New Zealand Mathematical Olympiad Committee

Collinearity and Concurrence

Heather Macbeth

1 Introduction
These notes cover a selection of techniques for proving collinearity and concurrence.
Why treat the two notions simultaneously? A deep answer is that the two concepts are dual : correct reasoning
about lines and points can, sometimes, be inverted to give equally correct reasoning about points and lines. In
these notes, I have deliberately avoided making these ideas explicit – that’s a whole other can of worms!
A simpler answer is that most collinearity results can be rephrased as results about concurrence, and conversely.
Many of the results in these notes come in pairs.

2 Symmetric properties
Example 1 (Existence of circumcentre). The three perpendicular bisectors of the three sides of a triangle
ABC are concurrent. For the perpendicular bisector lc of the side AB of a triangle ABC is the set of all points
equidistant from A and B.

The analogous statements hold for la and lb . Since AB and AC are not parallel, the lines lc and lb are not
parallel, and so they meet at some point O equidistant from A, B and C. The point O must therefore lie on lc
as well.
A

B C

Example 2 (Existence of incentre). The three internal angle bisectors of the angles at the three vertices of a
triangle ABC are concurrent. For the angle bisector lA of the internal angle ∠A of a triangle ABC is the set
of all points inside that sector equidistant from the sides AB and AC.

The analogous statements hold for lB and lC . We can conclude as in Example 1.

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Exercise 1 (Existence of A-excentre). Let ABC be a triangle. Show that the internal angle bisector of ∠A
and the external angle bisectors of ∠B and ∠C are concurrent.

Let ω1 and ω2 be two circles with radii r1 and r2 respectively, and distinct (!) centres O1 and O2 respectively
separated by a distance O1 O2 = d > 0. Then we define the radical axis of ω1 and ω2 to be the perpendicular
to O1 O2 through X, where X is the point on the line O1 O2 for which, considering directed ratios, we have

O1 X : XO2 = d2 + r12 − r22 : d2 − r12 + r22 .

−−−→
ray O2 O1 beyond O1 , if d2 < r22 − r12 ;
point O1 , if d2 = r22 − r12 ;
The point X is on the segment O1 O2 , if d2 > |r12 − r22 |;
point O2 , if d2 = r12 − r22 ;
−−−→
ray O1 O2 beyond O2 , if d2 < r12 − r22 .
In particular, if ω1 and ω2 intersect at distinct points A and B, then the radical axis of ω1 and ω2 is the line AB.
Example 3 (Radical axes theorem). The three radical axes of any three circles ω1 , ω2 , ω3 with non-collinear
centres are concurrent. For the radical axis l12 of ω1 and ω2 is the set of all points whose powers with respect
to these two circles are equal.

The analogous statements hold for the radical axes l13 and l23 . Since O1 , O2 and O3 are not collinear, O1 O2
and O1 O3 are not parallel, and so l12 and l13 are not parallel either. Let P be their point of intersection. Then
P has equal powers with respect to all three circles, and so it lies on l23 also.

Exercise 2 (Existence of orthocentre). Let R, S and T be the feet of the altitudes from A, B and C respectively
of a triangle ABC. Show that ABRS, BCST and CAT R are all cyclic. Deduce that ABC’s altitudes AR, BS
and CT are concurrent.
Example 4 (Existence of orthic axis). Let R, S and T be the feet of the altitudes from A, B and C respectively
of a scalene triangle ABC. Then the three intersection points A0 of BC and ST , B 0 of CA and T R and C 0 of
AB and RS are collinear.

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For the quadrilateral BT SC is cyclic; the line BC is the radical axis of ABC’s circumcircle and the circumcircle
of BT SC, and the line ST is the radical axis of the nine-point circle and the circumcircle of BT SC. So A0 lies
on the radical axis of ABC’s circumcircle and nine-point circle. The same holds for B 0 and C 0 .

