based approaches for risk stratification and
appropriate pharmacological or non-pharmacological treatments, Arrhythmias and symptoms
where evidence exists for asymptomatic arrhythmias. However,
the ultimate decision on management must be made by the health- Arrhythmias may be associated with diverse symptoms, as dis-
care provider after discussion with the patient, taking into account cussed in the Introduction section. Interestingly, some individuals
individual factors and preferences, along with potential risks and may be completely asymptomatic from their heart rhythm distur-
benefits. bances. It should also be clarified that not all individuals that expe-
rience palpitations are actually having an arrhythmia
simultaneously.9 This conflicting presentation of symptoms or the
Preamble lack of them in arrhythmias is rather poorly understood. In part,
this might be because many studies suffer from a lack of structured
Members of the Task Force were advised to perform a detailed liter-
ature review, weigh the strength of evidence for or against a particu- systematic assessments and survey instruments for symptoms. In
lar approach, treatment, or procedure, and include estimates of addition, there is a lack of good data assessing the relationship be-
expected health outcomes where data exist. Patient-specific modi- tween symptoms and arrhythmia burden. Also potential placebo
fiers, co-morbidities, and issues of patient preference that might influ-
ence the choice of particular tests or therapies were considered, as
was the need for follow-up and not least, cost-effectiveness. With re- Table 1 Scientific rationale behind colored hearts
gard to issues without evidence other than clinical experience, a con- recommendations
sensus was achieved by agreement of the expert panel after
Definitions where related to a Consensus Symbol
thorough discussions. This document was prepared by the Task treatment or procedure statement
Force with representation from EHRA, HFA, HRS, APHRS, CASSA, instruction
and LAHRS. The document was peer-reviewed by official external .................................................................................................
reviewers representing EHRA, HFA, HRS, APHRS, CASSA, and Scientific evidence that a treatment ‘Should do this’
LAHRS. or procedure is beneficial and ef-
Consensus statements are evidence-based when possible and fective. Requires at least one ran-
derived from available published data or determined through con- domized trial or is supported by
sensus opinion where data are not available. However, the current strong observational evidence and
systems of ranking level of evidence have become complicated authors’ consensus (as indicated
such that their practical utility can be compromised. Therefore, we by an asterisk)
opted for an easier and a more user-friendly system of ranking us- General agreement and/or scientific ‘May do this’
ing ‘coloured hearts’ that should allow physicians to easily assess evidence favour the usefulness/ef-
the current status of the evidence and consequent guidance. This ficacy of a treatment or proce-
EHRA grading of consensus statements does not have separate dure. May be supported by
definitions of the level of evidence. This categorization, used for randomized trials based on a
consensus statements, must not be considered as directly similar small number of patients or which
to that used for official society guideline recommendations, which is not widely applicable
apply a classification (Class I–III) and level of evidence (A, B, and C) Scientific evidence or general agree- ‘Do not do this’
to recommendations. ment not to use or recommend a
Thus, a green heart indicates a ‘should do this’ consensus state- treatment or procedure
ment or indicated treatment or procedure that is based on at least
4 D.O. Arnar et al.
and nocebo effects of therapeutic interventions are not controlled The pathophysiologic basis for this significant variation in threshold
for in most studies on symptoms. for symptoms is not known. It is also unknown if genetic influences
There are many possible contributing factors in determining play a role in whether arrhythmias cause symptoms or not.
whether arrhythmias might cause symptoms or not. The type and or- However, cultural variations between populations, ethnicity, or edu-
igin of the arrhythmia likely plays a part in determining whether it is cational level certainly all play a role in the perception and expression
symptomatic or not. The presence of various cardiovascular disor- of medical symptoms. There is growing evidence suggesting an asso-
ders leading to systolic or diastolic dysfunction may also play an im- ciation between psychosocial factors and the risk of cardiac arrhyth-

portant role. As such, isolated premature beats from both the atria mias.17 The type of personality might also have an effect on the
and the ventricles and short bursts of arrhythmias might be less likely individual’s perception of the arrhythmia although this relationship
to produce symptoms than sustained episodes of the same heart has not yet been well defined.
rhythm abnormality. There are no data however to suggest that atrial
tachyarrhythmias cause fewer palpitations than ventricular tachyar-
rhythmias although the latter could possibly have a greater effect on Premature atrial contractions and
blood pressure, perhaps leading to dizziness or even syncope. In
tachyarrhythmias, the decreased diastolic filling time might contribute non-sustained atrial
to a lowering of blood pressure and symptoms. The haemodynamic tachyarrhythmias
effect of a heart rhythm disturbance is also influenced by the rate of
the arrhythmia, the circulating blood volume at the time of the ar- Premature atrial contractions (PACs), while common, do not always
rhythmia, the left ventricle function, and the presence of concurrent cause symptoms and many patients with PACs may be completely
co-morbidities. The faster the ventricular response during the ar- unaware of their occurrence.18 The proportion of patients with
rhythmia, the more likely it is to cause symptoms and the lower the PACs that experience symptoms is unknown; as are the demographic
left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), the less likely the individual is and clinical variables that predict whether a patient will have symp-
to tolerate a sustained rapid arrhythmia. There are also indications toms at the time of the PACs. Also unclear is the possible link be-
that younger individuals may have more symptoms from arrhythmias tween the number of PACs and the development of associated
than those who are older.10 With bradyarrhythmias in general, it is symptoms?
believed that a sinus or atrioventricular (AV) pause of at least 6–7 s is The occurrence of symptoms in arrhythmias is an issue that has
needed to cause symptoms such as syncope.11 been speculated on in the previous chapter, and the focus of this sec-
Many people who have arrhythmias also have structural cardiovas- tion will be to describe the clinical importance of PACs, regardless of
cular disorders and are taking medications that can affect the ability whether they are symptomatic or asymptomatic. In this regard, it is
of the heart to tolerate a heart rhythm disturbance. Such medications important to recognize that most clinical trials, which have studied
include beta-blockers, calcium channel antagonists, and various vaso- the clinical impact of atrial premature beats, did not categorize atrial
dilators. These drugs might accentuate a negative haemodynamic re- PACs on the basis of whether they are symptomatic or not but
sponse during a tachyarrhythmia and in turn increase the probability rather their burden over a given period.18–21 It could also be impor-
of symptoms. They may also have an effect on chronotropic re-
tant to note that some individuals may have a heightened awareness
sponse which may also play a role in determining the degree and se-
of PACs, including patients early after having undergone AF and SVT
verity of symptoms.
ablations.
Sympathetic nervous system afferents are connected to sensory
Over the past two decades, the rather common belief that PACs
mechanoreceptors which are activated by the mechanical stretch
are benign and of little clinical importance has evolved considerably.
resulting from a premature ventricular contraction (PVC).12 This
Today, it is recognized that the presence of frequent PACs or shorts
causes the perception of premature beats by some patients. The au-
runs of PACs may be an independent predictor of the development
tonomic nervous system modulates cardiac activity in a variety of
of atrial tachycardia and AF.19–21 However, the impact of having
ways and may in some cases have arrhythmogenic effects and facili-
tate the induction of heart rhythm disturbances.13,14 Indeed, cardiac completely asymptomatic PACs is currently unknown.
Some studies have attempted to evaluate the risk of PACs on out-
sympathetic denervation has been used to prevent life-threatening
arrhythmias.15 The autonomic nervous system tone may also affect comes. In a study by Binici et al.,19 48-h Holter data from the
the rate, persistence, and haemodynamic consequences of arrhyth- Copenhagen Holter Study, which enrolled healthy middle aged men
mias and via this mechanism possibly influence the perception of the and women, assessed the relationship between PACs and outcomes
individual’s symptoms. of incident AF, stroke, and death. In this study, 15% of individuals
Pain tolerance can vary substantially amongst patients and the rela- without known cardiovascular disease had excessive supraventricular
tionship between arrhythmias and symptoms also greatly varies be- ectopic activity, defined in this case as a burden of 30 PACs or more
tween patients. For example, whereas some patients with a very high per hour. After a median follow-up time of 6.3 years, excessive PACs
burden of PVCs (>20%) are completely asymptomatic, other patients were associated with an increased risk of both the primary endpoint
experience uncomfortable symptoms with a single PVC. Patients of death or stroke [hazard ratio (HR) 1.64, 95% (confidence interval)
with a low threshold for experiencing symptoms with arrhythmias CI 1.03–2.60; P < 0.036] and admissions for AF (HR 2.78, 95% CI
are sometimes referred to as having ‘cardiac awareness’.16 1.08–6.99; P < 0.033).19
In the same cohort from the Copenhagen study but with a longer
median follow-up of 14.4 years, Larsen et al.22 found that excessive
atrial ectopic activity was associated with a two-fold increase in the Consensus statement Symbol References
.................................................................................................
adjusted risk of stroke. Interestingly, less than 15% of patients with a
19–21
Patients with a high PAC burden (>500/24 , Expert
high number of PACs and stroke had a clinical diagnosis of AF prior
h) on Holter monitor should be consid- consensus
to their stroke. Furthermore, the annual stroke risk in patients with
ered at increased risk for developing of
excessive atrial ectopic activity in combination with a CHA2DS2-

AF and be educated on the symptoms of
VASc score > _2 was 2.4% per year which is in a similar range as
AF. They should undergo further evalua-
patients with AF and a CHA2DS2-VASc score > _2, supporting the
tion for possible AF including more de-
view that PACs burden might actually be a possible surrogate marker
tailed or prolonged rhythm monitoring
for AF. Similar findings were reported by Dewland et al.,21 who exam-
Comprehensive cardiovascular risk factor Expert
ined Holter data from 1260 people without previously known AF modification is recommended for consensus
from the Cardiovascular Health Study, and found that a doubling of patients with a high PAC burden includ-
the hourly PAC count was associated with a 17% increase in AF risk ing careful control of hypertension,
(HR 1.17, 95% CI 1.13–1.22) and 6% increase in overall mortality weight loss, and screening for sleep ap-
(HR 1.06, 95% CI 1.03–1.09). noea. In addition, evaluation for struc-
One explanation for this observation could be that the presence tural heart disease should be
of frequent PACs identifies patients likely to develop AF, and that AF considered in selected cases.
leads to an increased risk of stroke and death. A second possible When brief episodes of AF, which per se Expert
mechanism for these observations is that frequent PACs alone may would not be an indication for oral anti- consensus
be a marker for a subclinical, atrial cardiomyopathy, that might pro- coagulation (OAC), are observed, the
mote both the development of AF and increased stroke risk.21,23,24 burden of PACs (>500 PACs/24 h or
This ‘atrial cardiomyopathy hypothesis’ proposes that the develop- any episode of runs of more than 20
ment of AF and PACs is an epiphenomenon outside the causal PACs) could add to the decision pro-
pathway between myopathy and stroke. Recent genetic studies cess whether anticoagulation therapy
showed an association between mutations in sarcomere genes should be initiated. This decision should
and AF, a link that may be mediated through a subclinical atrial cardio- always be made on an individual basis.
myopathy.25–28 Low to moderate PAC burden without Expert
Many questions remain unanswered concerning this link between documented AF is not an indication for consensus
PACs, AF, stroke, and increased mortality. One is whether treatment oral anticoagulation
of patients with a high burden of PACs with antiarrhythmic medica-
AF, atrial fibrillation; PAC, premature atrial contraction.
tions or by means of catheter ablation reduces the risk of developing
AF, thereby reducing stroke risk and decreasing mortality. Another
issue is whether there is a clinically important cut-off for what abnor-
mal PAC burden should be. Specific definitions of excessive supra-
Asymptomatic ventricular
ventricular ectopic activity are lacking. As this question remains pre-excitation
unanswered, it will also be important to do further research to define
The prevalence of ventricular pre-excitation, also termed a delta wave
the day-to-day variability in PAC frequency and what the optimal
or Wolff–Parkinson–White (WPW) pattern on an electrocardiogram
screening test should be. At the present time, a 24-h Holter monitor
(ECG), is estimated to be 0.1–0.3%.30,31 The lifetime risk of SCD in
is the ‘gold standard’ for assessing PAC frequency. According to
symptomatic WPW syndrome has been estimated at 3–4%.32,33
Gladstone et al., excessive ectopic activity was present when PACs Consequently, there has been a general agreement that symptomatic
burden >500 PACs/day was observed on Holter monitoring. The pre-excitation is a Class I indication for an electrophysiology study
probability of AF increased from less than 9% among patients with (EPS) with a view to catheter ablation of the accessory pathway.
PACs burden <100/24 h to over 40% in those with a PAC burden of Individuals with asymptomatic pre-excitation, however, have a
>1500/24 h).29 In this consensus document, we have chosen to ac- lower lifetime risk of SCD, and this has varied between 0 and 0.6% in
cept that a high burden of PACs exists when they exceed 500 in 24 h. different studies.32–34 Thus, the approach to individuals with asymp-
Yet another important but unresolved question concerns the use tomatic pre-excitation is not as straightforward as in those that are
of anticoagulation. It stands to reason that patients with an increased symptomatic and has continued to be an important topic of discus-
stroke risk profile who have a certain frequency of PACs could bene- sion over the past decades. One of the key issues debated has been
fit from anticoagulation. However, the benefit/risk of such an ap- whether or not to attempt to invasively risk stratify with an EPS and
proach requires testing in clinical trials. Regarding the significance of ablate the accessory pathway in those at perceived increased risk of
asymptomatic vs. symptomatic PAC in this setting, there is simply SCD. Back in 2003, the joint AHA, ACC, and ESC guidelines did state
lack of data and knowledge. that the positive predictive value of EPS was too low to justify routine
A summary of studies on PACs and clinical consequences is pro- use in asymptomatic patients.35 However, this topic continues to be
vided in Supplementary material online, Table S1. controversial and is far from being resolved.
6 D.O. Arnar et al.
An initial evaluation of the patient with asymptomatic pre- Discussions on this subject have so far failed to reach a clear con-
excitation could include an exercise stress test and/or a 24-h Holter sensus. It is of importance to this discussion to understand that abla-
monitor looking for an accessory pathway block with increasing heart tion can be performed with exceedingly low risk in the modern era
rate and intermittent accessory pathway conduction over the 24 h. and as an example there was only one major complication reported
Both are indicative of a long effective refractory period (ERP) of the in the above registry in 2169 patients.44 In a systematic review on risk
pathway. The individual with intermittent pre-excitation during sinus stratification for arrhythmic events in patients with asymptomatic
rhythm is generally considered to be at very low risk for SCD. pre-excitation for the 2015 ACC/AHA/HRS guidelines on SVT, it

