ENY277

Insect Attractants and Traps 1

R. Weinzierl, T. Henn, P. G. Koehler and C. L. Tucker2

Many chemical and visual lures attract insects compounds by insects is characterized by a high
and can be used to monitor or directly reduce insect degree of sensitivity and specificity. Receptor
populations. Because these attractants are used in systems that ignore or screen out countless irrelevant
ways that do not injure other animals or humans or chemical messages are nonetheless able to detect
result in residues on foods or feeds, they can be used messenger compounds at extremely low
in an environmentally sound manner in pest concentrations. Detection of a chemical message
management programs. triggers very specific unlearned behaviors or
developmental processes.
The effective use of attractants and traps requires
knowledge of basic biological principles and the pest- Chemicals that act as attractants or carry other
or crop-specific details involved in individual messages across distances are volatile (quick to
applications. This publication presents background evaporate) compounds. When released into the air,
information and specific guidance on the use of they can be detected by certain insects (those
attractants and traps for monitoring and directly receptive to a specific compound) a few inches to
controlling insect pests. Its purpose is to aid farmers, hundreds of yards away. Chemicals that carry
homeowners, and others in understanding and making messages over considerable distances are most often
appropriate use of available technology. It covers used in pest management.
chemical attractants, visual lures (such as light), and
attractant-baited and unbaited traps. Although this publication does not rely on special
terminology, a few terms provide useful background.
Chemical Attractants First, semiochemicals may carry messages either
within or between species. Pheromones are
Insects use many different semiochemicals, semiochemicals that are produced and received by
chemicals that convey messages between organisms. members of the same species. A range of behaviors
(The Greek word "semeio" means sign.) Although and biological processes are influenced by
semiochemicals may seem analogous to tastes or pheromones, but pest management programs most
smells perceived by humans, the use of such

1. This document is ENY-277 (orginally published in Alternatives in Insect Management by the Office of Agricultural Entomology, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign), one of a series of the Entomology and Nematology Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. First published: June 1995. Revised: June 2005. Please visit the EDIS Website at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.
2. R. Weinzierl, T. Henn, Office of Agricultural Entomology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL; P. G. Koehler, professor, and C. L. Tucker, graduate assistant,
Entomology and Nematology Department, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville,
32611.

The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) is an Equal Opportunity Institution authorized to provide research, educational information and
other services only to individuals and institutions that function with non-discrimination with respect to race, creed, color, religion, age, disability, sex,
sexual orientation, marital status, national origin, political opinions or affiliations. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service,
University of Florida, IFAS, Florida A. & M. University Cooperative Extension Program, and Boards of County Commissioners Cooperating. Larry
Arrington, Dean
Insect Attractants and Traps 2

often use compounds that attract a mate (sex Using Attractant-Baited Traps to Monitor
pheromones) or call others to a suitable food or Pest Populations
nesting site (aggregation pheromones). Other
pheromones regulate caste or reproductive The most common use of chemical attractants is
development in social insects (honey bees and in traps to monitor insect populations. Although not
termites for example), signal alarm (in honey bees, all of the compounds used in this manner are
ants, and aphids), mark trails (ants), and serve other pheromones, many publications refer to all
functions. attractant-baited traps as pheromone traps. For use in
monitoring, chemical attractants usually are
Allelochemicals are semiochemicals that affect impregnated or encased in a rubber or plastic lure
one or more species other than the producer. Of (Figure 1) that slowly releases the active
known allelochemicals, volatile compounds similar component(s) over a period of several days or weeks.
to those given off by food sources (plants or animals) Traps containing these lures are constructed of paper,
are important in pest managements. Feeding plastic, or other materials (Figure 2). Most traps use
attractants are examples of kairomones, an adhesive-coated surface or a funnel-shaped
allelochemicals produced by one species but used to entrance to capture the target insect. Traps for some
advantage by another species. For example, carbon pests (such as the apple maggot) are coated with an
dioxide given off by humans and other animals is adhesive that also contains the chemical attractant.
used as a kairomone by female mosquitoes seeking a
blood meal. In contrast, allomones are
allelochemicals that favor the producer. For example,
secretions that deter predators are allomones.

