BIOLOGY

STUDY MATERIAL

2015- 2016

CLASS – XII

Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan

Regional Office
Guwahati
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KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN

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KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN

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KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN

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DR. S. BOSE

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GUWAHATI REGION
 CONVENOR

Mr. VISHNU DUTT TAILOR

PRINCIPAL

KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA

C.R.P.F. (G.C.), AMERIGOG, GUWAHATI

PREPARED BY :

1. RAJIV KUMAR JHA, PGT(BIOLOGY), K.V.- C.R.P.F. (G.C.), AMERIGOG,

GUWAHATI , [email protected]

2. MRS. NG. SARJUBALA, PGT(BIOLOGY), KV- BORJHAR, [email protected]

3. MR. CHANDAN ROY, PGT (BIOLOGY), KV- KHANAPARA

4. MRS. M. BARMAN, PGT(BIOLOGY), K.V.- MALIGAON

 CONTENTS

Sl No Chapter Page No.

Introduction 1- 4
1 Reproduction in Organism 5
2 Sexual reproduction in flowering plants 6- 8
11- Human reproduction 9- 10
4 Reproductive health 11- 12
5 Principles of inheritance and variation 13- 14
6 Molecular basis of inheritance 15- 18
7 Evolution 19- 21
8 Human health and Disease 22- 26
9 Strategies for enhancement in food production 27- 28
10 Microbes in human welfare 29- 31
11 Biotechnology: principles and processes 32- 33
12 Biotechnology and its application 34
13 Organisms and populations 35- 36
14 Ecosystem 37- 38
15 Biodiversity and conservation 39- 40
16 Environmental issues 41- 42
17 Question- answers 43- 49
 Chapter – 1: - REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS

 Life Span: Period from birth till natural death. Every organism live only for a certain period
of time.
Reproduction –Producing young-ones of their kind, generation after generation. Two types:
Vegetative Reproduction in plants
 Vegetative reproduction frequently used instead of asexual reproduction, units of vegetative
propagation called vegetative propagules. Eg.- runner (Grass, Oxalis), rhizome (ginger),
sucker (Mentha), tuber (Potato), offset (Eichhornia), bulb (Onion), Bulbil (Agave).
Sexual Reproduction: PHASES OF LIFE SPAN. :
Juvenile phase: The phase of growth before reproductive maturity. In plants- Vegetative
Phase.
Reproductive phase: Reproductive maturity.
 Senescent phase: Phase between reproductive maturity and death.
Special Flowering: Bamboo- once in life, generally after 50-100 years.
Strobilanthus kunthiana (Neelakuranji) – flowers once in 12 years.
 The main events of sexual cycle are: Prefertilization, Fertilization & Post Fertilization.
 Dioecious: Only one type of reproductive structure in a plant. Eg. Papaya
 Monoecious : Reproductive organs at different positions in same plant eg. Cucurbits,
Maize.
 Hermophrodite : Reproductive organs at different positions in same animal eg.
Earthworm.
Cell division during gamete formation:
Haploid-parent (n) produces haploid gametes (n) by mitotic division, eg. Monera, fungi, algae and
bryophytes.
Diploid parent (2n) produces haploid gametes (n) by meiosis division (possess only one set of
chromosomes) and such specialized parent cell is called meiocyte or gamete mother cell (2n).
 Example-
Name of organism Meiocyte (2n) gamete (n)
Human 46 23
Potato 48 24
Two type of Fertilization: external and internal.
EXTERNAL FERTILISATION INTERNAL FERTILISATION
Fertilisation takes place outside the body Fertilisation takes place inside the body
Large no. of gametes produced. Lesser no. of gametes produced.
Eg. Fish, amphibians Aves, Mammals.
C. Post -fertilization events- formation of zygote and embryo.
Embryogenesis: development of embryo from zygote by cell division (mitosis) and cell
differentiation.

 Parthenogenesis: Female gamete develops into new organism without fertilization . eg- Honey
bee, turkey, lizard, rotifers (Protozoans).
 Seedless fruits formed by parthenocarpy.
 Clone: A group of individuals of the same species that are morphologically and genetically
similar to each other & their parents.