On the other hand, high-risk features for increased risk of SCD in was concluded that the existing evidence suggests risk stratification
patients with ventricular pre-excitation include a young age,36 induc- with an EPS of patients with asymptomatic pre-excitation may be
ibility of atrioventricular tachycardia (AVRT) during EPS,37 a short beneficial, along with consideration of accessory-pathway ablation in
antegrade ERP of the accessory pathway (<_250 ms),36–38 and multi- those deemed to be at high risk of future arrhythmias.45 However,
ple accessory pathways37,39,40 (Table 2). There have been suggestions given the clear limitations of the existing data, there is need for well-
that high adrenergic states, exercise, or emotion might lead to more designed and well-conducted studies.
rapid conduction over the accessory pathway. The more recent EHRA guidelines on SVT state that EPS for risk
A few randomized studies have been performed in an attempt to stratification may be considered in individuals with asymptomatic pre-
evaluate the risk of sudden death in patients with suggested high-risk excitation.46 We would add that this may be strongly considered in
EPS features. In a rather small study of 73 patients, none of those who those that are professional athletes or have an occupation risk such as
had an ablation experienced AF or VF during follow-up. However, 43% pilots or heavy machinery operators. It may also be taken in to account
of the control patients had AVRT, 14% had AF and there was 1 that the presence of a delta wave might exclude individuals, including
aborted VF in a 22-year-old male with multiple accessory pathways.41 school children, from important activities such as exercise and sports.
In a similar randomized study of 60 children with high-risk EPS features, Catheter ablation may be considered in asymptomatic individuals with
during follow-up 7/27 control patients had AF and there was 1 sudden high-risk features, (antegrade ERP of the accessory pathway <240 ms,
death in a patient who had first presented with AF but whose parents inducible AVRT triggering pre-excited AF and multiple accessory path-
had declined ablation. There were no patients in whom VF was the ini- ways). Observation without treatment may be reasonable in those
tial presentation.42 In a meta-analysis, Obeyesekere et al.,43 evaluated with asymptomatic pre-excitation who are low risk either due to inter-
20 studies including a total of 1869 patients with a mean age of 7 to mittent delta wave or an EPS not demonstrating high-risk features.
43 years. Ten SCDs occurred during 11 722 person-years of follow-up.
In this analysis, seven of the studies originated from Italy and reported
nine SCDs. The overall SCD risk was 1.25 per 1000 person-years, with Consensus statements Symbol References
children having a higher risk (1.93 vs. 0.86 per 1000 person-years, .................................................................................................
45
P = 0.07). There were 156 AVRTs in 9884 person-years of follow-up Clinical follow-up without ablation may
from 18 studies with a risk of 16 per 1000 person-years follow-up. The be reasonable in subjects with asymp-
authors concluded that the low incidence of SCD and AVRT argued tomatic pre-excitation who are low
against routine EPS in most asymptomatic individuals with WPW. risk either due to intermittent delta
Pappone et al.,44 recently reported an 8-year single-centre registry wave or an electrophysiology study
data experience including 2169 patients undergoing ablation for ven- not demonstrating high-risk features.
46
tricular pre-excitation including both symptomatic and asymptomatic Electrophysiology study for risk stratifi-
patients. In the 1001 patients who did not have ablation, VF occurred cation may be considered in individu-
in 1.5% of patients, virtually exclusively (13 of 15) in children (median als with asymptomatic pre-excitation.
age 11 years), and was associated with a shorter accessory pathway Catheter ablation may be considered
antegrade ERP and AVRT initiating AF but not with symptoms. In the in asymptomatic individuals with high-
ablation group, ablation was successful in 98.5%, and no patients de- risk features, (antegrade ERP of the
veloped malignant arrhythmias or VF over the 8 years of follow-up. accessory pathway <240 ms, induc-
The authors concluded that the prognosis of the WPW syndrome ible AVRT triggering pre-excited AF
depended on intrinsic electrophysiological properties of the acces- and multiple accessory pathways).
46
sory pathway rather than on symptoms. Catheter ablation should be considered
in individuals who participate in high
intensity or professional sports and
Table 2 High risk features of an antegrade accessory
pathway those with an occupational risk.
33
There should be a detailed discussion
• Young age with the patient and their family re-
• Effective refractory period of the accessory pathway <240 ms garding the individual’s personal pref-
(>250 b.p.m.) erence and willingness to accept risk,
• Inducibility of atrioventricular reentrant tachycardia at EPS whether from an ablation or from an
• Multiple accessory pathways untreated asymptomatic WPW.
AF, atrial fibrillation; AVRT, atrioventricular tachycardia; ERP, effective refractory

b.p.m., beats per minute; EPS, electrophysiology study; ms, milliseconds. period; WPW, Wolff–Parkinson–White.
Atrial fibrillation and flutter Although the presence of AF symptoms may not be driven only by
concomitant cardiac and non-cardiac conditions but also by patient-
Asymptomatic AF usually refers to AF that is incidentally discovered related psychological and somatic factors,63,64 available data suggest
during routine clinical examination or detected by screening and that asymptomatic AF could portend a less favourable prognosis,
recorded for > _30 s via surface ECG method(s)5,6,47 (Table 3). These with greater morbidity and mortality than symptomatic AF (Table 4),
patients with asymptomatic AF detected by surface ECG are usually possibly due to a later referral for thrombo-embolic risk stratification
thought to have a higher arrhythmia burden, sufficient to be detected and therapeutic intervention.

by single-point or intermittent recording using ECG/Holter/loop Management of asymptomatic AF patients generally should be
recorders, compared with subclinical AF detected by implanted devi- based on the same principles as symptomatic patients.47,66–68 An in-
ces providing continuous monitoring.48,49
tegrated approach such as the ABC pathway—Avoid stroke with
The true prevalence of asymptomatic AF is unknown.5,6
Anticoagulation (optimize stroke prevention), Better symptom man-
Reported rates vary from 10% to 40%, depending on the risk pro-
agement (patient-centred symptom directed use of rate or rhythm-
file of the evaluated cohort, monitoring intensity and follow-up du-
control strategies), and Cardiovascular and comorbidity risk factor
ration, but a greater likelihood of asymptomatic AF has been
management (Figure 1) summarizes key components of AF manage-
consistently observed among the elderly, males and those with
ment and can help align AF management among healthcare special-
non-paroxysmal AF.2,50–60 Symptomatic patients (especially those
managed using a rhythm-control strategy) may also have episodes ties.70 While symptom management may not be immediately
of silent AF, particularly after AF catheter ablation.61 Indeed, in relevant in asymptomatic individuals with AF, steps to try to
patients implanted with a cardiac monitor before ablation, a post- prevent longstanding AF or decrease the risk of developing tachycar-
ablation setting was the strongest independent predictor of dia-induced cardiomyopathy (TICMP) are important. A trial of
asymptomatic AF episodes.62 Since the absence of symptoms may rhythm control in asymptomatic persistent AF patients may help dis-
be misleading, a solely symptom-based assessment of AF burden cern true asymptomatic AF from symptomatic AF. There are no ran-
or ablation success is usually inaccurate. On the other hand, abla- domized data on treatment effects specifically in asymptomatic AF,
tion of AF is usually performed to treat excessive or recurrent but benefits at least similar to those seen in symptomatic AF can be
symptoms, in which case absence of symptoms may be more than assumed, at least concerning anticoagulation and rate control
welcome by the patient. strategies.5,47,68
Table 3 Detection of asymptomatic AF: clinical setting, screening methods, and screening tools
Detection of asymptomatic AF
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Clinically detected Screen-detected
....................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................
Clinical setting • Clinical visit for other reasons Screening • Pulse check Screening • Clinical (patient history, risk
(e.g. acute illness, cardiovas- methods • Opportunistic screening tools scores, pulse checking, and
cular risk factor management, • Screening of a pre-defined BP measurement)
and regular follow-up visit) population at increased risk • Single-lead ECG (electrical
• Preparation for surgery or an of AF (e.g. the elderly, post- stick, monitor, monitoring
invasive intervention stroke patients) patch, and watch-like
• Self-detected by home BP • Community screening of all recorder)
measurement or pulse subjects living in a specific • Multi-lead ECG (Holter mon-
checking area itoring, and multielectrode
• Systematic screening of the belt)
population • Loop recoder
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Detection of subclinical AF and AHREs
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Clinical setting • Patients implanted with a Screening • Opportunistic screening in Screening • Pacemaker
CIED (e.g. anti-bradycardia methods patients implanted with a tools • ICD
PM, and ICD) for other CIED for other reasons • Implantable loop monitor
reasons • Targeted screening for AF in • Telemetry of an ICM
• Patients implanted with a car- patients at increased risk of
diac monitoring device due to AF (e.g. post an embolic
symptoms suggestive of an stroke—ESUS)
arrhythmia, post-syncope,
etc.
Asymptomatic AF refers to AF diagnosed by conventional means while subclinical AF is used to denote AF diagnosed by implantable devises only.
AF, atrial fibrillation; AHRE, atrial high-rate episodes; BP, blood pressure; CIED, cardiac implantable electronic device; ECG, electrocardiography; ESUS, embolic stroke of unde-
termined aetiology; ICD, implantable cardioverter-defibrillator; ICM, implantable cardiac monitor; PM, pacemaker.
8
Table 4 Baseline characteristics and outcomes in asymptomatic AF patients: post hoc analyses of RCTs and observational studies
Study/post hoc analysis AFFIRM RACE Olmsted Belgrade UK-CPRDa EORP-AF Pilot ORBIT-AF Olmsted County Fushimi AF
(publication date) (2005)53 (2014)56 County (2011)60 AF (2013)55 (2014)65 (2015)58 (2016)57 (2016)2 Registry (2017)59
Study type RCT, RCT, Retrospective Single-centre, Administrative International International Retrospective Community-
post hoc post hoc first-onset AF dataset registry registry based survey
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Cohort size (n) 4060 522 4618 1100 30 260 3119 10 087 476 3749
Asymptomatic AF (%) 12 30 25 13.3 18.4a 39.7 38.2 33.8 52.6
Follow-up (mean) (years) 3.5 2.3 ± 0.6 9.9±6.1 <_3 1 Median 1.8 Median 6.0 3.0
Baseline characteristics of patients with asymptomatic AF
Male predominance
Older age
Non-paroxysmal AF
Slower heart rate
More comorbidity
Higher stroke risk
Treatment differences
Rate control
Rhythm control
OAC
Outcomes (asymptomatic AF vs. comparatorb)
AF progression 1.6 (1.1-2.2)
Stroke 6% vs. 7% 2.1 (1.2–3.9) 19.4 vs. 8.4a 23.8% vs. 29.7% 1.13 (0.87–1.46) 2.6 (1.1–6.1) 1.28 (0.82–2.01)
Mortality 1.07 (0.79–1.46) 5% vs. 8% 0.8 (0.4–1.9) 40.1 vs. 20.9a 9.4% vs. 4.2% 1.00 (0.86–1.16) 4.0 (2.3–6.9) 1.71 (1.31–2.29)
MI 9.0 vs. 6.5a 1.05 (0.72–1.53)
Heart failure 0% vs. 6% 0.7 (0.4–1.1) 0.96 (0.65–1.44)
Dementia
Major bleeding 4% vs. 4% 7.7 vs. 4.0a 1.21 (1.02–1.45) 1.18 (0.74–1.90)
more common in asymptomatic AF;

no difference;
less common in asymptomatic AF;
greater risk of worse prognosis;
not reported.
a
Patients incidentally diagnosed with AF were compared to matched non-AF controls; otherwise, the comparator was symptomatic AF.
b
Outcomes presented as crude incidence rates per 1000 patient-years; otherwise, hazard ratios (95% confidence interval) or event rate, where reported.
AF, atrial fibrillation; AFFIRM, Atrial Fibrillation Follow-up Investigation of Rhythm Management; RACE, Rate Control vs. Electrical cardioversion for persistent atrial; RCT, Randomized Clinical Trial.
D.O. Arnar et al.