Although terms such as pheromone or

kairomone help describe the functions of
message-carrying chemicals, these words often
oversimplify the complexity of chemical
communication. A single chemical signal may act as
both a pheromone and a kairomone; for example, the
compounds emitted by a bark beetle colonizing a host
tree attract other bark beetles (functioning as an Figure 1. Insect attractants are often impregnated or
encased in lures such as (A) Biolure's membrane-covered
aggregation pheromone), but the same compounds
disk; (B) Trece's rubber septum; and (C) Hercon's plastic
also attract certain predators and parasites that attack laminate lure.
these bark beetles (functioning as a feeding attractant
or kairomone). Attractant-baited traps are used instead of (or in
addition to) other sampling methods for two major
Practical use of pheromones or feeding
reasons. First, these traps are very sensitive and may
attractants for pest management usually requires that
capture pest insects that are present at densities too
specific active chemicals be isolated, identified, and
low to detect with a reasonable amount of effort using
produced synthetically. The synthetic
other inspection methods. This attribute can be
attractants--usually copies of sex or aggregation
extremely important when the goal of a sampling
pheromones or feeding attractants--are used in one of
program is to detect foreign or "exotic" pests as soon
four ways: (1) as a lure in traps used to monitor pest
as they enter an area so that control measures can be
populations; (2) as a lure in traps designed to "trap
initiated immediately. Second, traps baited with
out" a pest population; (3) as a broadcast signal
chemical attractants capture only one species or a
intended to disrupt insect mating; or (4) as an
narrow range of species. This specificity simplifies
attractant in a bait containing an insecticide.
the identification and counting of target pests.
Sensitivity and specificity make attractant-baited
traps efficient, labor-saving tools.
Insect Attractants and Traps 3

Figure 2. Commercially available traps used for monitoring insect populations include (A) the "wing" trap; (B) the water pan
trap; (C) the Delta trap; (D) the Heliothis trap; (E) the PHerocon II trap; and (F) the funnel trap. Several other trap designs are
also available.

Attractant-baited traps are used in monitoring Further complication can result from the fact that
programs for at least three purposes: (1) to detect the almost all attractant-baited traps are used to capture
presence of an exotic pest (an immigrant pest not adult insects. Damage to crops, however, is caused
previously known to inhabit a state or region); (2) to not by the adult male moths attracted to the traps but
estimate the relative density of a pest population at a by the subsequent generation of caterpillars that
given site; and (3) to indicate the first emergence or female moths produce. Because variable
peak flight activity of a pest species in a given area, environmental conditions and variable densities of
often to time an insecticide application or to signal natural enemies greatly influence pest survival
the need for additional scouting. The use of traps to between the time trapping data are collected and the
detect exotic pests has been demonstrated in widely time pest damage occurs, establishing a precise
publicized efforts to detect and eradicate pests such as economic threshold (the pest population level that
the gypsy moth and the Mediterranean fruit fly warrants control) based on trap counts is difficult.
whenever infestations are detected in new areas. Where counts from traps are used to estimate pest
density and determine control needs, guidelines are
Although attractant-baited traps give an usually conservative or somewhat vague.
indication of pest density, several factors make the
interpretation of density estimates complex and Attractant-baited traps can be used to signal the
difficult. First, environmental factors affect trap need for additional sampling efforts or to time
catches. Temperature, rainfall, and wind speed and insecticide applications and eliminate unnecessary
direction influence attractant release (from lures) and spraying. One example of the use of pheromone traps
insect flight. Many insects fly and respond to to trigger further sampling involves the black
semiochemicals only at certain time (dawn, midday, cutworm, a common but sporadic pest of seedling
dusk, night, etc.), and then only if temperatures at corn in the Midwest. Pheromone traps baited with a
that time exceed a minimum level (often 50 to 60° specific sex attractant are used in a statewide
F). Wind speed and direction determine the extent of sampling program to monitor the annual spring
insect movement from surrounding areas to traps migration of black cutworm moths from southern
within a field or orchard. states into Illinois. In area where counts of male
Insect Attractants and Traps 4

moths in traps indicate the potential for damaging capture a high percentage (and often a very large
infestations of cutworm larvae, producers are urged volume) of the target insects that are drawn to the
to check for cutworm density and crop damage in area by the attractant. For many insects, the
fields of seedling corn. For pests that cause efficiency of commonly used traps is not known;
unacceptable levels of damage even at low population however, low efficiency seems to be a limiting
densities, such as the codling moth or apple maggot problem in some instances. Removal trapping is also
in commercial apple orchards, traps can be used as most likely to succeed when the density of the target
the only sampling method for determining the dates pest is low and immigration into the trapped area is
to begin and end insecticide application programs. minimal.

