CIVIL AND WATER

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT

TCW3207

HANDOUT PART A

NOTE: THESE NOTES SHOULD BE READ IN CONJUNCTION WITH CLASS AND

DIAGRAMS
GROUND WATER CONTROL
 Can be defined as water which is held temporarily in the soil above the level of the
water table.
 Below the water table level is the subsoil water which is the result of the natural
absorption by subsoil of the ground water.
 Both types of water can be effectively controlled by variant methods designed to
exclude the water from a particular area either temporarily or permanently.

(a) Permanent exclusion of ground water

1. Sheet piling
 Suitable for all types of soils except boulder beds
 Used to form a barrier or cut-off wall hence forming an enclosure to the flow of
ground water
 The sheet piling is designed to act as a retaining wall
 Steel sheets are driven into the ground one after the other
 The enclosed soil is then excavated

2. Diaphragm walls
 Are structural concrete walls usually cast insitu using bentonite slurry ( amixture of
water and fullers earth)
 When disturbed or agitated the slurry becomes liquid and when in stable conditions
the slurry forms a gel like structure which prevents penetration of water
 The perimeter trench is excavated in smaller portions
 The excavated portion is immediately filled with slurry as a means of support to
trenches
 Concrete is poured into the trench
 Whilst the concrete is poured the displaced slurry is simultaneously pumped into
reservoirs for future use
 Process is repeated until the whole trench is filled with concrete
 The portions are excavated in such a way that no bay is excavated one after the other
but spaces are left in between excavated bays then after pouring concrete the
remaining bays are constructed
 Unless the wallforms part of the permanent structure the method Is uneconomic

3. Thin grouted membrane

 These are permanent curtain or cut off non structural walls or barriers inserted intothe
ground forming an enclosed structure
 Suitable for silt, sand and gravel subsoils
 Universal steel columns or beams are used
 A flexible tube is attached to the web of the columns or beams to allow for grout
injection
 The column setions are sunk into the ground until the whole area to be excavated is
enclosed
 Cement grout is pumped through the flexible tube and when it reaches bottom of
column, the column section is gradually pulled out and the space is immediately filled
with gout
 Process is repeated for each columns until the external wall is formed

4. Grouting
 Usually consists of grouts of cement, chemical or resin
 Grout is injected into the subsoil by pumping the required mixtures at high pressure
through tubes placed strategically
 The result is that grout forms a permanent barrier to water seepage in the subsoil
hence the strength of soil is increased and permeability reduced
5. Ground freezing
 Suitable for all types of subsoils with moisture content exceeding 8%
 Freezing tubes are inserted into the ground and a freezing solution is circulated
around the tubes to form ice in the voids thereby creating a wall of ice to act as the
impermeable barrier
 Method gives soil an extra mechanical strength, however slight risks anticipated
particularly when operating in clay/silt soils

(b) Temporary exclusion of ground water

1. Sump pumping

 Sumps usually not exceeding 7.5m deep are excavated to below the formation level of
the building excavations and preferably sited at corner positions to reduce to a
minimum soil movement due to settlement.
 Water is collected in the sumps or pits excavated and subsequently pumped out

2. Wellpoint systems
 A series of small diameter wells are sunk into the subsoil
 The wells are connected at their top with a header pipe which is attached to a vacuum
pump and water is pumped out
 The number of pumps can be increased depending on the amounts of water as well as
pumping distances
3. Horizontal ground water control
 Involves installing into the ground a PVC perforated suction pipe covered with a
nylon filter sleeve to prevent choking of the perforations by fine particles
 Pipe is installed using a special machine which excavates a narrow trench, lays the
pipe and backfills the excavation in one operation at high speed


4. Electro-osmosis
 An uncommon and costly method used for dewatering cohesive soils where other
pumping methods would not be adequate
 Method works on principle that soil particles carry a negative charge which attracts
the positively charged water molecules thereby creating a balanced state, which if this
balance is disturbed water will flow
 The disturbance is achieved by inserting into the ground two electrodes and passing
electric current through them
 When current is passed the positively charged water molecules area attracted to the
cathode (in form of well point) where it is collected and pumped
DEMOLITIONS
 Can be defined as successive pulling down of a structure in the reverse order of
normal construction process
 Sometimes a dangerous operation unless it’s a very small structure and carried out by
specialist contractor
 Demolition can be considered under two headings