Asymptomatic AF
“Birmingham 3-step approach”

Detect and manage AF
1 Identify low-risk patients
2 Offer stroke prevention to

Atrial and ventricular
The Atrial fibrillation patients with ≥1 stroke risk
remodeling
Better Care (ABC) pathway factors; assess bleeding risk
More advanced remodeling at the

time of AF diagnosis, due to longer
duration of undetected AF? 3 Choose OACa (a VKA with
Avoid stroke (optimize stroke well-managed TTR or a
prevention, consider OAC use) NOAC)
Increasing AF burden
(AF progression)
Better symptom management
(rate or rhythm control) Determine if truly asymptomatic (look
for atypical symptoms)
AF-related outcomes • In depth history
Cardiovascular and non- • A trial of rhythm control (e.g., DC
Heart failure (incident/worsening) cardiovascular risk factors/ cardioversion)
Stroke/Systemic embolism conditions management • Manage confirmed atypical
Renal dysfunction (incident/worsening)
symptoms
Cognitive impairment/Dementia
Hospitalization Quantify AF burden
Mortality • Manage hypertension, HF, • Consider AF ablationb in selected
Impaired quality of life DM, cardiac ischemia, sleep asymptomatic patients (younger
apnea patients, with paroxysmal or
• Lifestyle changes (weight persistent AF)
Improve
control, etc.)
the
outcomes • Consider patient values and
preferences
Figure 1 The Atrial fibrillation Better Care (ABC) pathway depicting some key components of AF management. aTo aid the choice between VKAs
and NOACs, the SAMeTT2R2 score, assigning 1 point each to female sex, age of <60 years, history of two or more co-morbidities (i.e. hypertension,
diabetes mellitus, coronary artery disease/myocardial infarction, peripheral arterial disease, congestive heart failure, previous stroke, pulmonary dis-
ease, and hepatic or renal disease) and treatment with drugs interacting with VKAs (e.g. amiodarone) and 2 points each for current or recent tobacco
use and non-Caucasian ethnicity, can be used. A score of >2 is predictive of poor TTR, all-cause mortality and composite endpoint of thromboembo-
lism, major bleeding, and mortality.69 bSeveral ongoing randomized studies are investigating the effects of rhythm control using AF ablation on AF-re-
lated outcomes: The CABANA (Catheter Ablation versus Anti-arrhythmic Drug Therapy for Atrial Fibrillation) trial is testing the hypothesis that AF
ablation is superior to rate or rhythm control drug therapy for reducing the incidence of the composite endpoint of all-cause mortality, disabling
stroke, serious bleeding or cardiac arrest (NCT009911508); The EAST (Early Treatment of Atrial Fibrillation for Stroke Prevention) trial is comparing
an early, structured rhythm control strategy based on antiarrhythmic drugs and catheter ablation versus usual care for the prevention of AF-related
complications (NCT1288352); in the OAT (Oral Anticoagulation Therapy) Study, AF patients with a CHADS2 score of > _2 or a CHA2DS2-VASc of
>
_3 are randomized to OAC or no OAC at 3 months after successful AF ablation (NCT01959425). AF, atrial fibrillation; DC, direct current; NOAC,
non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants; OAC, oral anticoagulant therapy; TTR, time in therapeutic range; VKA, vitamin K antagonist.
Oral anticoagulant therapy (OAC) using either vitamin K antago- Whether OAC can be stopped after an AF ablation procedure is
nists (VKAs) or the non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants uncertain, especially since AF recurrences are common, and may be
(NOACs), dabigatran, rivaroxaban, apixaban, or edoxaban effectively asymptomatic. Hence current guidelines recommend continuation of
reduces stroke, systemic embolism, and mortality in AF patients at in- OAC in the presence of stroke risk factors, irrespective of the appar-
creased risk of stroke.71,72 Compared to VKAs, NOACs exert ent success of rhythm-control interventions.77 The OCEAN trial is
broadly similar efficacy, but are safer with less intracranial bleeding, an ongoing multicentre randomized controlled trial evaluating two
and more convenient for long-term use.72,73 The decision to use antithrombotic treatment strategies (rivaroxaban vs. aspirin) for
OAC for thromboprophylaxis in AF patients depends on the pres- patients with risk factors for stroke after apparently successful AF
ence of CHA2DS2-VASc stroke risk factors, but not on arrhythmia- ablation.78
related symptoms.47,68,70 In observational studies of asymptomatic With the greater availability of screening tools, asymptomatic indi-
AF, OAC use vs. no therapy has been associated with a significant re- viduals will be increasingly diagnosed with paroxysmal AF that would
duction in stroke and mortality,65 and residual stroke risk was similar be missed by a routine ECG/Holter recording.5,6,76 The incremental
among anticoagulated AF patients and matched non-AF controls.74 burden of AF, reflected by the clinical types of AF (from paroxysmal,
Good long-term adherence to OACs75 may be particularly challeng- to persistent and to permanent AF), has been associated with
ing in asymptomatic patients but in a study of screening detected AF, increasing risk of stroke in post hoc analyses of randomized clinical
the 5-year adherence to OAC was 88% and stroke rates significantly trials,79–87 AF registries,88–91 and a meta-analysis of 12 studies.92
declined.76 Although generally lower in paroxysmal AF compared to non-
10 D.O. Arnar et al.
paroxysmal AF (Figure 2A and B), the annual stroke rates among non- The decision to perform an AF ablation in asymptomatic patients
anticoagulated patients with paroxysmal AF and > _1 CHA2DS2-VASc should be a shared informed process that considers not only poten-
stroke risk score79–81 (Figure 2A) is sufficiently high to merit OAC tial benefits (pending further evidence from randomized studies), but
use.47,68 Of note, major bleeding rates among anticoagulated AF also the risk of serious procedure-related complications (<_4%) and
patients were broadly similar across AF types82–85,92 (Figure 2C). patient’s values and preferences for treatment and outcomes63
Incremental AF burden has been also associated with increased risk (Figure 1). Notwithstanding that the exact AF duration before diagno-
of TICMP,93,94 heart failure (HF),55,95–98 cognitive impairment/de- sis is difficult to establish in asymptomatic patients, AF ablation in

mentia,99,100 and mortality.82–85,92 such patients may be considered in selected younger patients with
Asymptomatic AF has been independently associated with greater paroxysmal or persistent (but not long-term persistent) AF (Class IIb,
risk of progression than symptomatic arrhythmia (HR 1.6, 95% CI Level of evidence C).77
1.1–2.2).55 Five and 10 years after detection, paroxysmal/persistent Most of the management principles for AF also apply to atrial flut-
asymptomatic AF progressed to permanent AF in 25% and 50% of ter. While the risk of thromboembolism is sometimes reported to be
patients, respectively.55,76 Increasing evidence shows that compre- slightly less, the same indications exist for anticoagulation. Atrial flut-
hensive risk factor management (e.g. blood pressure lowering,101–103 ter has, however, been studied to a lesser extent than AF. Very little
weight reduction,104–106 glucose control,107 and treatment of ob- is known specifically about asymptomatic atrial flutter but treatment
structive sleep apnoea108) and lifestyle modification (e.g. physical ex- options would include initial rate control and consideration of cardio-
ercise and cardiorespiratory fitness,109–112 stress management113,114) version and/or ablation.
could decrease the burden of AF.115–117 These interventions have
not been investigated specifically in asymptomatic AF patients, but
their benefits would likely be similar to those seen in symptomatic
patients.118 Consensus statements Symbol References
.................................................................................................
A decrease in AF burden after successful AF catheter ablation 47,66–68
Patients with asymptomatic AF should
could reduce the risk of major AF-related outcomes including HF,
be anticoagulated, according to their
stroke, and mortality, as suggested by many observational studies calculated risk of stroke, equal to
evaluating mostly highly symptomatic patients.119–133 However, ob- patients with overt AF.
servational data have numerous limitations,134 and undertaking AF Consideration should be given to Expert
ablation to abolish the need for long-term OAC is presently not rec- screening high-risk individuals e.g. opinion
ommended.47,68,77 The effects of rhythm control using AF ablation patients with a CHA2DS2-VASc score
are currently being explored in several ongoing randomized outcome >
_ 2 for AF.
studies [e.g. CABANA (NCT00911508), EAST (NCT01288352), and Lifestyle changes should be advised in 47,66–68
OAT (NCT01959425)]. patients with asymptomatic AF, as in

In the CASTLE-AF randomized study, AF ablation yielded a 47% patients with overt AF.
mortality rate reduction compared with conventional rhythm control 77,137
Cardioversion of persistent AF in
among symptomatic anticoagulated AF patients with HF treated with
asymptomatic patients may be ad-
an implantable defibrillator (predominantly middle-aged males with
vised to differentiate between truly
moderate LV dysfunction) over a median 3-year follow-up.135 In the asymptomatic patients or those
CABANA trial,136 there was no significant difference between cathe- adapted to AF-related symptoms.
ter ablation compared to medical therapy for the primary outcome Rate control drugs should be prescribed 93,94
of composite of death, disabling stroke, serious bleeding, or cardiac to patients with asymptomatic AF
arrest, although symptoms were improved in the ablation arm. The with fast AV conduction in order to
results of the CABANA trial, although presented, have yet to be attempt to decrease risk of tachycar-
published. dia-induced cardiomyopathy.
Whether (and how) asymptomatic AF patients could benefit from Ablation might be proposed to selected 77
, Expert
AF ablation still needs to be established. Incidental diagnosis of AF patients with asymptomatic AF, based opinion
may trigger symptoms in susceptible patients as they become aware on patient’s preferences, after de-
of a heart condition,137 and even failed AF ablation may have a pla- tailed informed consent.
cebo effect in such patients.138 A challenge with rhythm control (e.g.
using electrical cardioversion) could identify apparently asymptom- AF, atrial fibrillation; AV, atrioventricular.
atic patients who had subconsciously adapted to AF by restricting

their lifestyle or have atypical symptoms.77,137 In many cases, a trial
with an antiarrhythmic drug might be considered after cardioversion
before considering ablation. Whereas these patients would likely ex- Atrial high-rate episodes
perience symptomatic improvement after successful AF ablation,138 a
failed procedure may turn truly asymptomatic patients into symp- Atrial high-rate episodes (AHREs), also sometimes termed subclinical
tomatic due to post-procedural atrial tachyarrhythmias (such a sce- AF, are different from symptomatic or asymptomatic AF essentially
nario has been reported in 24–34% of patients).139,140 by the way they are noted. The definitions of AHREs do vary slightly
A 4.5%
4.2%
4.0%
3.5% 3.3%
3.2%
3.0%
3.0%
2.5%

2.2%
2.1%
2.0%
2.0%
1.5%
1.0%
0.5%
0%
ACTIVE-A+AVERROES SPAF I-III ACTIVE-W
a a
Paroxysmal AF Persistent AF Permanent AF
Stroke rates per AF clinical type in non-anticoagulated patients
B 4.5%
4.0%
3.5%
3.0%
2.5%
2.18%
1.95%
2.0% 1.83%
1.73% 1.73%
1.52% 1.49% 1.55% 1.49%
1.5% 1.30%
1.32%
0.98% 0.93%
1.0% 0.90%
0.5%
0%
ARISTOTLE ROCKET-AF ENGAGE AF RE-LY AMADEUS SPORTIF III+V
a a
Stroke rates per AF clinical type in anticoagulated patients
C 4.0%
3.6% 3.6%
3.5% 3.3% 3.3%
3.0% 2.9% 2.9%

2.7% 2.7%
2.7%
2.5%
2.2%
2.0%
1.5%
1.0%
0.5%
0%
ARISTOTLE ROCKET-AF ENGAGE AF RE-LY
a a
Bleeding rates per AF clinical type in anticoagulated patients
Figure 2 Annual stroke rates across the clinical AF types in non-anticoagulated (A) and anticoagulated (B) patients with AF and major bleeding rates
per AF clinical type in patients taking OAC (C). (A) Stroke rates per AF clinical type in non-anticoagulated patients. (B) Stroke rates per AF clinical type in
anticoagulated patients. (C) Bleeding rates per AF clinical type in anticoagulated patients. aEvent rates are reported jointly for persistent and permanent
AF (also shown as gradient bar). Dotted line shows the threshold for (N)OAC use. Active-A/W, Atrial Fibrillation Clopidogrel trial With irbesartan for
Prevention of Vascular Events Aspirin/Warfarin; AVERROES, Apixaban Versus Acetylsalicylic Acid to Prevent Stroke in Atrial Fibrillation Patients Who
Have Failed or Are Unsuitable for Vitamin K Antagonist Treatment; SPAF, Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation; ARISTOTLE, Apixaban for Reduction
in Stroke and Other Thromboembolic Events in Atrial Fibrillation; ROCKET-AF, Rivaroxaban Once Daily Oral Direct Factor Xa Inhibition Compared
With Vitamin K Antagonism for Prevention of Stroke and Embolism Trial in Atrial Fibrillation; ENGAGE AF, Effective Anticoagulation With Factor Xa
Next Generation in Atrial Fibrillation; RE-LY, Randomized Evaluation of Long-Term Anticoagulation Therapy; AMADEUS, Evaluating the Use of
SR34006 Compared to Warfarin or Acenocoumarol in Patients With Atrial Fibrillation; SPORTIF, Stroke Prevention using Oral Thrombin Inhibitor in
Atrial Fibrillation.
from study to study.6,47,141 In the ASSERT study, AHREs were de- NOACs in CIED patients with 6 min to 24 h of AHRE and with addi-
fined as episodes of at least 5 min of atrial rate >180 b.p.m., detected tional risk factors, but without documented AF.148,149 The results of
by the continuous monitoring by cardiac implantable electronic devi- these studies are expected in 2021. No studies to date have sug-
ces (CIEDs),6 while AF was defined by an episode lasting at least 30 s gested any benefit of any rhythm-control strategy, including any anti-
on an ECG with irregular RR intervals with no discernible, distinct P arrhythmic drug or ablation, in these asymptomatic patients.
waves.47 This can be either in the presence (overt AF) or absence
(asymptomatic AF) of symptoms typically associated with AF (i.e. pal-