For all programs that use traps of any type, trap The following examples illustrate conditions that
design and trap placement are important factors. For favor or limit the potential use of mass trapping.
example, common paper sticky traps are ineffective
for monitoring corn earworm moths. Male corn Codling Moth
earworm moths that are attracted to a chemical lure
Larvae of the codling moth tunnel into apples
seldom enter these box- or tentlike traps. Instead, a
and pears, leaving the fruit scarred, contaminated, and
much larger, cone-shaped trap must be used to
unsuitable for most commercial markets. Although
capture this insect (Figure 2). Similarly, placing traps
pheromone traps are used to monitor the seasonal
at the correct height and in the correct portion of a
timing and sometimes the density of codling moth
field (edge or center) or building is sometimes the
populations in commercial orchards, mass trapping
key to detection or interpretation.
has not been widely adopted. In experimental
Using Attractant-Baited Traps to "Trap Out" programs, high numbers of pheromone traps (14 and
Pest Populations 72 traps per acre) in some trials provided less control
of subsequent larval damage than did fewer traps (4
Because pheromone traps are so effective for per acre) in other trials. These seemingly
catching certain insects, numerous traps placed contradictory results appear to have resulted from
throughout a pest's environment can sometimes different conditions in and surrounding the test
remove enough insects to substantially reduce the orchards. Available data indicate that mass trapping
local population and limit the damage it causes. for codling moth control is likely to be successful
Efforts to "trap out" insect pests (a process also only in reasonably isolated orchards (at least 100
termed removal trapping or mass trapping) have yards and preferably further from the nearest source
utilized species-specific aggregation pheromones that of moths) where codling moth populations are
attract both male and female beetles or already low. Where nearby fruit trees harbor codling
species-specific sex pheromones that attract male moth infestations, mated female moths can disperse
moths. When aggregation pheromones are used to into the trapped orchard and lay eggs even if the local
attract adult beetles of both sexes, traps may reduce males have been trapped. (Immigration also prevents
the feeding damage caused by the adult insects and the successful use of mass trapping to protect fruit on
reduce reproduction by capturing adults before they one or two backyard trees in most urban situations.)
lay eggs. When sex pheromones are used to capture Where initial moth populations are high, some males
moths, success depends upon capturing males before will locate and mate with a nearby female even if a
mating occurs. great number of traps have been used; in these
orchards the mated females produce enough fertile
Although mass trapping programs using eggs to damage a measurable portion of the fruit.
chemical attractants have targeted such important Despite these limitations, mass trapping can reduce
pests as bark beetles, codling moth, apple maggot, codling moth damage in some orchards. Although
Japanese beetle, and Indianmeal moth, field-scale damage may not be limited to the extremely low
successes have been limited. For mass trapping to levels required by most commercial markets,
adequately reduce pest populations, a large number of producers who sell to "organic" markets might use
very efficient traps are usually needed. Efficient traps
Insect Attractants and Traps 5

mass trapping along with other steps (such as pheromone molecules, male insects that rely on
removal of dropped fruit and banding of trunks) to pheromones to locate females are unable to do so.
substantially limit codling moth damage. Because the They either follow an artificial signal to a frustrating
number of traps needed for mass trapping of codling destination or their sensory receptors become
moths has not been determined, the economic overloaded by constant exposure to pheromone
feasibility of mass trapping is unclear. However, molecules, leaving the insect temporarily unable to
Trece, Incorporated manufactures a pheromone detect additional pheromone messages. The way in
TRAP-Pherocon® ICP TRAP that can be used to which artificial attractants might "out-compete"
monitor the insect population during control female moths and prevent their success in attracting a
measures. mate is illustrated in Figure 3.