1. Taking down- partial demolition of a structure

2. Demolition- complete removal of a structure

(a) Precautions
 Before any demolition takes place it is necessary to take all necessary precautions as
follows:
 Obtain statutory approval
 Carry out survey of the existing structure, identify all services eg drainage, power,
telephones, water, etc and disconnect
 Check the stability of any adjoining structure and make all necessary support
 Protect public injury and dust byway of erecting hoarding and dust masts

(b) Methods of demolition

 The choice of the method to be used depends on:
 Type of structure- eg, storey height framed structure
 Type of construction- stone/brick masonry, concrete, precast,etc
 Location of site- whether building is detached and isolated or confined

(i) Hand demolition

 Progressive demolition of a structure using hand held tools such as hammers, chisels
 Lifting appliances can be used to hoist and members or materials once they have
been released.
 Buildings are demolished by this method, usually in the reverse order of
construction
 Unless building is isolated and distance from public highway is more than 6m or
half its height, debris should not be allowed to fall freely
 In all other cases a chute or skip is used to direct debris

(ii) Pusher arm demolition

 A method of progressive demolition using a machine fitted with steel pusher arm
exerting a horizontal force or thrust on to the building fabric
 Method used only when machine is operated from firm level base with clear
operating base of 6m from the building
 Height of building should first be reduced to 600mmabove the level of pusher arm
 Pusher arm should not be overloaded and generally should be outside the building
 An experienced operator is required and should work from within a robust cabin
fitted with shutter proof glass
 Structure should first be detached from adjoining buildings by hand demolition
(iii) Deliberate collapse
 Involves identifying and removing the key structural members of the structure
thereby causing complete collapse of the whole or part of the building
 Expert engineering advice should be obtained before applying the method
 Method should be used on detached and isolated buildings

(iv) Demolition ball technique

 A method of progressive demolition carried out by swinging a weight usually a
demolition ball suspended from a lifting appliance such as a crane against the fabric
of the building.
 Three techniques can be used

 Vertical drop
 The ball is allowed to fall on the top of the building
 Swinging in line with the jib
 The ball is swung in horizontal way to strike on the face of the building
 Slewing jib

(v) Wire rope pulling demolition

 Only a steel wire is used
 A steel wire rope not less than 38mm circumference is firmly tied one end to the
building and the other to the machine and a pulling tension is gradually applied
 No person should be forward of the winch or either side of the rope
 If after several pulls buildings fails to collapse other methods such as demolition
ball or pusher arm have to be employed and should be approached with care as
building might have been weakened

(vi) Demolition by explosives

 A specialist method where charges of explosives are placed within the fabric of the
structure and detonated to cause partial or complete collapse
UNDERPINNING
 Main objective of underpinning is to transfer the load carried by a foundation from its
existing bearing level to a new level at a lower depth. The technique can be used to
replace existing weakening foundation

(a) Reasons for underpinning

1. Uneven settlement- caused by uneven loading of the building, unequal resistance of
the soil action of tree roots or cohesive soil settlement
2. Increase in loading- this could be due to the addition of an extra storey or an
increase in imposed loadings such as that which may occur with change of use of
building
3. Lowering of adjacent ground- usually required when constructing a basement
adjacent to existing foundations

(b) Underpinning Methods

(i) Traditional wall underpinning
 Carried out by excavating in stages/bays alongside and underneath existing
foundation, casting new concrete, building up to underside of existing foundation,
pinning up and backfill behind new foundation with loose concrete
 To prevent dangers of fracture , damage or settlement of the walls being
underpinned the work should always be carried out in short lengths called legs or
bays.

