ESC. DE COMERCIO GRAL.

DON JOSE DE SAN MARTIN

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

SUBJECT: SOCIOCULTURE II

CAREER: PROFESORADO DE INGLES

TEACHER: JUAREZ CECILIA

STUDENTS:

 COSTILLA WALTER
 NIEVA PAULA
 SANCHEZ JESUS
 TORRES TOMAS

YEAR: 2019
INTRODUCTION

During the eighteenth-century Britain was as powerful as France. Britain now had
the strongest navy in the world; the navy-controlled Britain’s own trade routes and
endangered those of its enemies. Britain ended the century fighting against the
great French leader, Napoleon Bonaparte and defeating him.

Anne, the last of the Stuart, became queen because her sister Mary died and her
husband William had no children.

In 1713, the British took over the French colony of Acadia. The French navy was
destroyed in a battle near the coast of Spain. In India, the army of the British East
India Company, defeated French armies so, Britain went on to control most of India
by conquest or treaty with the princes.

When Queen Anne died, in 1714, it was not certain that the protestant ruler of
Hanover, George would become king. Some Tories (members of two political
parties which existed in the kingdom of England) wanted James III to be on the
throne. If he had given up Catholicism and accepted the Anglican religion, he
would have been crowned king. However, he did not want to change his mind and
the other way was to win it by force.

In 1715, James III started a rebellion against George, but it was a disaster, and
George’s army had little difficulty in defeating the English and Scottish Jacobites
(supporters of the deposed James II and his descendants in the claim to the British
throne) Because of the tory connection with the Jacobites, king George allowed the
Whigs (members of a major British political group of the late 17th through early 19th
centuries) to form his government.

Government power was increased because the new King spoke only German.
Among the king’s ministers was ROBERT WALPOLE. He came to power as a
result of his financial ability.

Walpole developed the idea that government ministers should work together in a
small group, THE CABINET. A new rule was developed: that all members of the
cabinet were together responsible for policy decisions

On the other hand, England and France had been involved in a small conflict over
territories for many years.

In 1756, Britain declared war on France over a conflict over French expansion in
America. Britain gained a number of new colonies: CANADA-DOMINICA-
GRENADA-SAINT VINCENT-and TOBAGO.

At the end of the seventeenth century the government had been forced to borrow
money in order to pay for the war with France.
In 1760, A new king, George III, came to the throne. He wanted to take more active
part in governing Britain. During this century, only house owners with a certain
income had the right to vote. There was a man called JOHN WILKES, who
believed that politics should be open to free discussion by everyone. Free speech
was the basic right of every individual.

In 1773, a group of colonists at the port of Boston, threw a shipload of tea into the
sea, rather than pay tax on it (BOSTON PARTY). This was rebellion, the American
war of independence had begun. The government had no respect for the politics of
the colonist and the British army had no respect for their fighting ability. The result
was a defeat for the British government. It meant the loss of America colonies
except for CANDADA.

IN 1787, (THE SECOND BRITISH EMPIRE) Britain began to use Australia as a

prison by transporting prisoners. In Africa, British soldiers controlled many villages.
The British helped these countries by opening up trade markers with them.

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Several influences came together at the same time to revolutionise Britain’s

industry: money, labour, a greater demand for goods, new power, and better
transport.

Increased food production made it possible to feed large populations in the new
towns. These populations were made up of the people who had lost their land
through the enclosures and now, as landless workers, needed to buy food, clothes,
and everything they needed. This created an opportunity to make and sell more
goods than ever before.

By the early eighteenth-century simple machines had already been invented for
basic jobs. These machines could make large quantities of simple goods quickly
and cheaply so that “mass production” became possible for the first time. Each
machine carried out one simple process, which introduced the idea of “division of
labour” among workers. This became an important part of the industrial revolution.

The main problem holding back the industrial growth was fuel. There was less
wood and, in many cases, it could not produce the heat necessary to make iron
and steel either in large quantities or of high quality. So, the use of coal for
changing iron into good quality iron or steel was perfected. This made Britain the
leading iron producer in Europe. Increased iron production made it possible to
manufacture new machinery for other industries. A vital development of the century
was the improvement of the steam engine, making parts of it more accurately with
iron and steel. As a result of this, people were no longer dependent on natural
power.
Other basic materials of the industrial revolution were cotton and woollen cloth,
which were popular abroad. The production of cotton goods had been limited by
the spinning process, which could not provide enough cotton thread for the
weavers. This led to the invention of a spinning machine which could do the work
of several hand spinners. With the far greater production of cotton thread, a power
machine for weaving was invented. This machine allowed Britain to make cloth
more cheaply than elsewhere, and cotton cloths were sold in every continent.

In the Midlands, factories using locally found clay began to develop very quickly,
and produced fine quality plates, cups, and other china goods. These soon
replaced the old metal plates and drinking cups that had been used.