Japanese Beetle

Adult Japanese beetles eat the leaves of many

different ornamental plants (both trees and shrubs),
and the larvae (grubs) or this species feed on the roots
of grasses. Can- or baglike traps for Japanese beetles
contain a feeding attractant alone or in combination
with a sex attractant. These traps are sold under
claims that they will reduce beetle numbers and
protect nearby plants from feeding damage. Although
their lures are indeed very attractive to adult Japanese
beetles, the use of these traps in areas where the
Japanese beetle is prevalent has been shown to
increase beetle numbers and damage to host plants in
the area around the trap. This outcome apparently
results from the fact that many beetles are attracted
by the lure but not captured by the trap. In areas
where the Japanese beetle is a serious pest, only very
widespread use of many traps (several traps per
Figure 3. Synthetic attractants used in mating disruption
homeowner by a majority of homeowners in an area) programs produce "odor" plumes that obscure the
is likely to reduce damage to plant foliage. In locations of females. Males attempting to follow a plume
contrast, in areas where Japanese beetle densities are upwind and locate a female will most often reach a
low, traps placed several yards away from valuable synthetic lure, and many females will fail to attract a mate.
plants can reduce the damage caused by adult beetle (Illustration from Birch and Haynes, 1982).
feeding on foliage or flowers. Additionally, these
In field applications of mating disruption
traps have been used at densities of one or two per
techniques attractants have been applied to fields or
acre to remove adult beetles from golf courses and to
forests in hollow plastic fibers, capsule like pellets,
reduce turf damage caused by the subsequent
and attractant-impregnated plastic strings or ties.
generation of grubs. To monitor populations place
Although mating disruption programs are not widely
lures at the perimenter of property. Trece,
used, trials have been successful against the oriental
Incorporated manufactures a product called Japanese
fruit moth, pink bollworm in cotton, grape berry
Beetle-3-way Lure. It containes a chemical (Eugen)
worm, tomato pinworm, and several pests of forest
that is highly attractive to adult Japanese beetles.
conifers. The trial use of pheromones to disrupt
Using Attractants to Disrupt Insect Mating mating for codling moth control in apples has
produced mixed results. Mating disruption programs
To disrupt insect mating, a species-specific sex are most successful where large areas are treated,
attractant is broadcast throughout an area. In an where the treated area is isolated from sources of
environment permeated with artificially applied sex pests that might immigrate, and where the pest
Insect Attractants and Traps 6

population is low. When pest densities are low, Using Lights to Attract Insects
artificial attractants are more likely to out compete a
high percentage of female insects in attracting males. A great number of insect species are attracted to
For insect attractants to be broadcast into the light of various wavelength. Although different
environment for direct control, the attractants species respond uniquely to specific portions of the
(regulated as pesticides) must be evaluated and visible and nonvisible spectrum (as perceived by
approved by the US Environmental Protection humans), most traps or other devices that rely on light
Agency. The sex attractant of the oriental fruit moth to attract insects use fluorescent bulbs or bulbs that
has been approved for such use in plastic "ropes" to emit ultraviolet wavelengths (black lights). Hundreds
be tied onto the limbs of fruit trees. of species of moths, beetles, flies, and other insects,
most of which are not pests, are attracted to artificial
Using Attractants in Poison Baits light. They may fly to lights throughout the night or
only during certain hours. Key pests that are attracted
Combining insect attractants with poisons to light include the European corn borer, codling
(insecticides) is a practice that has been used in pest moth, cabbage looper, many cutworms and
management for many years. In the early 1900s, for armyworms, diamondback moth, sod webworm
example, poisoned bran baits were used for moths, peach twig borer, several leaf roller moths,
grasshopper control; hoppers that were attracted to potato leafhopper, bark beetles, carpet beetles, adults
the treated bran and fed on it were killed by an of annual which grubs (Cyclocephala), house fly,
insecticide that could not be applied safely, stable fly, and several mosquitos.) The mosquitoes
economically, or effectively in any other manner. Ochlerotatus (formerly Aedes) triseriatus,
Ochlerotatu (also formerly Aedes) hendersoni, and
Because pests are lured to toxic compounds that
Aedes albopictus are not attracted to light, however.)
are combined with attractants, poisoned baits can
Lights and light traps are used with varying degrees
sometimes be used effectively at low rates and often
of success in monitoring populations and in mass
in a manner that does not leave residues on plants or
trapping.
animals. Insecticidal baits are used currently in the
control of several pests including the house fly, slugs, Light traps similar to the one pictured in Figure 4
certain ants, cockroaches, and yellow jackets. have been used for several decades to monitor the
Research in progress is investigating the use of presence of insects and to determine seasonal patterns
feeding attractants and feeding arrestants of pest density. But because pheromone traps are
(cucurbitacins) derived from wild squash in much more specific (they catch only one or a few
combination with an insecticide to control adult corn pest species instead of many) and more convenient,
rootworm beetles. light traps are no longer as widely used. Nonetheless,
light traps provide useful information about the
Visual Lures
timing, relative abundance, or species composition of
That light attracts many insects is common flights of European corn borer, white grubs, sod
knowledge, but making use of light and its webworms, and a few other pests.
component colors in visual lures requires
Although numerous companies market devices
considerably more detailed understanding. Visual
that use light as a lure for mass trapping or removal
lures used in insect management fall into three
trapping, using light to trap out insect infestations is
general categories: (1) lights (incandescent,
effective in only a few specific situations. One widely
fluorescent, and ultraviolet) that attract insects from
used but very ineffective application of light for
dark or dimly lit surroundings; (2) colored objects
insect control is the placement of electrocutors or
that are attractive because of their specific
"bug zappers" on lawns or patios. Such uses are
reflectance; and shapes or silhouettes that stand out ineffective for at least two reasons. First, many
against a contrasting background.
insects that are attracted to the area around the light
traps (sometimes from considerable distances) do not
Insect Attractants and Traps 7