C'
B'
A'
A
T
S
B

The P -Apollonius circle of two points A and B, not equidistant from P , is the circumcircle of P , X and Y ,
where X and Y are the two points on the line AB for which
AX AY AP
= = .
BX BY BP
Exercise 3 (Existence of first isodynamic point). Show that the P -Apollonius circle of two points A and B,
not equidistant from P , is precisely the set of all points Q in the plane P AB for which AQ/BQ = AP/BP .
Deduce that in a scalene triangle ABC, the A-, B- and C-Apollonius circles of BC, CA and AB respectively
meet at a point.

3 Homotheties
Two sets of points Σ and Σ0 in one-to-one correspondence are homothetic, if the following two conditions hold:

(i) Σ and Σ0 are similar (that is, distances between corresponding points are in a fixed ratio).
(ii) Σ and Σ0 are similarly situated (that is, lines connecting corresponding points are parallel).

Theorem 1 (Existence of centre of homothety). If Σ and Σ0 are homothetic sets of points, then then lines
connecting corresponding pairs of points are either all concurrent or all parallel. If concurrent, we call the point
of concurrence the centre of homothety of Σ and Σ0 .

To use this concurrence result, you need to prove that two sets of points are homothetic. For example, you
could show that:

1. some two corresponding “base subsets” Π and Π0 of Σ and Σ0 , from which all the other points are
constructed, are similar; and,
2. some corresponding segments AB and A0 B 0 of Σ and Σ0 are parallel.

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3
With triangles, and homothetic sets of points constructed from triangles, a fast way of demonstrating homothety
is therefore to show that the corresponding sides of the three triangles are parallel.
Example 5 (Existence of centroid). The three medians of a triangle are concurrent. For if M and N are the
midpoints of the sides AB and AC respectively of a triangle ABC, then the triangles ABC and AM N are
similar (SAS), and so M N and BC are parallel. The same holds for the other two sides. So ABC’s medial
triangle is homothetic to ABC itself.
A

N M

C B

The medians BN and CN , which connect corresponding pairs of points of the two triangles, are not parallel,
for they meet inside ABC. It follows that we have collinearity rather than parallelism. So there is a centre of
G of homothety of the two triangles, and all three medians must past through it.
Example 6 (Existence of Euler line). The centroid G, orthocentre H and circumcentre O of a triangle ABC
are collinear. For O is the orthocentre of ABC’s medial triangle. Hence the line OH must pass through the
centre of homothety of ABC with its medial triangle, which is G.
A

F E

O
G

B D C

Exercise 4. A triangle ABC has incentre I, and its incircle is tangent to BC at X. Let S be the reflection of
X in the perpendicular bisector of BC, and let T be the inversion of S through the point I. Show that A, S
and T are collinear.

Example 7 (IMO 1981/1). Three circles of equal radius and having some common point P are given inside

4
triangle ABC, such that each side of ABC is tangent to two of the circles. Then P is collinear with the incentre
I and circumcentre O of ABC.
For each of the circles must be tangent to two of ABC’s sides, and each pair of sides of ABC must be tangent
to exactly one of the three circles. Let A0 , B 0 , C 0 be the centres of the circles tangent to AB and AC, AB and
BC, AC and BC respectively. We will show that A0 B 0 C 0 is homothetic to ABC with centre of homothety I,
and that P and O correspond under this homothety.
Indeed, as A0 and B 0 are centres of circles of equal radii both tangent to AB, they must be equidistant from
AB, and so the line A0 B 0 is parallel to AB; similarly, A0 C 0 is parallel to AC, and B 0 C 0 to BC. So A0 B 0 C 0 and
ABC are homothetic.
A

A'

P
B' C'

B C

Next, as A0 is the centre of a circle tangent to AB and AC, it is equidistant from AB and AC. A0 also lies
inside the sector ∠BAC. So A0 lies on the internal bisector AI of ∠A; that is, I lies on AA0 . Similarly, BB 0
and CC 0 , lines connecting other corresponding pairs of points, also pass through I. So I is centre of homothety
of ABC and A0 B 0 C 0 .
As P A0 , P B 0 , P C 0 are all radii of one of the circles, they must have equal length; hence P is the circumcentre
of A0 B 0 C 0 . It therefore corresponds under the homothety to O, the circumcentre of ABC, and hence P , I and
O are collinear.