pitations, shortness of breath, light-headedness, chest pain, pre-syn-
cope, or syncope). Consensus statements Symbol References
Both AHREs and AF can thus be asymptomatic. Contrary to .................................................................................................
141,144
asymptomatic AF, which can be diagnosed in any patients using any Patients with AHRE should be consid-
kind of diagnostic tool [ECG, Holter monitoring, event recorder, and ered as having a higher stroke risk
implantable loop recorder (ILR)], AHREs are only diagnosed in compared with patients without
patients with CIEDs. There are different algorithms from different AHRE.
141,148,149
manufacturers to detect these AHREs, albeit with variable accuracy. The benefit of anticoagulating patients ,
Not all implanted devices are able to document AHREs by providing with AHREs and additional stroke risk Expert
intracardiac electrograms. The positive predictive value of various factors, but without clinical AF, is still consensus
atrial rate and episode length was tested in the ASSERT popula- unclear. Patients with AHRE should
tion.142 Inappropriate detection of AHREs by review of device-based be referred for further detailed evalu-
arrhythmia detection counters, and by comparison to stored electro- ation unless AF is already fully con-
grams, was only seen in 10–17% of the >6 min episodes and 1–2% of firmed by stored electrograms.
the >24 h episodes. To what extent AHREs can be considered as an Anticoagulation might be considered on Expert
early stage of AF is not known. an individual basis in some patients consensus
The prevalence of AHREs in patients with CIEDs has been with AHREs and a CHA2DS2-VASc
reported to range between 30% and 60%.143 The TRENDS study score >
_2.
showed a doubling of risk of thrombo-embolic events in the presence AHREs per se do not require antiar- Expert
of >5.5 h AHREs over a 30-day period.144 The ASSERT trial detected rhythmic treatment. consensus
AHREs in 10.1% of patients over the first 3 months after pacemaker
implantation.141 In these patients with AHREs, the risk of developing
AF, atrial fibrillation; AHRE, atrial high-rate episode.
overt AF was 5.6 times higher (95% CI 3.78–8.17, P < 0.001) and the
embolic risk was 2.5 times higher (95% CI 1.28–4.85, P = 0.007) over
a follow-up period of 2.8 years. This increased stroke risk, stratified
according to the CHADS2 score, was however smaller than
expected in patients with comparable CHADS2 scores with overt
Premature ventricular
AF: an annual stroke risk of 0.6% for AHREs vs. 2.8% for AF contractions
in CHADS2 = 1 patients, 1.29% for AHREs vs. 4.0% for AF in
Isolated and sparse PVCs are a normal occurrence in most individu-
CHADS2 = 2 patients, and 3.8% for AHREs vs. >5.9% for AF
als. A few to multiple PVCs can be seen on most 24-h Holter moni-
in CHADS2 > _ 3 patients.145 As mentioned previously, there was no
tors, including those from healthy young individuals.150 These PVCs
temporal relationship between stroke and AHREs146 which begs the
question of whether AHREs are causal or perhaps only a risk marker usually originate from different locations in both right and left ven-
of an atrial cardiomyopathy as discussed in the section on PACs. tricles. They may result from focal activity or, less likely, be due to a
Longer episodes of AHREs (>24 h) were associated with the highest (micro) re-entrant mechanism. In some individuals, however, a higher
risk of ischaemic stroke or systemic embolism.141 number of PVCs may be present. Frequent PVCs may be a marker
The only published study assessing anticoagulation of patients diag- for underlying abnormal cardiac substrate. This may be the result of
nosed with AHREs was the IMPACT trial, in patients with remote underlying electrical, ischaemic, or structural alterations, leading to
monitoring of implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs) or car- enhanced automaticity (e.g. in chronically ischaemic tissue), triggered
diac resynchronization therapy (CRT), without history of stroke or activity [e.g. in long QT syndrome (LQTS), or by drugs such as di-
documented AF.147 There was no difference in primary outcomes goxin], or re-entrant mechanisms (e.g. in post-infarction patients).
(stroke, systemic embolism, major haemorrhage, and mortality) be- Underlying cardiac disease is a prognostically unfavourable marker
tween the intervention and control arms when oral anticoagulation in asymptomatic patients with PVCs and requires a specialist ap-
was decided according to the CHADS2 score and to the recurrence proach to address the potential prognostic impact. Premature ven-
or not of AHRE episodes between two control visits. Therefore, it tricular contraction characteristics, such as a high burden, a more
should be emphasized that there are no data yet to indicate whether complex presentation (e.g. couplets, triplets, or non-sustained runs),
anticoagulation for short AHREs is beneficial or not. The ARTESIA multifocal origin, and/or increasing PVC frequency with exercise,
and NOAH-AFNET 6 trials are currently ongoing to test the effect of should all alert to potential underlying electrical, ischaemic, or
differing morphologies from the right ventricle (RV) in patients with

Table 5 Factors that may point to worse prognosis in
patients with PVCs normal LV function should prompt investigations to rule out arrhyth-
mogenic cardiomyopathy with right ventricular dominance or sar-
• Underlying structural, ischemic or electrical disease coidosis.157 Similarly, multifocal PVCs of LV origin should trigger
• More than 2000 PVC/24 h investigations for non-ischaemic cardiomyopathy.
• Complex PVCs (couplets, triplets, and non-sustained VT) Other less common locations of focal PVC are around the mitral
• Increasing number of morphologies or tricuspid annulus. These PVCs are strictly unifocal again but have a

• Increasing number PVCs with exercise superior axis with LBBB or RBBB morphology. Locations away from
• Non-outflow tract PVC (usually monomorphic or only slightly the annulus are usually related to PVC originating from the His-
divergent morphologies) Purkinje system. Finally, intramyocardial foci may occur, often related
• Short coupling interval of the PVCs (‘R-on-T’) to the papillary muscles or the moderator band.158 Some of these
• PVCs with broader QRS complexes (more frequently related to foci may present with a pattern of parasystole, indicating poor electri-
cardiomyopathy) cal coupling with the surrounding tissue, or generate NSVT. A strict
unifocal presentation in the absence of demonstrable structural heart
disease points to a benign automatic focus in such situations.
These factors may suggest a poorer prognosis in individudals with PVCs and need
a thorough investigation to rule out underlying structural, ischaemic, or electrical
Very rarely, otherwise ‘benign’ PVCs may give rise to polymorphic
disease. The additional evaluations should be individually tailored, in analogy with VT or ventricular fibrillation (VF) due to their short coupling inter-
the flowchart in Figure 3. val.152 Short-coupled PVCs impinging on the T wave may induce
PVC, premature ventricular contractions; VT, ventricular tachycardia.
polymorphic VT/VF in a setting of ischaemia, electrolyte abnormali-
ties, underlying LQTS, or early repolarization syndrome. This may
also rarely occur in a ‘normal’ heart, sometimes called ‘short-coupled
structural alterations that may be associated with the undesired out- form of torsades de pointes’.153 Often, such PVCs arise from the
come of major ventricular arrhythmias or sudden death Purkinje network, but also other foci have been described. In such
(Table 5).151,152 There is no absolute threshold of the number of patients, the malignant electrical presentation mandates aggressive
PVCs that can be used as a cut-off for underlying disease and hence treatment, possibly by ablation. In some, an implantable defibrillator
should trigger further investigations. A study in apparently healthy may be indicated.
athletes has shown that in those with >2000 PVC per day, there was Frequent PVCs (usually defined as >10–15% of the total number
a 30% risk of finding underlying heart disease.153 Even in the absence of beats per 24 h) can impair LV function (PVC-induced cardiomyop-
of demonstrable underlying disease, a moderate to high burden of athy) which may be reversible with medical treatment or catheter ab-
PVCs are a marker for all-cause and cardiovascular mortality, indicat- lation of the extrasystoles and standard HF therapy.159,160 However,
ing that continued follow-up may be warranted.154 it is well recognized that not all patients with frequent PVCs will de-
The morphology of the PVCs can provide important additional in- velop LV dysfunction. Factors associated with the development of LV
formation in this diagnostic conundrum, since some predilection sites dysfunction include: longer PVC QRS duration, epicardial PVCs, ret-
of benign PVC ectopy are well recognized. The most prevalent entity rograde atrial activation of PVCs, and interpolation of PVCs.161–163
in this respect are PVCs originating from the ventricular outflow tract The PVC burden remains one of the strongest predictors for the de-
regions, showing a clear inferior axis with high voltages in the inferior velopment of a PVC-induced cardiomyopathy, although the burden
limb leads (usually with a combined amplitude of >4.5 mV of the QRS associated with cardiomyopathy varies between studies. Most studies
complexes in leads II, III, and aVF). Most frequently, these PVCs origi- are limited by a strong referral bias in enrolling patients who are
nate from the right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT), in which case symptomatic and referred for catheter ablation. The prevalence of
they have a left bundle branch morphology in V1 (i.e. a dominant neg- LV dysfunction in these studies ranged from 7% to 52% (Table 6).
ative QRS complex), with transition between V3 and V4. Earlier tran- Asymptomatic patients with frequent PVCs were underrepre-
sition, and certainly when V1 shows a right bundle branch sented in these studies. With these inherent limitations, there
morphology, suggests a left-sided origin, which may be within the appears to be an increase in risk in the development of PVC-induced
coronary cusps of the aorta, or in the endocardium or epicardium of cardiomyopathy with a PVC burden >10%. However, PVC-induced
the left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT).155 These PVCs are thought cardiomyopathy has been reported in individuals with a PVC burden
to be the result of triggered activity, i.e. a local cellular cause which in <10%.166,168 A recent study measuring subtle degrees of LV impair-
most cases has no serious prognostic implications. Therefore, the ment by using speckle tracking echocardiography (measuring LV
PVCs are usually strictly unifocal, but slight morphological changes global longitudinal strain and mechanical dispersion) showed mild im-
are often seen, attributed to different exit points of the ectopic activ- pairment of myocardial function with a PVC burden >8%.169 The
ity. Although these RVOT/LVOT arrhythmias usually occur in struc- wide range reported in studies may be partly explained by the single-
turally normal hearts, they may rarely be an atypical expression of day Holter monitoring used. A wide daily variation in PVC burden is
arrhythmogenic (right) ventricular cardiomyopathy.156 well recognized. Longer monitoring has been shown to double the
The absence of imaging abnormalities on an echocardiogram and identification of patients with a PVC burden of >10%.171 It can be dif-
cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can help to rule out struc- ficult to determine if the PVCs are the cause or the consequence of
tural heart disease in such patients. The demonstration of PVCs of LV dysfunction.
Two studies have reported on the natural history of PVCs.
10/96 had PVC burden <10%

................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Niwano et al.,172 followed 239 consecutive patients (mostly asymp-
2/17 had PVC burden <10%

tomatic) with a PVC burden >1%, with normal baseline LV function,
over a mean follow-up of 5.6 years. Patients were grouped into
LV dysfunction those with a high, moderate, and low PVC burden. Forty-six
Lowest PVC
burden with
patients had a high PVC burden (>20%), 105 had a moderate bur-
den (5–20%), and 88 patients had a low PVC burden (1–5%).

Thirteen patients (5%) developed LV dysfunction (defined as a fall
10%
–
–
–
in LVEF by at least 6%) at follow-up. Patients with a high PVC bur-
den >20% were more likely to develop LV dysfunction but this
16% (sensitivity 100%, specificity 87%)

change in LVEF occurred very slowly over several years with no
reported major adverse cardiac events. Dukes et al.,173 followed
15/17 had PVC burden >10%
1139 elderly (>65 years) patients from the Cardiovascular Health

Study who had Holter monitoring and were followed up with an
echocardiogram 5 years later and for incident HF. They reported
LV dysfunction
predictive for
that a PVC burden in the upper quartile (roughly equivalent to

PVC burden
>100 PVC/24 h) had a three-fold increase in the risk of incident HF

compared to the lowest quartile. The population attributable risk
>8%
of developing HF due to PVCs was 8.1%.

–
The risk of developing a PVC-induced cardiomyopathy rises with

increasing PVC burden. Subtle degrees of LV dysfunction can be
dysfunction)
PVC burden
29.3 ± 14.6%
seen with a PVC burden as low as 8%. In studies where patients

30.7 ± 10%
29 ± 9.2%
33 ± 13%
31 ± 11%
26 ± 12%
were referred for management of PVCs, usually because of symp-

22%
toms, the predictive PVC burden to cause a PVC-induced cardio-

(LV
myopathy is >10%, usually >20%. However, the vast majority of

patients with frequent PVCs >10% will not go on to develop a car-
dysfunction)
PVC burden
diomyopathy. Studies from Niwano et al. and Hasdemir et al., sug-

28 ± 11.6%
16.7 ± 13.7
13 ± 12%
22 ± 10%
17 ± 12%
8.1 ± 7.4
gest a prevalence of 5–7% for patients with a PVC burden

(no LV
>10%.165,172 Recently, the study by Dukes et al.,173 suggested the

5%
prevalence of HF due to PVCs in the elderly population may be

Summary of studies relating PVC burden with LV dysfunction
higher than previously reported.

15 (GLS worse than -18%)
A proposed scheme to evaluate patients with more than

LV, left ventricular; LVEF, left ventricular ejection fraction; PVC, premature ventricular contraction.
expected PVC is shown in Figure 3. Although Dukes et al.,173 had

LV dysfunction
57 (LVEF < 50%)

17 (LVEF < 50%)
17 (LVEF < 50%)
28 (LVEF < 50%)
96 (LVEF < 50%)
52 (LVEF <50%)
described a cut-off of ±100 PVCs/24 h, we would suggest setting

patients with
(definition)
the bar at > _500 PVCs to trigger an extensive workup for underlying
disease, given the findings in athletes with a 2000 PVCs/24 h cut-
No. of
off.153 Since excluding underlying disease is a cumbersome and

sometimes complex task, there is no defined set of ‘minimal investi-
gations’, but conceptually three axes of evaluation need to be ex-
(asymptomatic)
No. of patients
plored (imaging, electrical, and genetic) based on what may be

clinically indicated. If the evaluation is negative in an asymptomatic
subject, treatment is not required but it seems reasonable to per-
form serial measurements of LV function (yearly) in patients with a
17
26
36
–
7
–
–
PVC burden >10%. In patients who develop symptoms, or who

have or develop LV dysfunction, medical therapy (beta-blockers,
with PVCs
calcium blockers with or without antiarrhythmic drug therapy),

patients
No. of
and/or catheter ablation is indicated.