(ii) Jack or Miga pile underpinning

 Method used when the depth o a suitable bearing capacity subsoil is too deep to
make traditional underpinning uneconomic
 Jack pile is quiet, vibration free and flexible since the pile depth can be adjusted to
suit subsoil conditions encountered
 Existing foundation must be in a good condition
 Openings to provide headroom pile is created by excavating under the existing
foundation
 Piles are sunk until required depth reached
 The space between top of pile and existing foundation is filled with pinned concrete
cap

(iii) Needle and pile underpinning

 Method can be used where the condition of the existing foundation is unsuitable for
traditional or jack pile
 Brickwork above the existing foundation must be sound since this method relies on
arching effect of bonded brickwork
 The methods uses pair of jacks or usually bored piles in conjunction with an in situ
concrete beam or needle placed above the existing foundation
CONSTRUCTION PLANT & EQUIPMENT

1.0 Introduction
 On any construction site of the modern day, there is no doing away with the need for
construction plant.
 A few reasons for the need of plant are that they:

 Increase output rate

 Carry out activities which are manually or that are done by them mechanically
 Eliminate heavy manual work thus reducing fatigue and increasing productivity of
manual workers
 Reduce overall building or construction costs
 Maintain a planned rate of production where there is a shortage of skilled /unskilled
operatives
 Maintain a high standard often required by present day designs and specifications
particularly in the context of structural.
 Construction plant can ware out through two possible ways
(i) Depreciation
 This is the rate at which plant lose its initial/purchase value.
 The rate can be measured per hour or annually
 After its life span the salvage value of plant is usually refered to as scrap value

(ii) Obsolescence
 This refered to as the expiry of use of plant
 Can be either due to lapse of life span or superseded by new technology for example
new machinery with high rate of output

2.0 Owning construction

Plant can be owned in two ways
a) Purchase
 The company procures the plant through savings or reserve funds.
 Optionally hire purchase and account purchase can be approached

b) Hiring
 It may not be necessary to buy plant for a particular project
 Other than purchasing, plant can be hired from established firms who already have
it

3.0 Categories of Construction plant and equipment

 Construction plant and equipment can be loosely classified into several categories
listed below

3.1 Small powered plant

3.1.1 Electric hand tools
 Such as electric drills which are used for boring holes into concrete, timber,
masonry and metal.
 For example electric hammer for cutting and chasing work

3.1.2 Cartridge hammers/guns

 Are used for quick fixing together of components

3.1.3 Vibrators
 Are used to consolidate concrete after its placement
 Power can be supplied by a small engine,electric motor and in some cases by
compressed air
 Three forms of vibrators are used

 Pocker vibrator
 Vibration tampers
 Clamp vibrators

3.1.4 Power floats

 Are hand operated rotary machines powered by petrol engine or electric motor
 They are used to produce smooth level surface finish to concrete beds or slabs
eliminating the need for screed
 Surface obtained is comparable with that achieved by craftsmen using hand trowels
 Use of power floats saves time and money as it eliminates floor screeds

3.1.5 Pumps
 A very important item of small plant for the building contractor
 There basic function is the removal of liquids either vertically or horizontally or
both directions
 Usually powered by diesel, petrol or electric motor
 Mainly used for pumping water from basements/excavations, lowering water table
and supplying water for general purposes
 Also used for pumping cement mortar grout
 Are classified in three groups as follows

 Centrifugal
 Displacement
 Submersible

3.1.6 Rollers
 Are designed to consolidate/compact filling materials and compact surface finishes
 e.g pathways or general paving
 They rely on dead weight to carry out consolidation
 Examples are Bomag rollers

3.2 Earth moving and excavation plant

3.2.1 Bulldozers
 Are primarily high powered tractors with caterpiller or crawler tracks fitted with a
mould blade or board at the front for stripping and oversite excavations up to depth
of 400mmby pushing loosened material ahead of machine

3.2.2 Scrappers
 Piece of plant consisting a power unit and a scrapper bowl
  Used to transport soil where surface stripping, site leveling and cut and fil activities
are planned
 They cut to a depth of 300mm
 Capable of producing a very smooth and accurate formation level

3.2.3 Graders
 Similar to bulldozers in that they have an adjustable mould blade fitted either at
front or slung under the centre of the machine body
 Used for finishing to fine limits large areas of ground which have been scrapped or
bulldozed to the required formation level
 Can only be used to grade the surface since their motive power is generally
insufficient to enable them being used for oversite excavation work

3.2.4 Face shovel

 Used as a loading shovel for excavating into the face of an embankment
 Universal power unit or hydraulic machines are available