CHAPTER - 2 Sexual Reproduction in flowering plants

FLOWERS : modified shoot, Site of sexual Reproduction. Male and female reproductive organs are
borne on flowers.
MICROSPOROGENESIS: The process of formation of micro spores from pollen mother cell (2n)
through meiosis.
Microsporangium is 4 layered:
Epidermis : single outer layer Microspore mother
Endothecium : dehiscence of cell (2n)
anther Meiosis
Middle layer: 2-4 layered, Microspore (n)
crushes when sporogenous Mitosis
tissue mature. Pollen grains (n)
Tapetum : dense cytoplasm &
multinucleate, Nourishes the
developing pollen grain &
formation of pollen wall,

Pollen grains: Male gametophyte. Two layered:-

 Exine : Exine is made of sporopollenin. (Hardest natural substance).
Intine : Intine is made of cellulose and pectin .

Gynoecium / carpel (the female reproduuctive organ)

(Structure of anatropous ovule) / Megasporangium
Wind Pollination (ANEMOPHILY) Water pollination (HYDROPHILY) Insect Pollination (ENTOMOPHILY)
Pollen grains – light, non- Pollen grains protected by Colorful & showy flower, high
sticky, colourless, well exposed mucilaginous covering, long fragrance, produce nectar, sticky
stamens, feathery stigma & stalk & long coiled style. pollen grains & stigma.
numerous flower.
POLLINATION– transfer of pollen from anther to stigma. Agents of pollination – air, water, insect.
bat,bird,man.

Megasporogenesis
 The formation of megaspore from the
megaspore mother cell –MMC (2n) is called
megasporogenesis.
 In megaspore tetrad, 3 degenerate & one
functional megaspore develops into female
gametophyte (embryo sac).
 Embryo sac (Polygonum type) -8 nucleate &
7 celled.
 Synergid cell have special cellular thickening
at the micropylar tip called filiform
apparatus,which play an imp. role in guiding
the pollen tube into the synergid.

MEGASPOROGENESIS

Out Breeding Devices: to promote cross pollination because self pollination results in inbreeding
depression.
Different size of style & stamens , Anatomical barrier , difference in time of maturation of
stamen and carpel, Pollens do not germinate on stigma of self flower .

Pollen Pistil Interaction: Stigma have the ability to recognize the right type of pollen it rejects the
pollen grains of other species & also the incompatible pollens of the species.

Artificial Hybridization: it is a major approach to crop improvement programme. It is achieved by -

i) Emasculation: Removal of anthers from the flower bud of a bisexual flower before the
anther dehisces using a pair of forceps.
ii) Bagging - covering the emasculated flowers with a bag of suitable size to protect them from
contamination with unwanted pollen.
Double fertilization :
First fertilization: Fusion of male gamete with egg is called SYNGAMY & develops embryo (2N)
Second fertilization: Fusion of polar nuclei with 2 nd male gamete is called TRIPLE FUSION &
develops PEN (3N).
Since two types of fusions, syngamy & triple fusion takes place in an embryo sac the phenomenon is
termed double fertilization.
Embryo development:
1. Zygote divides by mitosis into suspensor & embryo cells
2. Suspensor cell forms a globular basal cell which remains MONOCOT EMBRYO -
embedded in the endosperm & a multicellular suspensor bearing the GRASS
embryo
3.Globular embryo becomes heart-shaped & then mature embryo with
radicle, plumule & Cotyledons.

DICOT EMBRYO

Differentiate between:
COLEOPTILE COLEORHIZA
 Covering of plumule in monocots.  Covering of radicle in monocots.
 Coleoptile breaks grain covering and elongates.  It breaks grain covering but stop further
growth

PERISPERM PERICARP
It is Remnant of nucellus. It is ovary wall (epicarp, mesocarp & endocarp)

TRUE FRUITS FALSE FRUITS

True Fruit develops only from the ovary, from parts of the flower other than the ovary e.g.
e.g. mango, tomato apple, peach etc

Albuminous Seed Non albuminous seed

Seed retains endosperm as it is not completely Seeds do not retain endosperm as it is completely
used up during embryo development. Eg. Wheat, utilized during embryo development. Eg. Pea,
maize, barley, sunflower, castor. grountnut.
Importance of Apomixis :
Since apomictic seed are produced asexually so they maintain their agronomic characters. So they
are used in hybrid seed industry, floriculture, horticulture.