The cost of goods was made cheaper than ever by improving transport during the
eighteenth century. New waterways were dug between towns, and transport by
these canals was cheaper than transport by land. Roads were also improved. York,
Manchester, and Exeter were three days’ travel from Landon in the 1720s, but by
the 1780s they could be reached in little over twenty-four hours. It was rapid road
travel and cheap transport by canal that made possible the economic success of
the industrial revolution.

IRELAND

The defeat of James II by William of Orange in 1960 had long-term impacts on the
Irish people in the following ways:

 The Protestant parliament in Dublin approved laws which prevent the

Catholics to take any part in national life.
 Catholics could not be members of the Dublin parliament, nor could they
vote in parliamentary elections. They were not allowed to become a lawyer,
go to university or accept any public post. As a result of this, it was
impossible for them to have their children educated according to their
religion, because Catholic schools were prohibited.
 New laws were passed which divided Catholic families. The son of Catholic
parents who became Protestant could take over his parents’ ownership and
use it as he pleased.
 By the 1770s, life had become easier and some of the worst laws against
Catholics were taken away. However, not everyone wanted to give the
Catholics more freedom. As a result of this, in Ulster, Protestants created
the “Orange Lodges” which were societies against any freedom for the
Catholics.

SCOTLAND

Scotland also suffered from the efforts of the Stuarts to win back the throne. A
series of events happened in this way:
  The first “Jacobite” in 1715 to win the crown for James II’s son was
unsuccessful. But the Stuarts did not give up and
tried again in 1745 when Prince Charles Edward
Stuart landed on the west coast of Scotland.
 Prince Charles Edward Stuart’s army of Highlanders
entered Edinburgh and defeated an English army,
and then he marched south. The success of this
Prince depended on Englishmen also joining his
army. The rebels moved back to Scotland. Early in
1746 they were defeated by the British army at
Culloden.
 The English army behaved with cruelty. Many
Highlanders were killed.
 A law was passed forbidding Highlanders to wear
their traditional skirt, the kilt.
 The old patterns of the kilt and the Scottish musical
instrument “the bagpipe” were also forbidden. Even some
did not obey this law and therefore were shot.

TOWN LIFE

During the eighteenth-century life in town occurred many different changes in

pollution, cities, society, education, and so forth. Not to mention that in this period
the rich people were getting richer and the poor, poorer. In certain cases, it was the
poor people who died first.

 Pollution
In 1700 England and Wales had reached a population of 5.5 million. This
has increased very little by 1750, but then grew quickly to about 8.8 million
 by the end of the century. Including Ireland and Scotland, the total
population was about 13 million.
 Cities
In 1700 England was a land of small villages. In the northern areas of
England, in Lancashire, West Yorkshire, and in the West of Midlands, these
large cities were just beginning to grow. By the middle of the century
Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Sheffield and Leeds were already
large.
 Society in 18th Century Britain
In the early 18th century England suffered from gin drinking. It was cheap
and it was sold everywhere as you did not need a license to sell it. Many
people ruined their health by drinking gin. Sadly, for many poor people
drinking gin was their only comfort. The situation improved after 1751 when
a tax was imposed on gin.
 Towns in 18th Century England
Many towns in England were improved in the later 18th century when bodies
of men called Paving or Improvement Commissioners were formed by Acts
of Parliament. They had powers to pave and clean the streets which were
muddy and narrow in that period, and sometimes to light them with oil
lamps. Some also arranged collections of rubbish. Since most of it was
organic it could be sold as fertilizer.
 Education in the 18th Century
In the early 18th century charity schools were founded in many towns in
England. They were sometimes called Blue Coat Schools because of the
color of the children's uniforms. Boys from well off families went to grammar
schools. Girls from well off families also went to school. However, dissenters
(Protestants who did not belong to the Church of England) were not allowed
to attend most public schools. Instead, they went to their own dissenting
academies.

 Classes of people in eighteenth-century towns

There were four classes of people who were the wealthy merchants; the
ordinary merchants and traders; the skilled craftsmen; and the large number
of workers who had no skill.

 Medicine in the 18th Century

Knowledge of anatomy greatly improved in the 18th century. The famous
18th century surgeon John Hunter (1728-1793) is sometimes called the
Father of Modern Surgery. He invented new procedures such as
tracheotomy. Among other advances, a Scottish surgeon named James
 Lind discovered that fresh fruit or lemon juice could cure or prevent scurvy.
He published his findings in 1753.