3.2.5 Backactor
 Probably the most common form of excavating machinery used by contractors for
excavating basements, pits and trenches
 Universal power unit and hydraulic versions are available
 Discharge in both types is done by raising the bucket in a tucked position and
emptying the spoil through the open front end into the attendant haul unit alongside
the trench

3.2.6 Multi- purpose excavators [JCB]

 These are versatile machines based upon a tractor power unit
 are very popular with small- medium sized building contractor
 the tractor is usually diesel-powered wheeled vehicle although tracked versions are
available
 machine is fitted with a hydraulically controlled bucket or hoe at the back of plant
and a loader arm at the front
 used for deep excavations and narrow trenches

3.3 Transporting plant

 These are plant or machinery used for the movement of materials and/or personnel
around and between building sites
 The movements can be horizontal, vertical or a combination of both directions

3.3.1 Lorries and trucks

 Are plant used ferry workers, machines and materials from one point to the other
 Usually ranges from small pick-up trucks to heavy vehicles

3.3.2 Dumpers
 Are labour saving, versartile plant used for the horizontal movement of materials
like bricks, aggregates, sanitary fittings and fluids e.g concrete
 Are diesel powered and require only one operative[driver]
 Ideal for rough terrain encountered on sites
 Range from small 2wheel to 4wheel[highway dumpers] drive
3.3.3 Folk-lift trucks
 Used for rapid movement of materials usually with a low breakage factor
 Use of folk lifts provides both a transport and lifting facility and so obviates the
need for a hoist or even carnage of any kind especially with 2-3 storey buildings

3.3.4 Elevators and conveyors

 Elevators are used for vertical movement of materials while conveyors are for
horizontal movement e.g. aggregates and concrete
 Elevators may also be used to carry bricks, roofing tiles etc up to a height of 7m

3.3.5 Hoists
 Are a means of transporting materials or passengers vertically by means of a
moving level platform
 However, hoists designed to carry materials should not be used to carry passengers

3.3.6 Cranes
 Are devices or machines for lifting loads by means of a rope
 Used for raising large and heavy prefabricated units
 Three types of cranes exists
 Static/stationery – are fixed at the working position and are basically used for
lifting heavy loads
 Mobile cranes
 Tower cranes

3.4 Concrete mixers

 Primarily used for mixing concrete and mortar mixes

 Type and choice of concrete mixers depend on the required material volume on the
horizontal/vertical transportation distances involved

3.5 Scaffolding
 These are temporary frames to provide means of access to high level working areas
and provision of a safe working platform for both workers and materials
 Material used for scaffolding include steel, aluminiun alloy, timber,bamboo and
plastic
 Range from simple tressle and ladder to complicated types
 Basically there are two forms of scaffolding

3.5.1 Putlog scaffolding

 Consists of a single row of standards(upright members) set outside and alongside
the perimeter of the building and partly supported by the structure
 A working platform is provided at the level of where the work are carried out
 A lattice ladder is fixed to the scaffold frame for ease access

3.5.2 Independent scaffolding

 Unlike the putlog scaffold, consists of two rows of standards(upright members) set
outside and alongside the perimeter of the building
FOUNDATIONS
 Considered as the lowest artificial belt part of the structure
 Main objective is to transmit loads to the bearing level
 They are usually made of either mass or reinforced concrete and can be placed in two
categories
a) Shallow foundations
 Those which transfer the loads to subsoil at a point near to the ground floor of the
building such as strip and rafts

b) Deep foundations
 Those which transfer the loads to subsoil to some distance below the ground floor of
the building such as piles

Types of foundations
(i) Strip foundations

 A continuous or longitudinal strip of concrete belt underlying a brick/masonry wall

 Sometimes it is necessary to extend the bearing level by increasing the depth of
concrete to mere than one metre and this is called deep strip foundation
 In some cases where ground is not level, a system of stepped foundation can be
applied

(ii) Raft foundations

 A type of foundation wit concrete fabric stretching the whole surface to be covered
by the building
 They are often used on poor soils for lightly loaded buildings and are considered
capable of accommodating small settlements of the soil
 In poor soils the upper crust of 450-600mm is often stiffer than the lower subsoil
and to build a light raft onthis crust is usually better than penetrating it with a strip
foundation
 The method is particularly useful where bearing capacity is low, again resulting in
the need for large bases
 Raft foundations can be classified into three types