Chapter - 3 HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Events of Human Reproduction

Gametogenesis: formation of gametes.
Insemination: Transfer of sperm in female genital tract.
Fertilization: fusion of sperm and ovum.
Implantation: attachment of blastocyst with uterine wall for further development.
Gestation: Embryonic development
Parturition: Delivery of the
baby. SPERM SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES

MALE ACCESSORY GLANDS:

Prostate gland: Provides an
alkaline fluid that can protect sperm
from harsh vaginal acids.
Seminal Vesicles: Produce food
for sperm. Food "Fructose"
Cowper's gland: Produces clear
lubricating fluid

The Female Reproductive System:

Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis:

MENSTRUAL CYCLE:

Placenta : Chorionic villi & uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other and jointly form a
structural & functional unit between developing embryo & maternal body. It provide antibodies to
foetus (IgG).Function : supply of O2 & nutrients to embryo and removal of CO2 & excretory
products from embryo.
Act as a endocrine tissue & produce hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human
placental lactogen (hPL), estrogen.
Pregnancy hormone : RelaxinThese hormones essential for fetal growth and metabolic changes in
mother and maintenance of pregnancy.
Lactation : In the influence of hormone Prolactin (hPL) & progesterone, mammary glands starts
producing milk.
Colostrum : thick & yellowish milk consist of antibodies (IgA) & develops immunity to protect
from pathogens to infant.
 Chapter - 4: REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Reproductive Health: Acc. to WHO, reproductive health means a total well being in all aspects of
reproduction, i.e. physical, emotional, behavioural and social.

Objective of Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH) programmes :

 Creating awareness about reproduction related aspects.
 Introduction of sex education in schools to provide right information to the young .
 Awareness of problems due to uncontrolled population growth, social evils like sex-abuse and
sex-related crimes, etc.,
 Amniocentesis : a statutory ban on (a foetal sex determination test based on the chromosomal
pattern in the amniotic fluid surrounding the developing embryo) for sex-determination to
legally check increasing female foeticides, massive child immunisation, etc., are some
programmes that merit mention in this connection.

Methods of birth control

Natural Method: Coitus Interruptus: Coitus interruptus means 'interrupted sex" (penis is
withdrawn from the vagina just before ejaculation).
Periodic Abstinence: couples avoid or abstain from coitus from day 10 to 17 of the menstrual cycle
when ovulation could be expected.
Lactational Amenorrhea: During intense lactation, chance of conception are almost nil but
effective upto 6 month after parturition.
Barrier methods: In barrier methods of birth control, a barrier is placed between the penis and the
vagina during intercourse so that the sperm cannot meet the ovum for fertilization.
Condoms protect against pregnancy as well as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including
HIV/AIDS.
Hormonal Methods: Oral Contraceptive pills: They result in prevention of ovulation & disrupts
endometrium
Intra-Uterine Devices (IUDs):
 IUDs are contraceptive devices which are placed inside the uterus.
 Copper T: T-shaped structure which stays inside the uterus , release cu++ hostile to sperm.
 Surgical Methods: These are more or less permanent methods of contraception.

 Tubectomy : Both the female tubes are tied off and usually cut during tubal ligation to prevent
the sperm from reaching the ovum during intercourse.
 Vasectomy:The two tubes which carry sperm from the testes to the penis are the vas deferens.
Tying them off and cut.
 MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY (MTP)
 Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is called medical
termination of pregnancy(MTP) or induced abortion.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDS)

Diseases or infections which are transmitted through sexual intercourse are collectively called
sexually transmitted diseases (STD) or venereal diseases (VD) or reproductive tract infections (RTI).
Eg. Syphilis, Gonorrhea, Hepatitis-B, AIDS etc.
One could be free of these infections by following the simple principles given below:
(i) Avoid sex with unknown partners/multiple partners.
(ii) Always use condoms during coitus.

Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART).

InVitro Fertilisation (IVF) : fertilization outside the body under controlled conditions. IVF–
fertilisation outside the body in almost similar conditions as that in the body) followed by embryo
transfer (ET) upto 8 celled blastomeres. This technique also called test tube baby programme.
Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT) : The zygote or early embryos (with upto 8 blastomeres)
could then be transferred into the fallopian tube is called ZIFT.