174
249
127
186
180
70
52
There are a number of considerations that need to taken into ac-

count when deciding whether to treat asymptomatic PVCs. In the
Blaye-Felice et al.168
CAST study, suppression of PVCs by flecainide and encainide after

Hasdemir et al.165
myocardial infarction (MI) was found to be harmful.174 In cases where

Munoz et al.166
Baman et al.164
Park et al.170
Ban et al.167
Lie et al.169
patients have frequent PVCs but in the background of longstanding

Table 6
remodelled cardiomyopathy (eccentric with thinning) or with large,

dense STEMI scars, the likelihood of benefit of intervention to im-
prove LV function may be low.
Ventricular tachycardia
Consensus statements Symbol References The definition of NSVT constitutes three or more consecutive ven-
................................................................................................. tricular beats at a rate of greater than 100 b.p.m. with a duration of
151,152
Asymptomatic patients with frequent less than 30 s. The prevalence of asymptomatic NSVT varies from
PVCs (>500 per 24 h) should be re- 0.7% (healthy army population) to 10% (in a geriatric population) in
ferred to a specialist for further evalu- patients without known heart disease.175–177 On the other hand, it is

ation to rule out any underlying common in ischaemic heart disease (30–80% of patients) during long-
structural, ischaemic, or electrical term ECG monitoring where it is usually asymptomatic.178
heart disease. The mode of discovery of VT may vary, but a 12-lead ECG during
154
Very frequent PVCs (burden > 20%) are the arrhythmia should be obtained whenever possible. Whereas
a marker of all-cause and cardiovascu- NSVT may be asymptomatic, sustained VT is much more often symp-
lar mortality and may justify intensi- tomatic. Slow VT, generally slower than 150 b.p.m., may however be
fied follow-up. asymptomatic. When lasting for hours/days individuals with slow VT
PVCs should be treated in patients with Expert may, however, become symptomatic because of HF symptoms.
suspected PVC-mediated consensus Definitions of different sub-types of VT are summarized in Table 7.
cardiomyopathy. Among ventricular arrhythmias, two distinct entities require specific
Treatment of patients with asymptom- Expert mention; bidirectional VT and torsades de pointes VT. Bidirectional
atic PVCs should focus on the under- consensus VT may be asymptomatic particularly in Andersen–Tawil syndrome.
lying heart disease in order to The classic causes are digitalis toxicity or channelopathies such as cat-
improve prognosis. echolaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT) or
Andersen–Tawil syndrome. Torsades de pointes VT is a type of VT
PVC, premature ventricular contraction. seen exclusively in the setting of prolonged QT interval whether it is
acquired or congenital.
PVC ≥500/24h
Exclude electrical, ischemic or structural underlying etiology
Imaging work-up: Electrical work-up: Genetic work-up:
Echocardiography Exercise ECG Consider based on

Cardiac MRI Signal-averaged ECG familial history,
Other Morphological PVC assessment imaging or electrical work-up
(unifocal/multifocal; site of origin)
Invasive EP study
Evidence for underlying etiology?

yes no
Treatment to improve prognosis Symptomatic PVC?

yes
no
Treatment to improve symptoms >10% PVC burden?
yes no
Yearly: LV function? Long-term: CV disease?
Figure 3 Evaluation of patients with >500 premature ventricular contractions per 24 h. There is no defined set of ‘minimal investigations’, but con-
ceptually three axes of evaluation need to be explored (imaging, electrical, and genetic) and investigations considered on an a case to case basis. CV,
cardiovascular; ECG, electrocardiography; EP, electrophysiology; LV, left ventricular; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging PVC, premature ventricular
contraction.
Table 7 Definitions of different sub-types of ventricular tachycardia
Type of ventricular arrhythmia Definition

....................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Non-sustained VT Three or more consecutive ventricular beats terminating spontaneously in less than 30 s with a cycle
length of <600 ms (>100 b.p.m.)
• Non-sustained monomorphic VT NSVT with a single QRS morphology

• Non-sustained polymorphic VT NSVT with a changing QRS morphology and a cycle length between 600 and 180 ms
Monomorphic sustained VT VT greater than 30 s in duration or terminated by external intervention with a stable QRS morphology
Bidirectional VT VT with a beat to beat alternans in the frontal plane axis often associated with digitalis toxicity or
channelopathies such as CPVT or Andersen-Tawil syndrome
Torsades de pointes Polymorphic VT characterized by twisting of the peaks of the QRS complexes around the isoelectric line
often associated with long QT.
• Typical: initiation following a long/short/long coupling interval
• Atypical: short coupled variant initiated by R on T PVCs
Accelerated idioventricular rhythm Ventricular rhythm slower than 100 bpm
CPVT, catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia; ms, milliseconds; NSVT, non-sustained ventricular tachycardia; PVC, premature ventricular contractions; VT, ven-
tricular tachycardia.
The goal of the evaluation is to try to identify an electrical cardiac channelopathy.190 However, when asymptomatic, some patients
disorder and rule out underlying heart disease, primarily coronary ar- with very frequent or incessant NSVT may develop TICMP over
tery stenosis. Suggested first- and second-line evaluations are pre- time.191 Pending symptoms or alteration in ventricular function, ob-
sented in Table 8. First-line investigations include clinical evaluation servation with no specific therapy is perfectly acceptable, although
associated with a 12 lead ECG, rhythm monitoring (e.g. Holter moni- follow-up is mandatory.
tor), echocardiogram, laboratory testing with or without an exercise Polymorphic NSVT in the absence of heart disease or channelop-
stress test depending on the situation. Second-line investigations may athy is unusual but requires detailed evaluation and in most cases
include coronary artery angiography or cardiac MRI/CT scan to rule treatment. Malignant polymorphic VT is extremely rare in asymp-
out subtle heart disease such as focal cardiomyopathy. tomatic patients, with premature beats triggering polymorphic VT
Pharmacological testing may be considered in the absence of struc- usually arising from the RVOT or the Purkinje network192 with, but
tural heart disease to evaluate for an inherited arrhythmic disorder. not always, short coupling intervals.193,194 In those patients who are
This may include ajmaline and if not available flecainide testing to un- asymptomatic, the possibility of quinidine, ablation, and/or ICD
cover Brugada syndrome.179 Other types of pharmacological testing should be discussed with expert electrophysiologists after elimination
such as epinephrine for diagnosing LQTS180 and isoproterenol for of reversible causes.
the diagnosis of arrhythmias in ARVC have been described.181 In patients with structural heart disease, the presence of asymp-
However, due to an associated risk of inducing life-threatening ven- tomatic arrhythmias usually is a more ominous sign. No antiarrhyth-
tricular arrhythmias these pharmacologic tests should only be done mic drugs, except beta-blockers, have been shown to decrease
by experts under optimal circumstances. Genetic testing may also be mortality in patients with asymptomatic ventricular arrhythmia and
proposed but should be performed on careful clinical indications and structural heart disease. Optimal medical therapy including beta-
in dedicated centres with the experience to interpret results and blocker, angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors ± mineralo-
with the ability to provide genetic counselling. The use of signal- corticoid receptor antagonist is the first step in individuals with im-
averaged ECG has decreased but might be considered in special cir- paired LV systolic function. After ruling out acute coronary artery
cumstances, such as to search for concealed underlying structural stenosis, an ICD is indicated for sustained VT without a reversible
heart disease (e.g. ARVC). cause in those with LVEF <35%. However, in case of mild structural
Management of asymptomatic ventricular arrhythmias largely heart disease with LVEF >40% and well-tolerated VT, VT ablation
depends on whether structural heart disease is present or not. In alone has sometimes been proposed in ischaemic cardiomyopathy195
individuals without structural heart disease, non-sustained and some- and ARVC.196 This, however, needs to be determined on a case-by-
times repetitive idiopathic VT are usually adenosine-sensitive, based case basis.
on cAMP mediated triggered activity, often aggravated by exercise or Table 9 summarizes the treatment for asymptomatic patients with
emotional stress. They mainly originate from the right or LVOT, al- NSVT depending on the underlying substrate. Non-sustained ventric-
though there are exceptions.182–184 Rarely, verapamil-sensitive fascicular tachycardia in an asymptomatic patient with a LVEF > _ 40% does
ular VT presents as non-sustained salvos.185–188 usually not require specific antiarrhythmic therapy, but optimization
Prognosis is usually considered benign in those that have no clear of the treatment of the underlying heart disease.202 However, the
heart disease,176,189 although some cases of sudden death have been prognostic value of an EP study in patients with ischaemic cardiomy-
described, possibly reflecting an undetected cardiomyopathy or opathy and a LVEF >40% is currently being investigated.210 Despite
Table 8 Evaluation of patients with asymptomatic sustained or non-sustained VT
First line evaluation

History Prior cardiovascular disease, hypertension, syncope or near-syncope, relation of VT to exercise.
Family history SCD, inherited arrhythmia syndromes, coronary artery disease, cardiomyopathy
Medications QT prolonging drugs, sodium channel blockers, drug interactions
Physical examination Sign of structural heart disease or heart failure

Twelve-lead ECG Q-waves, ischaemic changes, prolonged or fractionated QRS, QT prolongation or shortening,
J point elevation and coved-type ST elevation V1–V3, early repolarization, epsilon waves,
or T-wave inversion anteriorly, laterally or inferiorly
Prolonged rhythm monitoring (Holter-ECG) Day/night/effort appearance. Frequency and duration of episodes
Echocardiography Signs of structural heart disease
Laboratory Serum electrolytes, renal function, thyroid function and BNP
Stress test Suspicion of coronary artery disease, exercise-related symptoms, borderline QT interval.
VT provocation by exertion
Second line evaluation
Non-invasive evaluation of coronary artery Low suspicion of coronary artery disease
Coronary arteriography High suspicion of coronary artery disease
Cardiac MRI Suspicion of structural heart disease such as ARVC, HCM, cardiac sarcoidosis, congenital abnormalities
Electrophysiological study In case of NSVT, coronary artery disease and moderate LV dysfunction (EF<40%), syncope
Pharmacological testing To unmask suspected Brugada syndrome
• Ajmaline test
• Flecainide test
Genetic testing In case of inherited arrhythmic disorders or in the setting of familial screening when a
mutation is identified in the family.
ARVC, arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy; BNP, brain natriuretic peptide; ECG, electrocardiography; HCM, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy; LV, left ventricular;
NSVT, non-sustained ventricular tachycardia; SCD, sudden cardiac death; VT, ventricular tachycardia.
the high rate of sudden death after MI among patients with a low ejec- management of such patients should, if possible, be discussed with an
tion fraction, ICDs are generally not indicated until 40–90 days after electrophysiologist, who is an expert in Brugada syndrome.
MI. Somewhat surprisingly, the results of the recent VEST trial Currently, it is unknown if the few asymptomatic patients with
showed that among patients with a recent MI and an ejection fraction multifocal ectopic Purkinje-related PVCs with preserved LV func-
of 35% or less, the wearable cardioverter-defibrillator did not lead to tion may benefit from quinidine,215 with SCD only being described
a significantly lower rate of the primary outcome of arrhythmic death in patients with altered LVEF. Patients with Andersen–Tawil syn-
than control.211 drome are often asymptomatic despite presenting with frequent
In patients with LV assist devices, VT is common212 and may be salvos of VT, often bidirectional, and may be incessant.216 The rate
well-tolerated because of the preserved cardiac output from the de- of malignant events seem to be low on beta-blockers even if they
vice. However, VT episodes seem linked to higher mortality212 and are not directly effective in decreasing the VT burden. Flecainide
may alter right ventricular function. Therefore, ablation may be con- seems effective against VT, especially when combined with beta-
sidered in case of frequent VT episodes under these circumstances.213 blockers. Catheter ablation does not seem to be an option in these
Detailed management of asymptomatic patients with channelopa- patients.216
thies is a topic that exceeds the purpose of this article and can be The occurrence of VT in athletes, even when asymptomatic,
found in dedicated consensus documents.7,214 A brief summary is should lead to a thorough evaluation to eliminate the possibility of
found in Table 10 but a few points warrant mention. When the QTc structural heart disease or the use of illegal and/or performance en-
interval is prolonged, an assessment of why this has occurred is nec- hancing substances. An echocardiogram, cardiac MRI, and exercise
essary. Medications are relatively frequent causes of QT prolonga- test should all be considered. Once these possibilities have elimi-
tion. If drug induced QT prolongation and electrolyte disturbances nated, it is well recognized that intense physical activity may not only
such as hypokalaemia have been ruled out, consideration should be induce VT217 but also exercise-induced arrhythmogenic RV remodel-
given to genetic testing for further diagnosis. ling.218 Sports-induced PVCs and VTs were not associated with ad-
Asymptomatic non-sustained polymorphic VT in patients with verse events in athletes without structural heart disease.217
Brugada syndrome or early repolarization should be considered a po- Interruption of physical activity lead to long-term resolution of
tentially malignant event and be managed accordingly.179 However exercise-induced VT, but athletes with persistent VT may be consid-
monomorphic NSVT (particularly originating from the RVOT) may ered candidates for ablation to permit return to competitive
sometimes be recorded and may not convey an increased risk. The sports.217
Table 9 Treatment of asymptomatic patients with NSVT depending on underlying structural heart disease
Clinical setting Risk of sudden Prognostic evaluation Treatment References

cardiac death
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Acute STEMI <48 h Not increased Coronary artery disease • Optimal medical therapy in-
cluding beta-blocker
•