A major scourge of the 18th century was smallpox. Even if it did not kill you
it could leave you scarred with pox marks. Then, in 1721 Lady Mary Wortley
Montagu learned inoculation from the Turks. You cut the patient then
introduced matter from a smallpox pustule into the wound. The patient
would (hopefully!) develop a mild case of the disease and be immune in the
future. Some people realized that milkmaids who caught cowpox were
immune to smallpox. A doctor named Edward Jenner introduced
vaccination. The patient was cut then matter from a cowpox pustule was
introduced. The patient gained immunity to smallpox. (Jenner was not the
first to think of this idea but because of his work it became a common
practice).

 Art and Science in the 18th Century

During the 18th century England produced two great portrait painters,
Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788) and Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792).
Meanwhile the artist William Hogarth (1697-1764) painted scenes showing
the harsh side of 18th century life. The Royal Academy of Arts was founded
in 1768. In theater the greatest actor of the 18th century was David Garrick
(1717-1779).

In science Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) discovered oxygen. Henry

Cavendish (1731-1810) discovered hydrogen. He also calculated the mass
and density of the earth. William Herschel(1738-1822) discovered Uranus.
The Scottish engineer Thomas Telford (1757-1834) built roads, canals and
the Menai suspension bridge.

 Technology in the 18th Century

In the late 18th century technology advanced rapidly as Britain industrialized. From
1712 Thomas Newcomen made steam engines to pump water from mines. Then,
in 1769, James Watt patented a more efficient steam engine and in the 1780s it
was adapted to power machinery. The first industry to become mechanized was
the textile industry. In 1771 Richard Arkwright opened a cotton-spinning mill with a
machine called a water frame, which was powered by a water mill. Then, in 1779,
Samuel Crompton invented a new cotton-spinning machine called a spinning mule.
Finally, in 1785 Edmund Cartwright invented a loom that could be powered by a
steam engine. As a result of these new inventions, cotton production boomed.

Iron production also grew rapidly. In 1784 a man named Henry Cort (1740-1800)
invented a much better way of making wrought iron. Until then men had to beat red
hot iron with hammers to remove impurities. In 1784 Cort invented the puddling
process. The iron was melted in an extremely hot furnace and stirred of 'puddled'
to remove impurities. The result was a vast increase in iron production.
LIVE OF THE RICH PEOPLE

During the eighteenth century it was difficult to see a clear difference between the
aristocracy, the gentry, and the middle class of merchants because most classes
mixed freely together. However, the differences between rich and poor were very
great. A duke had an income of 100.000 pounds each year while the workers on
his land were lucky if they were paid more than 15 pounds.

The men of the gentry dedicate their lives to hunt and ride, and carry out
improvements to their estates. During the eighteenth century these improvements
included rebuilding many great houses in the classical style, arranging natural-
looking gardens and parks. Some of the gentry became interested in collecting
trees or plants from abroad.

Women’s lives were boring, even for the richest women of the country, although
during the winter there were frequent visits to London where dances and parties
were held. They were only allowed to amuse themselves. They could not take part
in more serious matters.

During this century, people believed that the natural spring waters in “spa” towns
such Bath were good for their health. These towns became fashionable places
where most people went to meet other members of high society.

FAMILY LIFE

In the eighteenth-century families began to express affection more openly than

before. This increase in affection was the result of a growing idea of kindness. For
the first time people started to believe that cruelty either to humans or animals was
wrong.

For the first time children were no longer thought of as small adults, but as a
distinct group of people with special needs. However, girls continue to be victims of
the parents’ desire to make them look beautiful with slim bodies, tight waists, and a
pale appearance.

Parents often decided on a good marriage for their children; sons and daughter
often had to marry against their wishes. But this changed and love and
companionship were slowly becoming accepted reasons for marriage.

There was also a growth in the idea that every human was an individual. This
growing in individualism showed itself in a desire for privacy. In the seventeenth
century middle class and wealthier families were served by servants, who listened
to their conversation as they ate. Not even the bedrooms were private, they led
one to another. These changed during the eighteenth century. People began to
serve themselves and rebuilt the inside of the houses, putting in corridors, so that
every person in the family had their own private room.
Individualism was important to trade and industrial success. The most successful in
trade and industry were nonconformists. They were ambitious for their sons,
sending them away to boarding schools at a young age. Removed from family
affection, this kind of education increased individualism. These boys grew up to put
all their energy into power to help to build the empire or help to build trade or
industry.

Individualism could not exist for the poorer classes. A number of families had to go
to parish workhouses, where people were fed and housed. The use of child labour
in these workhouses increased. Children were expected to learn a simple task from
the age of three. At the end of the century, child labour began to be seemed as
shameful. Child labour was to become the main area of social reform in the
nineteenth century.

THE COUNTRYSIDE AND THE AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION

During the eighteenth century, there were many improvements in the way that
people work in the countryside. This is referred to as British Agricultural Revolution.
It was a period of changes from traditional to modern farming systems in Britain.