Intra Uterine Transfer (IUT) : Transfer of embryo with more than 8 blastomeres to 32 cells, into
the uterus is called IUT. Embryos formed by in-vivo fertilization (fusion of gametes within the
female) also could be used for such transfer to assist those females who cannot conceive.

Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer (GIFT) : Transfer of an ovum collected from a donor into the
fallopian tube of another female who cannot produce one, but can provide suitable environment for
fertilisation and further development.
Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection(ICSI) : It is another specialised procedure to form an embryo
in the laboratory in which a sperm is directly injected into the ovum.

Artificial Insemination (AI) Technique: In this technique the semen collected either from the
husband or a healthy donor is artificially introduced either into the vagina or into the uterus (IUI –
intra-uterine insemination) of the female.
 Chapter 5: PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCES AND VARIATION

MENDEL’S LAW OF INHERITANCE

He selected pea plant for following reasons:
 Pea is a self pollinated plant & cross pollination is CONTRASTING CHARACTERS
also possible.
 Many varieties were available with observable
alternate forms for a trait.
 Short life span.
 Can be easily grown in small place.
 Seeds easy to handle.
Mendel's first law (Law of dominance ) :
(i) Characters are controlled by discrete units called factors (genes).
(ii) Factors occur in pairs.
(iii) In a dissimilar pair of factors one member of the pair dominates (dominant) the other (recessive).
Mendel's Law of segregation (Purity of Gametes): The two alleles received, one from each parent,
segregate independently in gamete formation, so that each gamete receives one or the other with
equal probability. (Can be explained by monohybrid cross).
Mendel's law of Independent Assortment : Two characters determined by two unlinked genes are
recombined at random in gamete formation, so that they segregate independently of each other, each
according to the first law (note that recombination here is not used to mean crossing-over in
meiosis). (Can be explained by dihybrid cross).
(Refer NCERT text book for diagram.) Test Cross : Individual with dominant phenotype is crossed
with homozygous recessive individuals to find the homozygosity/heterozygosity .
Incomplete Dominance : Dominant gene is not fully expressed on recessive gene. So, the phenotype
of hybrid do not resemble with any of the parents. Eg- Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon), Mirabilis
jalapa (4 O’ clock plant).
Genotype & phenotype ratio : 1:2:1 . (REFER NCERT TEXT BOOK FOR DIAGRAM)
Co-dominance : Both parental genes expressed in F1 progeny so the offspring shows resemblance
with both the parents. Eg- ABO blood group types in human.
Blood group shows 3 different alleles (I A, IB, IO) and 6 different possible genotypes.
Cross between IA IO x IB IO, shows the law of dominance, co-dominance & multiple alleles.
(Refer Table. 5.2. page – 77, NCERT)
Sex determination :
 Sex chromosome : the chromosomes determine the sex of living organism.
 Autosomal chromosomes : they determine the characters other than sex of living organism.
Name of Living Organism Male Female
Human XY XX
Drosophila XY XX
Insect XO XX
Bird ZZ ZW
M M M
Honey Bee X (Drone), X X (Male) XX
 Male Heterogamety : Male produced two type of gametes. Eg. Human, Drosophila.
Female heterogamety : female produced two type of gametes. Eg.Birds.
Mutation : Sudden changes in DNA. Mutagens : Chemicals/agents that caused mutation.
Type of gene mutation Reason
Point mutation Change in single base eg sickle-cell anaemia
Frameshift mutation Deletion/insertion/duplication/addition of one or two
bases

Type of chromosomal mutation

Aneuploidy Addition/ deletion one or more chromosomes Trisomy 2n+1 monosomy 2n-1
Polyploidy Addition/ deletion one or set chromosomes 3n, 4n etc.