1. Solid slab rafts

2. Beam and slab rafts
3. Cellular rafts

(iii) Pad foundations

 This type of foundation is used to support and transmit independent point loads to
the subsoil
 They are usually isolated to carry loads from piers and columns
 The most economic plan shape is the square but if the columns are close to site
boundaries it may be necessary to use a rectangular plan shape of equivalent area

(iv) Combined foundations

 Basically these are a combination of (i), (ii) and (iii) above
 (v) Piled foundation

 Piled foundations can be defined as a series of columns constructed or inserted into

the ground to transmit the load(s) of a structure to a lower level of subsoil.
 They can be used when suitable foundation conditions are not found at or near
ground level making the use of deep traditional foundations uneconomic.

1. Classification of piles
 Piles may be classified by the way in which they transmit their loads to the subsoil
or by the way they are formed/constructed.

1.1 By way of transmitting loads

a) End bearing
 The shaft of the piles act as columns carrying the loads through the weak subsoils to
firm strata into which the pile toe has penetrated. The firm strata at the toe can be a
rock or layer of firm sand or gravel which has been compacted by the displacement
and vibration encountered during the driving.

b) Friction
 In this way, piles transmit loads to surrounding soil via friction between the surface
of pile and soil which in effect lowers bulb of pressure formed to a lower level
where a higher bearing capacity is found.

Factors affecting foundation selection

 The selection of foundation can be based on

 The superimposed dead & live loads

 Soil type and bearing capacity

Soil types
 Gravel- consists of coarse materials
 Sand- consists of angular & rounded irregular grains
 Clay- consists of micro & submicroscopic particles
 Reclaimed- consists of fill made of brick buts, ashes, refuse, etc. Examples are land
fill

 In order to determine the type of subsoil there are several methods are employed

Method of subsoil investigation

i. General site inspection/observation

 Observing the behavior of soil after rains and heat from the sun
 Inspecting the arrangement of exposed soil particles

ii. Trial/test pits

 Open pits measuring 1.5x1.5m are dug around the area to be built, preferably
outside the building’s boundary line
  Number & spacing of pits depends on building’s importance and size
 Excavations are done to a depth not exceeding 3m deep
 Soil samples are collected at every 300mm interval depths (strata) & sent to
laboratory for testing
 The sides of pits are inclined to avoid collapse & alleviate need for timbering

iii. Probing method

 Use of steel rods usually 25-40mm diameter
 The end of the rod is either pointed or slitted
 The rod is driven into the ground & pulled out
 Soil collected at the end of the rod is sent for testing in labs
 Suitable for high cohesive soils

iv. Boring methods

 Two methods exists which are:

1.1 Auger
 Either a large and long screw is driven into the soil
 Soil rises through the blades of the screw as it cuts & extracted out
 Alternatively, a long rod with a cutter at its end (shell) is driven and the cut soil is
collected
 Method suitable in soft soils i.e clay and sand
 Can be dug up to 1.5m deep

1.2 Wash boring

 Steel sheets are aligned together to form an enclose
 Water is injected under pressure through the soil enclosed
 The washed soil particles (mixed with water) are collected in container and sent to
lab for testing
 Can be applied in cohesive fine soils & dug upto 3m deep

Load bearing capacity of soil

 Can be defined as the maximum loa which the soil can carry per unit area without
displacement, usually measured in tones/m2

 For design, safe bearing capacity = bearing capacity

Safety factor (2-3)

 In any case the bearing capacity of soil can be improved by:

 Soil compaction
 Draining the soil
 Cement grouting
 Chemical addition e.g diluted silicate of sodium chloride
FORMWORK
 Formwork is a temporary mould or box into which wet/fresh concrete is placed to
form a particular desired shape & size
 If reinforced concrete required, then reinforcement is placed in position before
pouring concrete

Economic essentials of formwork

 If not properly evaluated formwork can cost as high as 75% of the total cost to
produce the required member, e.g. a beam
 To remain economic, the following should be considered