Revascularization
Acute STEMI >48 h Increased risk Waiting for 6 weeks post-MI • Optimal medical therapy 197,198
(ACE inhibitors, beta-block-

ers, and mineralocorticoid re-
ceptor antagonist)
199,200
Previous MI and LVEF 36–40% Increased risk EPS ACEI, beta-blocker ± ICD
depending on EPS
200,201
Previous MI and LVEF <_ 35% Increased risk Careful evaluation of LVEF ACE, beta-blocker, mineralocor-
ticoid receptor antagonist ICD
Non-ischaemic dilated CMP Uncertain Uncertain • Optimal medical therapy 7,202–204
• Cardiac MRI to identify an (ACE inhibitors, beta-block-

underlying substrate ers, and mineralocorticoid re-
• EPS is controversial ceptor antagonist)
• ICD if LVEF <30% See rele-
vant guidelines
Myocarditis sequelae Uncertain Uncertain • Beta-blockers 7
• Cardiac MRI to identify an • ICD when LVEF<30% and

underlying substrate acute phase of myocarditis
• EPS may be considered ruled out
• Exercise test
Mitral valve prolapse CMP Possible increased risk Uncertain • Benefits of beta-blocker 205–207
• Cardiac MRI to identify unclear

myocardial scar • ICD may be discussed in se-
lected cases
HCM • Increased risk Determine other criteria for ICD or nothing depending on risk 208
• NSVT defined as >

_3 risk stratification:TTE, car- stratification (see relevant
consecutive ventricular diac MRI, stress test or guidelines)
beats at >
_120 b.p.m. stress echo, and genetic
lasting <30 s testing
ARVC Probably increased risk • Evaluation of RV and LV • Beta-blocker 196,209
function • ICD should be discussed

• Consider EPS according to risk stratification
• Consider catheter ablation in
carefully selected cases
7
Left ventricular Uncertain None Same criteria than for non-ischae-
non-compaction mic dilated CMP
Cardiac amyloidosis Uncertain None • Specific treatment of 7
amyloidosis
• No ICD indication for pri-
mary prevention at present
time
ACE, angiotensin converting enzyme; Acute STEMI, acute ST elevation myocardial infarction; ARVC, arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy; b.p.m., beats per minute;
CMP, cardiomyopathy; EPS, electrophysiology study; HCM, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy; ICD, implantable cardioverter-defibrillator; LVEF, left ventricular ejection fraction;
MI, myocardial infarction; NSVT, non-sustained ventricular tachycardia; RV, right ventricle; TTE, Transthoracic echocardiography.
However, a word of caution is warranted in this situation as individ- known to die suddenly during exercise. This underscores the impor-
uals with CPVT, who usually have structurally normal hearts, may pre- tance of a careful evaluation in these individuals. Ventricular tachycardia
sent with exercise-induced VT which could be the first sign of high risk associated with an isolated sub-epicardial RVOT scar can be found in
for sudden death. Similarly, patients with asymptomatic myocarditis high-level endurance athletes without any evidence of ARVC, and this
would not always qualify for structural heart disease and they are can be successfully treated by ablation with excellent outcomes.218
population;224,225 thus, no therapy is recommended.

Table 10 A brief summary of treatment of patients
with asymptomatic ventricular arrhythmias in the set- Chemotherapeutic agents (mainly anthracyclines, but also other
ting of channelopathies drugs such as melphalan) may acutely promote VT or torsades de
pointes by different mechanisms, even in those without identifiable
Asymptomatic Treatment options underlying heart disease.226,227 Due to the risk of SCD, chemother-
ventricular arrhythmia
................................................................................................. apy should be postponed in case of asymptomatic VT, until necessary
Monomorphic If evaluation for structural heart disease decisions have been made about cessation or continuation of the

sustained or with echo, cardiac MRI is normal, no drug together with adapted preventive therapy.
non-sustained VT therapy. Need follow-up and moni- Ventricular arrhythmias are sometimes evidenced by the rhythm
toring of LV function monitoring during a general anaesthesia. In this particular situation, it
Polymorphic VT • Culprit PVC ablation is very important to obtain a tracing of the arrhythmia. Ventricular
• Discuss ICD and/or quinidine tachycardia under these circumstances should lead to complete eval-
MEPPC Discuss quinidine uation as mentioned above and in Table 8. If normal, there is usually
Andersen–Tawil Beta-blockers ± flecainide or calcium no need for treatment.
channel blocker Asymptomatic accelerated idioventricular rhythm may be ob-
CPVT on beta-blockers • Ascertain the intake of beta-blocker served in adults and children without structural heart disease. It does
• Add flecainide and/or left cardiac not convey any increased risk of SCD and therefore, no therapy or
sympathetic denervation monitoring is needed.228,229
• Discuss ICD as last option
Long QT syndrome • Correction of hypokalaemia if
present
• Careful consideration of QT pro- Consensus statements Symbol References
.................................................................................................
longing drug withdrawal. Consider
Patients with asymptomatic NSVT Expert
genetic testing and beta-blockers if
should be referred for careful evalua- consensus
no reversible cause found
• tion to detect any underlying struc-
Brugada syndrome and Quinidine
• tural, ischaemic, or electrical heart
early repolarization Discuss ICD with expert in Brugada
disease.
syndrome syndrome
After ruling out acute coronary artery Expert
stenosis, an ICD is indicated for sus- consensus
CPVT, catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia, ICD, implantable tained VT without a reversible cause
cardioverter-defibrillator; LV, left ventricular; MEPPC, multifocal ectopic
in those with LVEF < 35%.
Purkinje-related premature contractions; PVC, premature ventricular contrac- 202
tions; VT, ventricular tachycardia. NSVT in an asymptomatic patient with a
LVEF >_ 40% does not usually require
specific antiarrhythmic therapy, but
While PVCs are common during pregnancy, VT and SCD are ex- optimization of the treatment of the
ceptionally rare.219 Asymptomatic VT in pregnant women with a underlying heart disease.
healthy heart may in most cases be monitored without specific ther-
apy. In cases of pregnancy induced cardiomyopathy and asymptom- ICD, implantable cardioverter-defibrillator; LVEF, left ventricular ejection frac-
tion; NSVT, non-sustained ventricular tachycardia; VT, ventricular tachycardia.
atic VTs a temporary use of a life vest might be considered.
In infants without any cardiac abnormality, asymptomatic ventricu-
lar arrhythmias are rare and often resolve during the first year. Left
ventricular dysfunction may be due to asymptomatic VT or frequent Tachycardia-induced
PVCs and is reversible when the burden is decreased.220 No benefit cardiomyopathy
of any antiarrhythmic drug has been shown221 in this situation in
asymptomatic children with a normal heart. Both supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias can lead to TICMP
Individuals with congenital heart disease may have a variety of (Table 11). Tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy may be divided into
arrhythmias, both symptomatic and asymptomatic. In patients with te- two types: (i) pure, where tachycardia is the sole mechanism of wors-
tralogy of Fallot (ToF), the risk related to NSVT is debated.222,223 An ening of LV function; and (ii) mixed, or impure as it was originally
EP study may be proposed in case of NSVT.202 An ICD is a Class IIa in- termed, where tachycardia worsens a pre-existing cardiomyopathy
dication in ToF patients presenting with other risk factors, and a Class due to a different cause.191 However, the fact that pure TICMP may
IIb indication in patients with advanced single or systemic right ventric- develop with variable incidence and severity in different patients with
ular dysfunction in association with other risk factors, according to the a similar fast heart rate over a similar duration raises the question
2015 ESC Guidelines on Ventricular Arrhythmias and Prevention of that a latent cardiomyopathy or an underlying myocardial susceptibil-
Sudden Cardiac Death.7 ity could play a role in the development of TICMP.
Non-sustained ventricular tachycardia are common in patients un- Several studies in both animal models and in humans have sug-
dergoing chronic dialysis but mostly unrelated to SCD in this gested possible pathophysiological mechanisms for the development
of TICMP (Figure 4), although the understanding of this entity remains There are no firm diagnostic criteria for TICMP. In patients pre-
in many aspects unclear. Overlap of the mechanisms leading to senting with new-onset LV dysfunction and a chronic or recurrent
TICMP may vary in the different types of arrhythmias and their pre- tachycardia with a heart rate >100 b.p.m., the diagnosis of TICMP
sentations. In patients with AF, the restoration of sinus rhythm results may be suggested by the elements listed in Table 12.231 Due to the
in significant improvements in ventricular function, particularly in the retrospective nature of the diagnosis, it is often difficult to confirm a
absence of ventricular fibrosis on cardiac MRI.230 diagnosis of TICMP which can also be made by default after exclusion
of other causes of worsening ventricular dysfunction. The dilemma in

Table 11 Types of arrhythmias that can lead to tachy- clinical practice is to differentiate TICMP from other forms of dilated
cardia-mediated cardiomyopathy cardiomyopathy that may be associated with atrial or ventricular
arrhythmias.
Supraventricular tachycardia Assessment of HF patients with a suspected tachycardia aetiology
• Atrial fibrillation should include ECG, to evaluate the cardiac rhythm and look for signs
• Atrial flutter of myocardial ischaemia, while an echocardiogram should be con-
• Atrial tachycardia ducted to determine LV structure, functional characteristics, and to
• Permanent junctional reciprocating tachycardia exclude valvular and pericardial abnormalities. A Holter monitor
• AV nodal re-entrant tachycardia should be considered in the event of the tachyarrhythmia being par-
• AV re-entrant tachycardia oxysmal. Evaluation of coronary arteries (by non-invasive methods
• Inappropriate sinus tachycardia (rare) or invasive coronary angiography) is necessary to rule out a potential
Ventricular tachycardia ischaemic aetiology of the ventricular dysfunction. Cardiac MRI imag-
• Any type of ventricular tachycardia ing can rule out a ventricular scar, shed light on myocarditis and some
Premature contractions specific aetiologies of cardiomyopathy, and myocardial biopsy is now
• High burden of premature ventricular contractions rarely used in this setting.231–233
Pacing Atrial fibrillation, the most prevalent sustained cardiac rhythm dis-
• High-rate atrial pacing order, is considered as the most common cause of TICMP234,235 in
• Persistent rapid ventricular pacing adults whilst permanent junctional reciprocating tachycardia is the
• Permanent pacing with right ventricular stimulation most common arrhythmia associated with TICMP in children.236 The
incidence of TICMP is variable depending upon the type of tachycar-
AV, atrioventricular.
dia. In a study of 625 patients referred for radiofrequency ablation of
various tachyarrhythmias, TICMP was found in 17 (2.7%; 1.3% with
Molecular Hemodynamic Neurohumoral
- β-adrenergic receptors: number↓ - Decreased myocardial blood flow - Renin-angiotensin–aldosterone ↑

& sensitivity↓ - Decreased filling time - ANP ↑
- Oxidative stress - Cardiac desynchronization at the - Sympatho inhibition ↓ :
- Depletion of myocardial interventricular level - Irregular RR interval →
phosphates energy stores - Atrial contractile dysfunction/Loss of baroreflex unloading
- Hypertrophic response during atrial contraction - Atrial systole ↓ → Volume
recovery from TICMP sensitive reflexes
Normal TICMP
Structural changes
- Left ventricle:
- Dilatation
- Lack of hypertrophy
- Right ventricle:
- Hypertrophy
Functional changes
- Cardiac output & ejection fraction ↓

- Diastolic dysfunction
- Secondary mitral regurgitation
Figure 4 Possible pathophysiological mechanisms leading to tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy (TICMP). ANP, atrial natriuretic peptide.
Table 12 Elements for the diagnosis of TICMP Table 13 Possible predictors or elements associated
with development of TICMP
(1) No other cause of cardiomyopathy (myocardial infarction, valve
disease, hypertension, alcohol or drug use, stress etc.) TICMP induced by supraventricular tachycardia, including AF
(2) Absence of left ventricular hypertrophy • Younger age
(3) No major increase in LV dimensions (LV end-diastolic dimension • Male sex
<6.5 cm) • Slower tachycardia (with less symptoms before heart failure is