4 Ceva and Menelaus

In this section we use directed line segments. Choose a positive direction arbitrarily for each set of parallel lines.
Then give a segment P Q positive signed length if it is positively directed, and negative signed length otherwise.
Theorem 2 (Ceva). Let ABC be a triangle. Let D, E, F be points on BC, CA, AB respectively. Suppose
that D, E, F are distinct from A, B, C.
Then AD, BE, CF are concurrent or parallel, if and only if, taking signed lengths,
BD CE AF
· · = 1.
DC EA F B
A

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E
P

B
D
C

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Theorem 3 (Menelaus). Let ABC be a triangle. Let D, E, F be points on BC, CA, AB respectively. Suppose
that D, E, F are distinct from A, B, C.
Then D, E, F are collinear, if and only if, taking signed lengths,
BD CE AF
· · = −1.
DC EA F B

F
B
C D

Exercise 5 (Existence of Gergonne point). Let X, Y and Z be the points at which the incircle of a triangle
ABC touches its sides BC, CA and AB respectively. Show that AX, BY and CZ are concurrent.

Exercise 6 (Existence of Nagel point). Let X, Y and Z be the points at which the A-, B- and C-excircles of
a triangle ABC touch its sides BC, CA and AB respectively. Show that AX, BY and CZ are concurrent.
Example 8 (Existence of Simson line). Let P be a point on the circumcircle of a triangle ABC. Let D, E
and F be the feet of the three perpendiculars from P to BC, CA and AB respectively. Then D, E and F are
collinear.
For this follows from Menelaus’ theorem, where to make calculations easier we will assume without loss of
generality that P , A, B, C are arranged around the circle counterclockwise in that order, and define α, β, γ
respectively to be the measurements of the counterclockwise-directed angles ∠P OA, ∠P OA, ∠P OA (where O
is the centre of the circle).
Indeed, let M be the midpoint of AB. Taking AB as positively-directed, we have
   
α+β β−α
F M = R sin and AB = 2R sin ,
2 2

where R is the circumradius of ABC.

F
P
A

So       
β−α α+β α β
AF = AM − F M = R sin − sin = −2R sin cos ,
2 2 2 2

6
       
β−α α+β α β
F B = M B + F M = R sin + sin = 2R cos sin .
2 2 2 2
Hence,
AF tan (α/2)
=− .
FB tan (β/2)
Likewise,
BD tan (β/2)
=− ,
DC tan (γ/2)
 −1
CE AE tan (γ/2)
= =− .
EA EC tan (α/2)
Multiplying the three ratios together to apply the Menelaus test, we get
BD CE AF
· · = −1
DC EA F B
as required. So D, E and F are collinear.

C
B

5 Reflections
The reflection of a point P in a line l is the point P 0 on the perpendicular from P to l distinct from P , such
that P and P 0 are equidistant from the foot of that perpendicular. (If P lies on l, then the reflection of P is
just P .)
A surprisingly useful observation is that a line and its reflection, if not both parallel to the axis of reflection,
must meet on the axis of reflection.
Exercise 7 (IMO 2004/5, easy direction). Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral, in which the diagonal BD
does not bisect the angles ABC and CDA. The point P lies inside ABCD, equidistant from A and C, and
satisfies
∠P BC = ∠DBA and ∠P DC = ∠BDA.
Prove that ABCD is cyclic.

6 Isogonal conjugates
Theorem 4 (Existence of isogonal conjugate). Let P be a point inside a triangle ABC. Let lA be the reflection
of the line AP through the internal angle bisector of ∠A. Define lB and lC similarly. Then lA , lB and lC are
concurrent; the point of concurrency is called the isogonal conjugate of P in ABC.

7
 A

P
C

P'

Example 9. The isogonal conjugate of the circumcentre is the orthocentre. The isogonal conjugate of the
incentre is itself.
Exercise 8. Let ABC be an acute-angled triangle. Let SA be the circle with diameter AR, where R is the foot
of the altitude from A. Let SA meet sides AB and AC at M and N respectively.

(a) Show that the triangles ABC and AN M are similar.