they must be positioned so that they do not attract

insects into a building from outdoors.

Although using electrocutor-light traps outdoors

is not efficient, the placement of outdoor lights can be
important. Positioning outdoor lights away from
entrances, windows, or other openings reduces
problems associated with insect activity around the
lights. Flood lights directed at loading docks, for
instance, do not lure insects into food warehouses as
so overhead lights mounted just inside the loading
dock door. Placing outdoor lights several feet away
from doors of homes and apartments also
concentrates insect activity away from the sites where
they cause the most annoyance. In addition, yellow
light bulbs attract fewer insects that white
incandescent lights or fluorescent bulbs.

Using Colored Objects to Attract Insects

Specific colors are attractive to some day-flying

insects. For example, yellow objects attract many
insects and are often used in traps designed to capture
Figure 4. A light trap used to survey nught-flying insects. winged aphids and adult whiteflies. Red spheres and
Most light traps use ultraviolet lamps and capture a wide yellow cards attract apple maggot flies. Like other
range of moths, beetles, and other insects. attractants, colored objects can be used in traps for
monitoring or mass trapping. Yellow plastic tubs
actually fly into the trap. Instead, they remain nearby, filled with water, for example, are used to monitor the
actually increasing the total number of insects in the flights of aphids in crops where these insects are
immediate area. Second, these lighted electrocutors important vectors of plant viruses. Aphids attracted to
attract and kill a wide variety of insects, the the yellow tub land on the water and are unable to
overwhelming majority of which are not pests. The escape. Yellow, sticky-coated cards or plastic cups
nonpest species killed by such devices include such are widely used in mass trapping programs to help
beneficial insects as the green lacewing, a predator control whiteflies in greenhouses. Although
that attacks a variety of plant pests. recommended trap densities in greenhouses are based
Insect electrocutors can be effective in certain on studies involving only a few crops,
indoor situations, especially in food warehouses, recommendations of 1 trap per 5 square yards or 1
processing plants, and restaurants. In these facilities, trap every 3 to 4 feet along benches are common.
electrocutors are placed in otherwise dimly lit areas Yellow sticky traps capture adult whiteflies, not
where their light is not visible from outdoors. In such wingless nymphs.
locations the trap does not lure insects into the Both yellow cards and red spheres (and red
building, yet it does attract and kill certain flies, hemispheres attached to yellow cards) coated with
moths, and beetles that are pests of stored products or adhesives are used to attract and capture apple
nuisances in food production areas (see Gilbert, maggot flies in orchards. A chemical attractant is
1984). These traps can also be used somewhat incorporated in the adhesive applied to commercially
effectively in barns and stables to reduce some fly and available yellow cards. Apple maggot traps are most
mosquito infestations. The efficiency of electrocutors often used to detect the movement of adult flies into
in such situations appears to be low, however, and orchards from nearby overwintering sites. To do so,
traps should be placed in trees along the perimeter of
Insect Attractants and Traps 8