In the Scottish Highlands clan chiefs began to realise that money could be made
from sheep for the wool trade. So, they began to push people off the clan lands
and replace them with sheep. As a result of this, many people lost their homes and
had to live poor in the streets. Some of them went to begin a new life, mainly in
Canada. Others went to Australia in the nineteenth century.

In England, most of the land that used to be worked by villagers was enclosed. The
main reason for these enclosures was that powerful landlords wanted to invest
their money on the land. This was because farming had become much more
profitable during that time. The enclosed land was used for mixed animal and
cereal farm.

During this century there was a number of improvements in farming and a growth
of interest in farming methods. The “seed drill”, a machine for sowing corn seed in
straight lines, was invented. This made fields easy to weed, and made it possible
to produce greater crop. By growing root crops one year, animal food the next, and
wheat the third, farmers could now produce more. Growing animal food made it
possible to keep animal through the winter. This was an important new
development since before the mid-eighteenth century most animals were killed
because there was never enough food to keep them.

The enclosures and the farming improvements made possible more efficient food
production than could be found in almost any other country in Europe. Improved
used of land made it possible to grow wheat almost anywhere. For the first time
everyone, including the poor, could eat white wheat bread.
RELIGION IN THE 18TH CENTURY

The early 18th century was noted for its lack of religious enthusiasm and the
churches in England lacked vigor. However, in the mid-18th century things began
to change. In 1739 the great evangelist George Whitefield (1714-1770) began
preaching. Also, in 1739 John Wesley (1703-1791) began preaching. He eventually
created a new religious movement called the Methodists. His brother Charles
Wesley (1707-1788) was a famous hymn writer.

John Wesley traveled all over the country, often preaching in open spaces. People
jeered at his meetings and threw stones but Wesley persevered. He never
intended to form a movement separate from the Church of England. However, the
Methodists did eventually break away. After 1760 Methodism spread to Scotland.

In Wales there was a great revival in the years 1738-1742. Howell Harris (1714-
1773) was a key figure. Scotland was also swept by revival in the mid-18th century.
William McCulloch and James Robe were the leading figures.

Revolution in France and the Napoleonic Wars

In 1756 Britain became embroiled in the Seven Years War (1756-1763) with
France. In 1759 the British, led by General Wolfe, won a great victory at Quebec.
That ensured that Canada became a British colony rather than a French one.
Meanwhile, in 1757 Clive won the battle of Plassey, which ensured that India
became British rather than French.

Meanwhile in 1760 George II died at the age of 77. George III succeeded him. The
first two George's were content to leave the government in the hands of their
ministers. However, George III tried to gain more power for himself. During his
reign, Britain lost its colonies in North America. Fighting began in 1775 and the
colonists declared themselves independent in 1776. George was determined to
suppress the colonists, ignoring the wishes of those who wanted reconciliation.
However, the Americans won a decisive victory at Yorktown in 1781, which
ensured their independence. That caused George's crony, Prime Minister Lord
North to fall from power.

Meanwhile London was rocked by the anti-Catholic Gordon riots in 1780. Riots
were common in the 18th century. The workers could not vote and there were no
trade unions so if the workers were disaffected they rioted. The Gordon riot was
the worst. Lord George Gordon (1751-1793) was an MP who led a huge crowd to
parliament to present a petition demanding the repeal of a 1778 act, which
removed certain restrictions on Roman Catholics. The demonstration became a
riot. With cries of 'No Popery!' the rioters held London for several days until the
army restored order. About 300 people died in the rioting.

At the end of the 18th century a group of Evangelical Christians called the
Clapham Sect were formed. They campaigned for an end to slavery and cruel
sports. They were later called the Clapham Sect because so many of them lived
in Clapham.
The French Revolution had created fear all over Europe. In France the revolution
had been made by the middle class, In England the bourgeoisie and the gentry had
acted together in the House of Commons, they saw the danger of revolution in the
British countryside and the political dangers which could develop from the great
increase in population. Several radicals sympathized with the cause of the French
revolutionaries, and called for reforms in Britain. In England the radicals were
accused of putting Britain in danger. Tom Paine, wrote in answer The Rights of
Man, in which he defended the rights of the ordinary people against the power of
the monarchy and the aristocrats any working-class voices were heard, the first
working-class political organization. it was established at this time then the
government closed it down in 1798. Britain was particularly frightened that the
army would be influenced by these dangerous ideas. The government built army
camps, where soldiers could live separated from the ordinary people. In 1793
Britain decided to fight France at sea because it had a stronger navy after that one
by one the European countries were defeated by Napoleon, Wellington a British
general was not afraid of the French Army. He invaded France. Napoleon,
weakened by his invasion of Russia, surrendered in 1814. Wellington. with the
timely help of the Prussian army. finally defeated Napoleon at Waterloo in Belgium
in June 1815.