(b) Let LA be the perpendicular from A to N M . Construct LB and LC analogously. Deduce that LA , LB
and LC are concurrent.
Example 10. Let Ω be the circumcircle of a triangle ABC. Let R be the point of tangency of ΩA with Ω,
where ΩA is the (unique) circle tangent to AB and AC and internally tangent to Ω.

C
B
R

Points S and T are defined similarly with respect to vertices B and C. We will show that AR, BS and CT are
concurrent.
In particular, recall from Exercise 6 that if X, Y and Z are the points of tangency of the A-, B- and C-excircles
of ABC respectively with the sides AB, BC and CA, then AX, BY and CZ are concurrent; this point is called
ABC’s Nagel point. We will show that each of the lines AR, BS, CT passes through the isogonal conjugate of
ABC’s Nagel point.
Indeed, pick some inversion with centre A. Let B 0 , C 0 , R0 be the images of B, C, R under this inversion; we
have that B 0 lies on the line AB, and so on. The inversion sends the circle Ω to the line B 0 C 0 , reverses the
−−→ −→
orders of points on the rays AB and AC, and preserves tangencies. Hence the image of ΩA under the inversion
is the A-excircle of triangle AB 0 C 0 , and the point R0 is the point of tangency of this excircle with the side B 0 C 0 .

8
 A

C'

R'
B'

Finally, note that the triangles ABC and AC 0 B 0 are similar, but oppositely oriented. The two A-excentre-
tangency-points X and R0 correspond under this similarity, so lines AX and AR0 are each others’ reflections in
the internal angle bisector of ∠A. Since A, R and R0 are collinear, we conclude that AR is AX’s reflection in
∠A’s bisector. Likewise for BS and CT . So AR, BS and CT are concurrent at the isogonal conjugate of the
point of concurrency of AX, BY and CT .

7 Problems
1. (Swiss MO 2005, final round) Let ABC be an acute-angled triangle. Let M and N be arbitrary points
on the segments AB and AC respectively, such that the circles with diameters BN and CM intersect at
distinct points P and Q. Prove that the orthocentre of ABC lies on P Q.
2. (All-Russian Olympiad 2006) The angle bisectors of the angles ABC and BCA of a triangle ABC intersect
the sides CA and AB at the points B1 and C1 and intersect each other at the point I. The line B1 C1
intersects the circumcircle of triangle ABC at the points M and N . Prove that the circumradius of
triangle M IN is twice the circumradius of triangle ABC.

3. (Balkan MO 1990) Let ABC be a triangle. Let DEF be a second triangle, whose vertices are the feet
of the altitudes of ABC. Let GHI be a third triangle, whose vertices are the points of tangency of the
incircle of DEF to its sides. Prove that the Euler lines of ABC and GHI coincide.
4. (IMO 1982/2) A non-isosceles triangle A1 A2 A3 is given with sides a1 , a2 , a3 opposite A1 , A2 , A3 respec-
tively. Let M1 be the midpoint of a1 , and T1 the point where the incircle of A1 A2 A3 touches a1 . Then
let S1 be the reflection of T1 in the interior bisector of A1 . The points M2 , M3 , T2 , T3 , S2 , S3 are defined
analogously. Prove that the lines M1 S1 , M2 S2 , M3 S3 are concurrent.
5. (IMO Shortlist 2001) Let A0 be the centre of the square inscribed in the acute triangle ABC with two
vertices of the square on side BC. Thus one of the two remaining vertices of the square is on side AB
and the other is on AC. Points B 0 and C 0 are defined similarly for inscribed squares with two vertices on
the sides AC and AB respectively. Prove that the lines AA0 , BB 0 , CC 0 are concurrent.
6. (IMO 2005/1) Six points are chosen on the sides of an equilateral triangle ABC: A1 , A2 on BC, B1 , B2
on CA and C1 , C2 on AB, such that they are the vertices of a convex hexagon A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2 with
equal side lengths.

(a) Show that there exists a point P inside ABC, such that A1 P = A2 P = B1 P = C2 P .
(b) Deduce that the lines A1 B2 , B1 C2 and C1 A2 are concurrent.

March 22, 2009

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