 Relatively low cost

 Design of formwork should be in such a way that units are easily assembled and
dismantled
 Form sizes should be designed so that they are easily handled by hand without much
need of plant and machinery lifting device
 Material used must be chosen that it can be easily fixed using simple nailing and
screws
 It must be correctly set out to produce the desired product without alteration
 The material should be strong enough to be reused for at least 5 times

General requirements of good formwork

 Forms should give desired finish. Smooth surface can be achieved by providing
necessary lining
 Material should be strong enough & not to deflect under loading
 Should have grout tight joints since grout leakage can cause honeycombing
 Easy fixing and dismantling

Procedure of casting concrete after making formwork

 Interior forms should be clear of all rubbish, dirt & grease
 All joints should be checked to ensure that they are grout tight
 Rub mould oil or releasing agent to the internal side and bottom forms
 Care must be taken to make sure that mould oil does not get into contact with
reinforcement
 The distance from the mixing place to the formwork should be kept to a minimum
to avoid segregation of aggregates
 When placing concrete care must be taken to ensure that reinforcement is not
displaced
 Whilst pouring concrete, the concrete is compacted through tamping or vibration
 After casting the required amount of concrete, the surface is smoothened and
allowed to set & cure
 Removal of formwork is upon instruction from the engineer or agent after concrete
has gained required initial strength.

Types of formwork
(i) Beam formwork
 This is basically a 3 sided box supported and propped in the correct position
and to the desired level
 The bottom forms are usually thicker than the side forms (if in timber)
  Beam formwork arrangement range from a simple beam to beam and slab, the
latter having edge beams, slab and sometimes internal beams

(ii) Column formwork

 Consists of a vertical mould of the desired shape and size which hasto retain
the wet concrete and resist the initial hydrostatic pressure caused by the wet
concrete
 To keep the thickness of the formwork material to a minimum, horizontal
clamps or yokes are used
 The head of the column formwork can be used to support the incoming beam
formwork

(iii) Wall formwork

 Similar arrangement with column formwork, except that in wall formwork
side forms are held back together by use of coil ties or greased steel tube
spacer with through bolt as opposed to yokes & clamps on column formwork
CONSTRUCTION OF MULTI STOREY BUILDINGS

 The principle of multi-storey building construction lies on framed construction. The

purpose of any framed building is to transfer the loads of the structure plus any of the
imposed loads through the members of the frame to a suitable foundation.
 Framed construction can be made of the following
1. Reinforced Concrete Frames
2. Precast Concrete Frames
3. Structural Steel Frames

(a) REINFORCED CONCRETE FRAMES

 Series of columns beams and/or slabs usually reinforced.

The reinforcement
Material used as reinforcement to concrete must fulfill certain requirements if an
economic structural member is to be constructed. These include:-
 Tensile strength
 Must be capable of achieving this tensile strength without undue strain.
 Be of a material that can be easily bent to any required shape.
 Its surface should be capable of creating adequate bond with concrete.
Reinforcement is available in various shapes and sizes
 Square twisted
 Plain bar
 Ribbed
 Square/ long mesh fabric
To prevent bond failure bars should be extended beyond the section where there is no stress
in the bar.

Reinforced Concrete Beams

Beams can vary in their complexity of design and reinforcement from the very simple beam
formed over an isolated opening (as above) to the more column form encountered in frames
where the beams transfer their loadings to the columns.
Reinforced Concrete Columns
 A column is a vertical member carrying the beam and floor loadings to the foundation
and is a compression member. They vary in sizes from square/rectangular, circular
and ‘L’ shaped.
 These columns transfer loads to the subsoil by means of column bases/pads at their
foot. If the bases are closely together it may be more practicable to merge them to
form a strip.
 Where junction between beams and columns occur there could be a clash of steel
since the bars from the beam may well be in the same plane as bars in columns. To
avoid this situation, one group of bars must be bent or cranked into another plane.
Reinforced Concrete Slabs
 Behave exactly in the same manner as reinforced concrete beams and are therefore
designed in the same manner. For light loadings, a mat of welded fabric (mesh
reinforcement) could be used.
 The three basic forms of reinforced concrete slabs are:-
i. Flat slab floor/roof
ii. Beam and Slab floor/roof
iii. Ribbed floors/roofs

(b) PRECAST CONCRETE FRAMES

 Overall concept of a precast concrete frame is the same as any other framing material.
Single or multi- storey frames can be produced on the skeleton or box principle.