(4) Recovery of LV function after control of tachycardia (by rate present)
control, cardioversion, or radiofrequency ablation) within a time • Incessant arrhythmia
frame of 1–6 months. • Irregularity of R-R interval
(5) Rapid decline in LVEF following recurrence of tachycardia in a pa- • Lack of symptoms in AF of atrial flutter
tient with recovered LV function after previous control of TICMP induced by premature ventricular contractions (PVC)
tachycardia. • PVC burden (from >10 000/ 24 h to >24% of total beats; threshold
may be lower for right as compared to left ventricular PVCs)
• Wider PVCs
LV, left ventricular; LVEF, left ventricular ejection fraction; TICMP, tachycardia-in- • PVCs of epicardial origin
duced cardiomyopathy.
• Presence of interpolated PVCs
• Presence of retrograde P waves
• PVCs that are asymptomatic
AF or flutter, 0.5% with other SVT, and 1% with PVCs) patients.235
The incidence for specific arrhythmias has been described as ranging
AF, atrial fibrillation; PVC, premature ventricular contraction; TICMP, tachycar-
from 10% in patients with focal atrial tachycardia to 25% in patients
dia-induced cardiomyopathy.
with permanent atrial flutter and 20–50% in patients with paroxysmal
AVRT.231,237 Patients with rapid paroxysmal tachycardia are more
likely to be symptomatic and be diagnosed sooner than those with
slower, but incessant tachycardias. Possible predictors of TICMP in avoided in the context of systolic HF associated with TICMP.
patients with frequent supraventricular arrhythmia or PVCs are listed Amiodarone can be used in patients otherwise refractory to rate
in Table 13.162,164,166,167,238 control. Amiodarone is also the most frequently used drug to control
Tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy usually resolves with treat- the cardiac rhythm in this setting.47 The decision to control the rate
ment of the arrhythmia. The time course of improvement in LVEF is or rhythm should be individually tailored.241 Catheter ablation has
variable due to possible persistent ultrastructural changes and is also been used in the setting of AF with HF with the consistent demon-
influenced by the duration of the arrhythmia. Some patients with stration of an improvement in LVEF, reduction in symptoms, and im-
TICMP may be at increased risk for SCD after apparent improve- provement in quality of life.242,243 Building on these observational
ment, which could be due to persistent myocardial fibrosis.239 series, two recent randomized studies (AATAC and CASTLE-AF)
Treatment goals for patients with TICMP are to slow the heart rate have demonstrated superiority in reducing AF burden, reduced hos-
or reduce extrasystoles, relieve symptoms, prevent hospitalization, pitalization, and reduced mortality with catheter ablation in systolic
and improve survival. Management of TICMP comprises evidence- HF when compared to drug therapy.135,243 The CAMERA-MRI study
based treatment for HF with reduced LVEF, including angiotensin provides further mechanistic insights using cardiac MRI in patients
converting enzyme inhibitors and beta-blockers and aldosterone re- with AF and HF, demonstrating the greatest improvement in LV func-
ceptor antagonists, which are fundamentally important in modifying tion in individuals with a lower ventricular fibrosis burden.244 It is im-
the course of systolic HF.240 Diuretics may be used to relieve conges- portant to recognize that these studies enrolled patients with a
tive symptoms. rather narrow clinical profile and were undertaken in highly special-
Treatment of TICMP due to AF involves control of the ventricular ized units, i.e. they are not fully generalizable to other patient
response with rate-controlling drugs, use of antiarrhythmic drugs, di- populations.
rect current cardioversion, or catheter ablation of the tachyarrhyth- While these studies included ‘symptomatic’ patients, it is important
mia (Figure 5), in addition to anticoagulation. Atrial fibrillation to recognize that in the setting of HF, it is not always possible to dis-
management also aims to reduce symptoms and prevent systemic cern the symptoms related to AF from those related to HF. Whether
thromboembolism. Randomized trials comparing outcomes of these findings can be extrapolated to the truly ‘asymptomatic’ patient
rhythm vs. rate control in AF almost two decades ago found no dif- is not known. For now, consideration of ablation as a strategy in the
ferences in morbidity or mortality between these approaches. asymptomatic patient will need to be individualized, taking in to ac-
However, patients were included in these trials because the two count patient preference, the experience at each centre and the dis-
strategies were considered possible options at baseline, which does ease state. Atrial flutter is more difficult to rate control compared to
not appropriately reflect the clinical setting of patients with TICMP AF. Given the high success rate and low risk of complications with
where resolution of the arrhythmia is a main therapeutic target. In ad- catheter ablation of typical right sided atrial flutter, ablation to elimi-
dition, ablation was not widely available at that time. nate atrial flutter is recommended when TICMP is suspected.245 For
Rate control therapy commonly includes beta-blockers and/or dig- atypical atrial flutter, this should be decided on an individual basis as
italis. Non-dihydropyridine calcium channel antagonists should be indicated before.
Treatment of TICMP

Rate control for those with treatment resistant
or permanent AF Rhythm control for the specific arrhythmia
suspected of causing TICMP
Beta blocker or calcium channel antagonist ±
digoxin Cardioversion in case of AF
AV nodal ablation and permanent pacemaker Antiarrhythmic therapy with amiodarone
(consider CRT of His pacing if de novo pacing) when Consider ablation for persistent arrhythmia
insufficient rate control with drugs or rhythm
control failed or deemed unsuitable
Figure 5 Potential management strategy for patients with tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy (TICMP). AF, atrial fibrillation; AV, atrioventricular;
CRT, cardiac resynchronization therapy.
A radical form of rate control strategy is AV nodal ablation with 90% have been reported.256,257 Early improvement in LVEF after ab-
implantation of a permanent pacemaker programmed to VVIR lation may help to predict complete recovery of LV systolic func-
mode.47 This procedure may be associated with a better prognosis tion.257 Although these strategies with antiarrhythmic drugs or
and seems more relevant for older patients with significant co-mor- ablation differ in their ability to suppress PVCs and in LV dysfunction
bidities.246 Since continuous right ventricular pacing may be deleteri- improvement, their effect has not translated into improvement in
ous for LV systolic function due to LV dyssynchrony, CRT should be survival so far. There is no clear data to support safe withdrawal of
considered as de novo pacing in those already with LV dysfunction. standard HF treatment after improvement of LV function.
His bundle pacing holds promise as an attractive mode to achieve
more physiological pacing.247 Atrioventricular nodal ablation is asso-
ciated with a substantial reduction in all-cause mortality, cardiovascu-
lar mortality, and rates of hospitalization for HF, with improvements Consensus statements Symbol References
in New York Heart Association functional class when compared with .................................................................................................
191,232
medical therapy in AF patients receiving CRT in observational and Other causes of cardiomyopathy (myo-
randomized studies,248,249 and this may apply to patients with AF- cardial infarction, valve disease, hy-
related TICMP. Atrioventricular nodal ablation might be a feasible pertension, alcohol or drug use,
early strategy in individuals with TICMP and a pre-existing pacemaker stress, etc.) should be eliminated be-
or CRT device. fore considering a diagnosis of tachy-
Premature ventricular contractions leading to TICMP can either cardia-induced cardiomyopathy
be suppressed by use of antiarrhythmic agents or eliminated by use (TICMP).
191,230–232
of radiofrequency ablation (Figure 4) as discussed in Atrial fibrillation Management of TICMP should involve
and flutter section. A therapeutic trial with drugs for at least 3 months drug treatment for heart failure, rate
or catheter ablation may be considered for patients with presumed control in the case of atrial fibrillation
PVC-induced TICMP. Beta-blockers, amiodarone, and dofetilide (in (AF) when rhythm control is not fea-
sible and rhythm control for the spe-
some countries) can all suppress PVCs and can be safely used in
cific arrhythmia (including AF) causing
patients with LV dysfunction.250–252 Flecainide is not recommended
TICMP.
in this setting. Catheter ablation is a very efficient and recognized op- 231,232
Ablation may be preferred for rhythm
tion for these patients as the safety and efficacy profiles of the proce-
control of persistent or repetitive
dure have improved. Several studies have documented an
atrial or ventricular arrhythmia, even
improvement in LVEF following PVC ablation in nearly all patients
when asymptomatic, in suspected
along with significant reductions in LV end-diastolic dimensions, mi-
TICMP cases.
tral regurgitation, and New York Heart Association functional
class.253–255 Short-term ablation success rates of between 70% and
Asymptomatic bradycardia with a diagnosis of unexplained syncope is uncertain. This issue is of

practical importance, since a good correlation with the index syn-
Asymptomatic bradyarrhythmias, including sinus node dysfunction cope would allow the use of non-syncopal documented events as
(SND) and AV conduction disturbances can be noted during routine surrogate endpoints. Few studies have found a good intra-patient
evaluation or diagnostic workup of an individual who is symptomatic correlation between non-syncopal and syncopal episodes. In a study
from another cardiac or extracardiac disorder. In this situation, it is of 60 patients with unexplained syncope, asymptomatic severe bra-
important to differentiate between those who are truly asymptom- dyarrhythmias, including >5 s pauses, >10 s 3 AV block and heart

atic from individuals who, frequently due to slow progression of the rate <30 b.p.m. for >10 s while awake, was observed in 7 patients
disease, have yet to notice subtle symptoms. For further evaluation, a and led to pacemaker implantation.262
24–48 h Holter may give additional information. Also, functional tests In a sub-study of the ISSUE2 study, Moya et al.,263 correlated the
such as a treadmill exercise test or a stationary bicycle exercise test ECG findings saved by an ILR during non-syncopal episodes, either
can be useful to evaluate whether there is an appropriate chrono- pre-syncope or non-specific symptoms, with those recorded during
tropic response to exercise and to potentially unmask symptoms. A syncope in order to evaluate their possible role in predicting the
pacemaker implantation is only indicated for symptomatic bradycar- mechanism of syncope. Nine patients had an automatic activation of
dia with very few exceptions. their ILR, i.e. were asymptomatic, and nine had non-specific symp-
Few studies have examined the prognostic value of asymptomatic toms. In these 18 patients, the documentation of an arrhythmia
bradycardia in the general population. From an outpatient database, showed a high probability as a diagnostic finding, making it unneces-
the long-term outcome of 470 patients aged >60 years with asymp- sary to wait for syncope to be documented and allowing, in those
tomatic sinus bradycardia (i.e. heart rate <55 b.p.m.) were compared cases in which it is considered indicated, to initiate therapy earlier.
with 2090 patients without bradycardia.258 During a mean follow-up There are limited data regarding the beneficial effect of pacing in
of 7.2 years, patients with bradycardia had a very low rate of subse- patients with a history of syncope but with asymptomatic intermit-
quent pacemaker implantation (<1% per year) and asymptomatic tent bradycardia without extended pauses during monitoring. The
bradycardia had no adverse impact on all-cause mortality and may length of the documented pause is of importance for the decision to
even have been protective. Molgard et al.,259 performed repeated 24- implant a pacemaker. While ventricular pauses of 3 s or longer are
h Holter monitoring in 183 healthy individuals aged 40–85 years. uncommon, these pauses usually do not cause symptoms, and the
Pauses were documented in 16–31% of the recordings. Subjects with presence of these pauses does not necessarily portend a poor prog-
pauses had a significantly lower average heart rate. Pauses >1.5 s oc- nosis or the need for pacing in asymptomatic patients.264 The posi-
curred in 6–6.5% of the subjects whereas pauses > _2 s were rare in tion of the patients when the pause occurs may have an impact on
non-athletes, occurring in 1–1.6% of the subjects. The majority of the how long a pause is needed to impact consciousness. In patients with
pauses were due to SND, mainly sinus arrest in older patients. In an- a clinical diagnosis of neurocardiogenic syncope and asymptomatic
other study of 26 elderly (>70 years) subjects studied by Holter mon- pause(s) >6 s, there is weak evidence that cardiac pacing may be ef-
itoring, the longest sinus pauses were observed during sleep and fective and useful for the reduction of syncopal recurrences. The ra-
ranged from 0.8 s to 2.5 s, and were not associated with tionale behind the 6 s cut-off value includes data showing that loss of
symptoms.260 consciousness may take up to 7 s in case of circulatory arrest.11
Certain bradyarrhythmias (first-degree and second-degree Mobitz In patients presenting with asymptomatic intermittent night-time
type I AV block) are common in younger individuals in a resting state bradycardia (sinus bradycardia or AV block), sleep apnoea should be
and also in competitive athletes. They are generally deemed to be of considered as a possible cause. It was estimated that episodes of
little concern in the absence of underlying structural heart disease. heart block occur in approximately 20% of patients with severe sleep
Recently, a systematic review on cardiac pauses in competitive ath- apnoea, i.e. apnoea–hypopnoea index >60/h) and approximately
letes was performed.261 The study population comprised 194 individ- 7.5% of an unselected group of patients with obstructive sleep ap-
uals with cardiac pauses of 1.35–3.0 s. When specific records for noea.265 Rapid eye movement sleep and excessive vagal activation
pause durations were provided, 106 athletes had pauses <_3 s, of due to hypoxia and apnoea seem to be important mechanisms lead-
whom 92 were asymptomatic and 14 had pauses >3 s, of whom 9 ing to bradycardia. Treatment with continuous positive airway pres-
were asymptomatic. Few subjects were deemed to require medical sure should be attempted first, since it has been shown to lead to
intervention at the time of diagnosis, and there were no deaths during complete prevention of heart block in 80–90% of these patients.
7.5 ± 5.1 years of follow-up. It was concluded that the accepted 3 s It is not uncommon to record asymptomatic episodes of AV block
pause threshold does not adequately discriminate between poten- on prolonged ECG monitoring. Asymptomatic bradycardia is not un-
tially asymptomatic and symptomatic competitive athletes, and in iso- common and interpretation of this should be made in the clinical con-
lation should not be used as a determining factor to exclude potential text of the patient. In healthy subjects, pauses >2.5 s are infrequent
competitors. Further, the 3 s pause threshold does not appear to but this alone does not necessarily define a clinical disorder.
warrant either exercise restriction or early therapeutic intervention. Asymptomatic bradycardia is common in athletes, and the accepted
With the increasing availability of prolonged monitoring techni- 3 s pause threshold neither warrants exercise restriction or early
ques, it is not unusual to document even long asymptomatic pauses therapeutic intervention.261 Pauses in AF patients between 3 and 5 s
in patients that have experienced syncope. In the absence of a cause– are frequently seen and may be a normal occurrence. Treatment is
effect relationship, the meaning of asymptomatic pauses in patients not required except in case of symptoms.
In the case of AV block, it is crucial to distinguish nodal from infra- hospital for a serious arrhythmia-related event, such as stroke (in
nodal localizations, the latter usually requiring pacemaker implanta- AF), cardiac arrest (e.g. ventricular arrhythmias), or TICMP.
tion. Key for this distinction are the type of AV block, the presence Even in the absence of symptoms, once an arrhythmia has been di-
or absence of wide QRS complexes and the heart rate changes at the agnosed, patients may still experience significant distress and worries
time of AV block. Progressive PR prolongation prior to the non-con- about the arrhythmia. This may extend to the therapeutic options
ducted P wave is typical for Type I second-degree AV block. True with their possible side effects (e.g. bleeding with oral anticoagulant
Type II second-degree AV block, with no PR prolongation prior to therapy, side effects of AADs and other medications, ICD implanta-