Pedigree Analysis
Pedigree is a chart of graphic representation of record of inheritance of a trait through several
generations in a family . Symbols used:- refer NCERT Text Book

GENETIC DISORDER
Chromosomal Disorder Mendelian Disorder
These are due to absence or excess of abnormal These are due to alteration or mutation of one
arrangement of one or more chromosomes. gene.
Eg. Down, Klinefelter’s, Turner’s syndrome. Eg. Sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia,
thalassaemia
Mendelian Disorder
Disorder Reason
Haemophilia Sex linked recessive disease (X). Females are unaffected carrier.
Sickle Cell Autosomal recessive trait on chromosome 11. Sickle shape RBC due to replace
Anaemia the glutamic acid by valine.
Phenylketonuria Autosomal recessive trait on chromosome 12. Mutation in phenyl alanine
hydroxylase enzyme results in accumulation of phenyl pyruvate.
Colour Blindness Sex linked recessive disorder (X).
CHROMOSOMAL DISORDER
Name of Disorder Reason Symptoms
Down’s Syndrome Trisomy of 21 Short statured with small round head, furrowed tongue &
Chromosome partially open mouth, flat back, broad flat face, slanting eyes,
broad palms with palm crease, many loops on finger,
congenital heart disease, physical, psychomotor & mental
retardation.
Klinefelter’s 47 (XXY) In male (XXY): tall stature, feminine physique, breast
Syndrome development (gynaecomastia), female type pubic hair pattern
& poor beard development and sterile.
Turner’s Syndrome 45 (XO) Short stature, rudimentary ovaries (sterile), breast poor
developed, lack of secondary sexual characters.
 Chapter 6: MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
DNA AS THE GENETIC MATERIAL
Transformation experiment or Griffith effect.
Griffith performed his experiments on Mice using Diplococcus pneumoniae.Two strains of bacteria
are S-type and R-type cells.
 Living S-strain Injected into mice→Mice
killed
 Living R-strain Injected into mice → Mice
lived
 Heat Killed S-strain Injected into mice
→Mice lived
 Living R-strain + Heat Killed S-strain
Injected into mice→Mice killed
# Griffith concluded that R type bacteria is
transformed into virulent form.
# Transformation - change in the genetic
constitution of an organism by picking up
genes present in the remains of its relatives.

HERSHEY & CHASE EXPERIMENT:

 DNA is a genetic material in viruses (bacteriophage)
was proved by Hershey and Chase (1952).
 They grew some viruses on a medium that contained
radioactive phosphorus and some others on medium
that contained radioactive sulfur.
 Viruses grown in the presence of radioactive
phosphorus contained radioactive DNA but not
radioactive protein because DNA contains
phosphorus but protein does not.
 Similarly, viruses grown on radioactive sulfur
contained radioactive protein but not radioactive
DNA because DNA does not contain sulfur.
 Bacteria which was infected with viruses that had
radioactive DNA were radioactive, indicating that
DNA was the material that passed from the virus to
the bacteria. Hershey & Chase Experiment
 Bacteria that were infected with viruses that had
radioactive proteins were not radioactive. This
indicates that proteins did not enter the bacteria
from the viruses.
 DNA is therefore the genetic material that is passed
from virus to bacteria
Semi conservative nature of DNA Mathew Messelson and Franklin Stahl’s.
 8. 3 Replication of DNA :
Semi-conservative method of DNA replication
The various steps involved in this process are summarized as follows:
i. Mechanism of replication starts at a specific point of the
DNA molecule, called origin.
ii. At origin, DNA strand breaks because of an incision
(nick). This is made by an enzyme called incision enzyme
(endonuclease).
iii. The hydrogen bonds joining the two strands are broken
by the enzyme.
iv. The two strands start unwinding. This takes place with
the help of a DNA unwinding enzyme Helicases. Two
polynucleotide strands are thus separated.
v. The point where the two strands separate appears like a
fork or a Y-shape. This is described as a replicating fork.
vi. A new strand is constructed on each old strand. This
takes place with the help of a small RNA primer molecule
which is complimentary to the DNA at that point.
vii. Each old DNA strand acts as a template (site) for the
construction of new strand. The RNA primer attaches itself
to the old strand and attracts the enzymes (DNA
polymerase III) which add new nucleotides through base
complementation. The deoxyribose nucleotides are present
in the surrounding nucleoplasm. New DNA strand is thus
constructed opposite to each old strand.
viii. Formation of new complementary strand always begins at the 3' end of the template strand
(original strand) and progresses towards the 5' end (ie in 3' - 5' direction).
ix. Of the two, the replication of 3'-5' template begins first. Hence the new strand formed on it is
called the leading strand. The other template (5'-3') must begin replication at the fork and progress
back toward the previously transcribed fragment. The new strand formed on it is called the lagging
strand.
x. Replication of the lagging strand takes place in small fragments called Okazaki fragments. These
are then connected together by the enzyme ligase.
xi. At the end of the process, two double stranded DNA molecules are formed from the original
DNA molecule.
Transcription in Prokaryotes
 The mRNA provides the template, tRNA brings amino
acids and reads the genetic code, and rRNAs play
structural and catalytic role during translation.
 There is single DNA-dependent RNA polymerase that
catalyses transcription of all types of RNA in bacteria.
RNA polymerase binds to promoter and initiates
transcription (Initiation).
 It uses nucleoside triphosphates as substrate and
polymerises in a template depended fashion following
the rule of complementarity. It somehow also facilitates
opening of the helix and continues elongation.
Only a short stretch of RNA remains bound to the enzyme. Once the polymerases reaches the
terminator region, the nascent RNA falls off, so also the RNA polymerase. This results in
termination of transcription. Initiation-factor(σ) , termination-factor(ρ) .
Transcription in Eukaryotes
RMT(Radhey Mohan tiwary)
RNA Pol I – Ribosomal RNA
RNA Pol II-Messanger RNA
RNA Pol III- Transfer RNA
Splicing : removal of introns
Capping : attachment of 5 methyl
guanosine at 5I
Tailing : Attachment of poly A
(polyadenylation)