Advantages
i. Mixing, placing and curing of concrete done under controlled conditions resulting in
uniformity of units.
ii. Reduce site space for storing aggregates, steel formwork etc.
iii. Repetitive standard units reduce costs- by use of standard molds.
iv. Frames can be assembled on site in cold weather without fear of frost as compared to
in-situ concrete, which helps for planning and avoid contract delays.

Disadvantages
i. System building is less flexible in its design concept than purpose made structures.
ii. Mechanical lifting plant will be needed to position the units – which means extra costs
than in cast in-situ.
iii. Programming may be restricted by controls on delivery and unloading times laid
down by the police or statutory agent.
iv. Structural connections between the precast concrete units can present both design and
contractual problems.- The major points to considered are protection against weather,
fire and corrosion, appearance and method of construction.

Methods of Connections
1) Foundation Connections
 Connected to their base/foot depending on magnitude of load.
 For light-medium loads the foot of the column can be placed in a pocket left in the
foundation.
 The column can be plumbed and positioned by fixing a collar around its perimeter and
temporarily supporting the column from its collar by using raking adjustable props.
 Wedges can be used to give extra rigidity whilst the column is being grouted into the
pocket.

 Alternatively, a base plate is cast or welded to the foot of the column and use holding
down bolts to secure the column to its foundation.
2) Column Connections
 Main principle involved in making column connections is to ensure continuity and
this can be achieved by a variety of methods.
 In simple connection a direct bearing and grouted dowel joint can be used, the dowel
being positioned in the upper or lower column.
 Where continuity of reinforcement is required the reinforcement from both upper and
lower columns left exposed and either lapped or welded together before completing
the connection with in situ concrete.
 Note: Column connections should be made at floor levels but above the beam
connections.

c) STRUCTURAL STEELWORK FRAMES

 Structural steel as a means of constructing a framed building has been used since the
20th century.
 The main factors to consider when making choice of using these frames are:-

- Site costs
- Construction costs
- Maintenance costs

 The design, fabrication and erection of a structural steel frame is normally placed in
the hands of a specialist subcontractor.
 The main task of the contractor is to provide the foundation bases in the correct
positions and to the correct levels with the necessary holding down fixing bolts.
 Structural steel frames are available in following sections:-
 To increase the depth and greater resistance to deflection without adding extra weight,
sections can be flame cut along castellated line and the two halves so produced are
welded together to form an open web beam.
Connections
 Connections in structural steelwork are classified as either shop connection or site
connections and can be made using bolts, rivets or by welding.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
The basic principle of pre-stressing concrete is very simple. If a material has little tensile
strength it will fracture immediately as its tensile strength is exceeded, but if such a material
is given an initial compression the when load-creating tension is applied the material will be
able to withstand the force of this load as long as the initial compression strength is not
exceeded.
In normal reinforced concrete the designer is unable to make full use of the high tensile
strength of steel or of the concrete.

Prestressing Methods
There are 2 methods
i) Pre- Tensioning
ii) Post- Tensioning

PRETENSIONING
 In this method the wires and cables are stressed using a hydraulic jack before the
concrete is cast around them.
 The stressing wires are anchored at one end of the mould and stressed by hydraulic
jacks from the other end until the required stress has been obtained.
 After stressing the wires, the side forms of the mould are positioned around the
tensioned wires;
 The wires are cut or released and the bond between the stressed wires and the
concrete will prevent the tendons from regaining their original length thus including
the prestress.
 Used for making precast components such as floor units and slabs.

POST TENSIONING

 In this method the concrete is cast around ducts in which the stressing tendons can be
housed and the stressing is carried out after the concrete has hardened.
 The tendons are stressed from one or both ends and when the required stress has been
reached the tendons are anchored at their ends to prevent them from returning to their
original length thus inducing the compressive force.
 The anchors used form part of the finished component.
 The ducts for housing the stressing tendons can be formed by using flexible steel
tubing or inflatable rubber tubes.
 The remaining space within the duct should be filled with grout to stop any moisture
present setting up a corrosive action.
 Post tensioning is a method usually employed on site.