the non-conducted P wave, should be recognized through careful tion, etc.) and the potential consequences of the arrhythmia (death,
analyses of the tracings since it denotes a severe disease of the con- stroke, HF, etc.).269–272 Absence of symptoms may also affect the
duction system and may in most cases warrant pacemaker implanta- choices that the individual makes in regard to treatment pathway/
tion. In the case of a single asymptomatic non-conducted P wave, a options, as the patient may perceive that they have ‘less severe’ dis-
decision should be made on a case-by-case basis. When wide QRS ease due to lack of symptoms. This may in turn lessen their apprecia-
complexes are present, an infra-Hisian localization should be consid- tion of the seriousness of the consequences of the arrhythmia and
ered, even in case of Type I second-degree AV block and may prompt the necessity of treatment. Lack of symptoms may also affect the
an electrophysiological study. Slowing of the heart rate at the time of treatment options offered to patients, for example in AF rhythm-
AV block is diagnostic of AV nodal localization while block in the His- control strategies (cardioversion and ablation) are usually targeted at
Purkinje system can be tachycardia-dependent. In addition, careful symptomatic patients, as the goal of such therapy is symptom reduc-
analysis of the tracings should rule out concealed His bundle extra- tion or resolution. Lifestyle restrictions and/or modifications fre-
systoles which may mimic both Types I and/or II AV block. Exercise quently accompany a cardiac arrhythmia diagnosis, either directly as
testing may be beneficial to identify infra-Hisian block. There is some result of the arrhythmia (e.g. inherited arrhythmia disorders, WPW,
data indicating that pacing of Type 1 second-degree AV block may be etc.) or due to the treatment options required to manage the ar-
of benefit in selected asymptomatic elderly individuals.266 However, rhythmia (e.g. ICD). In those with an inherited arrhythmia or WPW,
this area clearly needs further investigation before any conclusive rec- the diagnosis typically occurs when the patient is relatively young and
ommendations can be made. otherwise fit and well and such a diagnosis may permanently alter the
There is consensus that third-degree AV block in the absence of quality of life and may lead to profound psychological distress.270,273
correctable causes and Type II second-degree AV block (Mobitz II) It is essential that, regardless of the type of arrhythmia, patients are
should be treated with a pacemaker even in the absence of symp- fully informed about the trajectory of their condition; the available
treatment options (risks and benefits and side effects, particularly for
toms given the potential severity of these findings.267
ICD implantation); lifestyle changes that are required to modify their
risk factors and reduce their risk of adverse outcomes; likelihood of
treatment success and what can be achieved so that people can form
realistic expectations of treatment and make informed decisions
Consensus statements Symbol References
................................................................................................. about the treatment options that are right for them.46,47,63,274,275
263 Patient education is a fundamental part of arrhythmia manage-
In individuals with syncope, the pres-
ence of asymptomatic severe brady- ment,63,274,276 irrespective of symptoms. It is also crucial to acknowl-
cardia or pauses >6 s should be edge patients’ concerns and assess and monitor the psychological
considered a diagnostic finding and impact of the arrhythmia and its treatment on the patient and their
lead to treatment. family, and to formulate a plan to manage distress,63 since psychologi-
267,268
Completely asymptomatic bradycardia cal distress can influence patient adherence and persistence with
does in itself not require treatment. treatment and drastically reduces patients’ quality of life and that of
their families,277–282 irrespective of the presence or absence of
symptoms.
A 2015 EHRA consensus document summarizes the current litera-
ture on cardiac arrhythmias and patients values and preferences for
their management63 and also provides important topics for physi-
Patient perspective cian–patient discussions concerning their arrhythmia and disease
course, treatment options and goals, and outcomes, and helpful
As previously stated in this document, cardiac arrhythmias can be epi- resources to elicit these conversations.
sodic or persistent, and in many individuals, may be asymptomatic. Shared decision-making should be the approach adopted to ac-
However, the absence of symptoms in arrhythmic conditions should complish this target; incorporating both the patient and the physi-
not necessarily imply that the patient does not require treatment or cian/healthcare professional, mutual shared information, bilateral
free from risk of adverse outcomes. Indeed, asymptomatic cardiac (patient and physician) deliberation about preferences, options, and
arrhythmias may be associated with worse outcomes as often the de- reaching a shared treatment decision, including no treatment as a
tection of the arrhythmia is made following a first presentation to possibility.
heart rate alert features. Smartwatch and fitness band wearable con-
sumer electronics can passively measure pulse rate from the wrist us-
Consensus statements Symbol References ing photoplethysmography.
................................................................................................. Identification of pulse irregularity or heart rhythm variability from
63
Education is an essential component of these data has the potential to identify AF. The rapidly expanding use
the management of cardiac arrhyth- of these devices will allow for detection of undiagnosed AF in a novel
mias to enable patients (and their manner. Companies, including AliveCor and Withings also have ECG

carers/family members) to under- watches or watch accessories. Apple has an irregular rhythm notifica-
stand their condition, the available tion now that is being prospectively evaluated in a clinical trial which
treatments, disease trajectory, and will include more than 400 000 individuals.283 While the opportuni-
possible outcomes, regardless of ties created by these possibilities are exciting, they will undoubtedly
symptoms. emphasize the need for clearer guidance on how and when to inter-
63
All patients should receive individually vene in those patients with asymptomatic heart rhythm abnormalities
tailored disease- and treatment-spe- detected by play of chance.
cific information from their health- Although this document focuses mostly on asymptomatic arrhyth-
care team which is reiterated over mias, patients should be warned of symptoms that might develop or
time and when new management that have been dismissed in the past, such as syncope and near syn-
strategies are discussed. cope. It is also important to remember that in the past medical mis-
63
Patients’ preferences for treatment assessments have included diagnosis of anxiety and/or hypoglycaemia
should be discussed, documented,
in patients that have arrhythmias.
and incorporated into management
Finally, in many different asymptomatic heart rhythm irregularities,
decisions.
the distinction and cut-offs between a significant and non-significant
burden of an arrhythmia remain unclear. Furthermore, some arrhyth-
mias might have been diagnosed during either direct or indirect
screening, or because of the increased use of detection devices, such
Areas of future concern as smartphones apps or special watches. These individuals may repre-
sent a group having a lower burden of arrhythmias, and to the same
During the process of writing this consensus document on asymp-
extent as subclinical AF discovered through CIEDs, using continuous
tomatic arrhythmias, it has become increasingly evident that there is
monitoring, may represent potentially less harmful arrhythmias.
a real paucity of data from studies adequately representing asymp-
Further studies are needed to evaluate the seriousness and net clini-
tomatic patients. Many of the sections in this consensus document
cal benefit of treatment in these patients.
have included data which have been extrapolated from studies on
predominantly symptomatic arrhythmias and some even from highly
selected subgroups. Therefore, the drafting of consensus statements Supplementary material
for asymptomatic arrhythmias has been in some ways a complex
task. Also, asymptomatic arrhythmias vary considerably in regard Supplementary material is available at Europace online.
their risk to cause adverse effects and the need for intervention. In
cases where restraining from treatment might lead to potentially se- Acknowledgement
vere consequences, such as stroke in AF and subsequent cardiac ar- EHRA Scientific Documents Committee: Nikolaos Dagres, Serge
rest in individuals with sustained VT, it would be irresponsible to Boveda, Kevin Vernooy, Zbigniew Kalarus, Gulmira Kudaiberdieva,
withhold treatment despite lack of symptoms from the arrhythmia. Georges H. Mairesse, Valentina Kutyifa, Thomas Deneke, Jesper
In the future, strong consideration should be given to improved Hastrup Svendsen, Vassil B Traykov, Arthur Wilde, and Frank R.
and structured systematic assessments and survey instruments for Heinzel.
symptoms in arrhythmia studies. Additionally, the relationship be-
Funding
tween symptoms and arrhythmia burden requires better exploration.
J.K. is supported by a National Health and Medical Research Council of
The reasons for the lack of symptoms in some individuals are still
Australia Practitioner Fellowship. P.S. is supported by Practitioner
poorly understood. While treatments aiming to decrease the percep- Fellowship from National Health and Medical Research Council of
tion of benign symptomatic arrhythmias are common, technology Australia and by the National Heart Foundation of Australia. Other
aiming to enhance patients and care providers awareness of serious authors report no specific funding for this article.
arrhythmias could also be useful. Such alerts as an example already
Conflict of interest: D.O.A.: Consultant to deCODE genetics.
exist in some CIEDs and serve the purpose to notify a patient having
G.B.: Speaker’s fees of small amount from Medtronic, Boston,
an asymptomatic but potentially malignant ventricular arrhythmia.
Boehringer and Biotronik. H.C. is a paid consultant and has received
The increased availability of medical devices and apps to consum- lecture honoraria from Boeringher Ingelheim, Medtronic, Biosense
ers will likely lead to a significant increase the diagnostic yield and ob- Webster, and Abbott Medical. L.F.: Consultant or speaker for Bayer,
served prevalence of asymptomatic tachycardia, bradycardia, and AF BMS/Pfizer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Medtronic, Novartis. G.Y.L.:
in the very near future. A number of companies including Fitbit, Consultant for Bayer/Janssen, BMS/Pfizer, Medtronic, Boehringer
Garmin, Apple, and Samsung, all have devices on the market with Ingelheim, Novartis, Verseon and Daiichi-Sankyo. Speaker for Bayer,
BMS/Pfizer, Medtronic, Boehringer Ingelheim, and Daiichi-Sankyo. 21. Dewland TA, Vittinghoff E, Mandyam MC, Heckbert SR, Siscovick DS, Stein PK
P.S. reports having served on the advisory board of Biosense- et al. Atrial ectopy as a predictor of incident atrial fibrillation: a cohort study.
Ann Intern Med 2013;159:721–8.
Webster, Medtronic, Abbott, Boston Scientific and CathRx. The 22. Larsen BS, Kumarathurai P, Falkenberg J, Nielsen OW, Sajadieh A. Excessive
University of Adelaide reports receiving on behalf of P.S. lecture atrial ectopy and short atrial runs increase the risk of stroke beyond incident
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and Boston Scientific. The University of Adelaide reports receiving 23. Marcus GM, Dewland TA. Premature atrial contractions: a wolf in sheep’s
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Scientific, Biotronik and Liva Nova. J.H.S.: Grants, personal fees and HRS/APHRS/SOLAECE expert consensus on atrial cardiomyopathies: definition,
other from Medtronic, grants and personal fees from Biotronik, per- characterisation, and clinical implication. Europace 2016;18:1455–90.
sonal fees from Boehringer Ingelheim, and grants from Gilead out- 25. Gudbjartsson DF, Holm H, Sulem P, Masson G, Oddsson A, Magnusson OT
side the submitted work; serves as member of Medtronic advisory et al. A frameshift deletion in the sarcomere gene MYL4 causes early-onset fa-
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Europace (2019) 0, 1–32 EHRA POSITION PAPER

Management of asymptomatic arrhythmias: a

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ESC Scientific Document Group: Kristina Haugaa23,24, Peter Schwartz25, Andrea

* Corresponding author. Tel: þ3545431000; fax: þ35-5436467. E-mail address: [email protected]

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Table of contents experience other symptoms, in association with a documented car-

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AF, atrial fibrillation; AVRT, atrioventricular tachycardia; ERP, effective refractory

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more common in asymptomatic AF;

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“Birmingham 3-step approach”

2 Offer stroke prevention to

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OAT (NCT01959425)]. patients with asymptomatic AF, as in

atic patients who had subconsciously adapted to AF by restricting

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Stroke rates per AF clinical type in non-anticoagulated patients

Stroke rates per AF clinical type in anticoagulated patients

3.0% 2.9% 2.9%

Bleeding rates per AF clinical type in anticoagulated patients

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differing morphologies from the right ventricle (RV) in patients with

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Two studies have reported on the natural history of PVCs.

10/96 had PVC burden <10%

2/17 had PVC burden <10%

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26% (sensitivity 70%, specificity 78%)

26% (sensitivity 63%, specificity 87%)

1139 elderly (>65 years) patients from the Cardiovascular Health

that a PVC burden in the upper quartile (roughly equivalent to

>100 PVC/24 h) had a three-fold increase in the risk of incident HF

of developing HF due to PVCs was 8.1%.

The risk of developing a PVC-induced cardiomyopathy rises with

seen with a PVC burden as low as 8%. In studies where patients

were referred for management of PVCs, usually because of symp-

toms, the predictive PVC burden to cause a PVC-induced cardio-

myopathy is >10%, usually >20%. However, the vast majority of

diomyopathy. Studies from Niwano et al. and Hasdemir et al., sug-

gest a prevalence of 5–7% for patients with a PVC burden

>10%.165,172 Recently, the study by Dukes et al.,173 suggested the

prevalence of HF due to PVCs in the elderly population may be

higher than previously reported.

A proposed scheme to evaluate patients with more than

expected PVC is shown in Figure 3. Although Dukes et al.,173 had

57 (LVEF < 50%)

described a cut-off of ±100 PVCs/24 h, we would suggest setting

off.153 Since excluding underlying disease is a cumbersome and

plored (imaging, electrical, and genetic) based on what may be

PVC burden >10%. In patients who develop symptoms, or who

calcium blockers with or without antiarrhythmic drug therapy),

and/or catheter ablation is indicated.