the orchard, with no more than 150 feet between somewhat effective in small, closed areas where fly
traps. The timing of insecticide applications can be populations are low. Although these strips quickly
based on the results of such a trapping program. become coated with flies where flies are numerous,
they can be useful on a closed porch or similar indoor
Research indicates that red sphere traps and area. Because flies often land near other flies, strips
chemical attractants can be used to "trap out" apple that have captured a few flies and strips that bear
maggot flies and limit damage to fruit. For mass pictures of flies may be more effective than clean
trapping programs to work, traps must be in place strips. (Strips should be hung so that people do not
before flies begin to move into orchards (in early inadvertently contact them; the adhesive combined
June), and a great number of traps must be used (one with dead flies is an unpleasant addition to hair or
every 15 feet in the trees at the perimeter of the clothing.)
orchard). Mass trapping for apple maggot control is
still an experimental approach, and commercial Other traps designed to control certain pasture
producers should not adopt a mass trapping program flies can be constructed from commonly available
if complete control of apple maggot damage is materials. Walk-through traps for horn fly control can
necessary. reduce horn fly infestations on cattle by 50 to 70
percent. Box or canopy-type traps rely on the horse
Traps used to capture stable flies around fly's attraction to dark silhouettes. Although horse fly
livestock and outdoor recreation facilities are traps are impractical where horses or cattle graze in
constructed of alsynite, a translucent building large pastures or extensive rangelands, they can
material similar to fiberglass. It is attractive to stable reduce horse fly numbers in small pastures.
flies apparently because of its specific reflectance.
Alsynite panels coated with adhesive are used to One other type of trap useful to gardeners and
determine stable fly abundance, and their farmers is the pitfall trap (Figure 5). Perhaps its best
effectiveness in mass trapping is under investigation. known use is in slug control. Bowl, cups, or other
Although these traps can provide some control of containers are set into the soil surface. Beer or a
stable flies in isolated sites, their value in feedlot and fermented mixture of flour, sugar, yeast, and water is
dairy situations has not been established. If alsynite added to the container to attract slugs; slugs that enter
traps are to be effective in these settings, producers the container are unable to escape and "drown" in the
will need to use many traps (an adequate number has liquid. Similar pitfall traps containing a preservative
not been determined). (not an attractant) are sometimes used to sample
populations of insects active at the soil surface.
Other Traps Relatively new pitfall traps are now available for
detecting beetle infestations in stored grains. These
Several unique types of traps are used for the
traps can be used with or without an attractant to
control of various species of flies. House fly traps
provide a very sensitive measure of insect presence
containing foods or chemical attractants lure house
in warm grain.
flies to a reservoir from which they cannot escape.
These traps capture thousands of house flies around Summary
livestock facilities, but the overall population in such
areas is usually not reduced by a meaningful level Insect attractants and traps are useful tools for
unless a great number of traps are used. The monitoring insect populations to determine the need
effectiveness of such traps must be judged not by the for control or the timing of control practices. In some
number of flies in the traps by the number of flies instances, attractants and traps also can be used to
still present in the area. (These traps do not capture control insect populaions directly by mass trapping or
stable flies, the biting flies that are most annoying to mating disruption. Using attractants and traps to
livestock.) monitor and control insect populations can improve
the effectiveness of insecticide applications and
Because house flies commonly land and rest on
sometimes reduce the use of broad-spectrum, more
narrow, vertical objects, hanging sticky "fly strips" is
toxic compounds.
Insect Attractants and Traps 9

Acknowledgements horn flies on pastured cattle. Cooperative Extension

Service, North Dakota State University, Fargo.Reidl,
The following reviewers contributed to this H., J.F. Howell, P.S. McNally, and P.H. Westigard.
publication: William Ruesink and Audrey Hodgins, 1986. Codling moth management: use and
Illinois Natural History Survey, and Bill Lingren, standardization of pheromone trapping systems.
Trece, Inc. Western Regional Research Publication no.
WRRP012, Agricultural Experiment Station,
Funding to develop this publication was provided
University of California, Berkeley.
in part by a grant from the Illinois Department of
Energy and Natural Resources (ENR Project No. Roelofs, W.L. (Ed.). 1979. Establishing efficacy
IP-13) and by the Cooperative Extension Service, of sex attractants and disruptants for insect control.
University of Illinois. Entomological Society of America, Hyattsville,
Maryland.
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Birch, M.C., and K.F. Haynes. 1982. Insect
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Curran, W.S., M.E. Gray, M.C. Shurtleff, D.E.

Kuhlman, A.M. Carrick, R.W. Koethe, and N.N.
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Gilbert, D. 1984. Insect electrocutor light traps,

pp. 87-108 in: F.J. Baur (ed.), Insect management for
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Walk-through trap to control horn flies on cattle.
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