GENETIC CODE

commaless Initiation
Codon AUG
Triplet
Universal
Linear

Genetic Code
Non
ambiguous

Nonsense
Degenerate
codon
Non (UAA,UAG,UGA
overlapping )
AA—Amino
Universal: Specific codons codes for the same amino acid in all organisms.
Degenerate : More than one codon may code for the same amino acid.
Non- ambiguous : Particular codon will always code for the same amino acid.
Translation steps : 1. Activation of amino acids 2. Initiation 3. Elongation 4. Termination
LAC OPERON
Application of Human genome project
-: Identification of defective genes, Opportunity to offer early treatment.
-: Identification of genes that confer susceptibility to certain disease.

TECHNIQUE FOR DNA FINGER PRINTING

 Process is also known as DNA typing/DNA profiling.
 CHAPTER - 7: EVOLUTION
Evolution: Process that results in heritable changes in a population spread over many generations
(change in allele frequencies over time) leading to diversity of organisms on earth.

Theory of Chemical Evolution:

 Oparin of Russia and Haldane of England proposed that the first form of life could have come
from pre-existing non-living organic molecules (e.g. RNA, protein, etc.) and that formation
of life was preceded by chemical evolution.
 The conditions on earth were – high temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere
containing CH4, NH3, etc.
 Chemical evolution theory was
experimentally proved by S.L. Miller &
Urey (1953).
 They created electric discharge in a
closed flask containing CH4, H2, NH3
and water vapour at 8000 C.

 He observed formation of amino acids.

In similar experiments others observed,
formation of sugars, nitrogen bases,
pigment and fats.

Evolution of Life forms: Theory of Organic evolution

 Charles Darwin travelled around the world by a sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S.
Beagle.
 He observed the gradual evolution of life forms in Galapagos Island and Malay Archipelago.
 All the existing life forms share similarities and share common ancestors present at different
periods in the history of earth (epochs, periods and eras).
Evidences for Organic Evolution:
 Palaeontological evidences : fossils founds in rock and support the evolution.
 Embryological Evidences
Comparative anatomy & morphology :
Anthropogenic Action : Industrial Melanism
Before 1850 After 1920
 More white winged moth in urban areas  Less white winged moth in urban areas
than dark winged or melanised moth. than dark winged or melanised moth.
 No industrialization  Industrial revolution occur
 Tree trunk white color  Tree trunk colour- dark
 Predators attack on dark moth than white.  Predators attack on white moth than dark.
Moths are able to camouflage themselves, i.e. hide in the background, survived. This type of
evolution is due to anthropogenic action.
 Lichen act as a industrial pollution indicator.
 Excess use of herbicides, pesticides, antibiotics etc. develops resistant organisms / cells are
appearing in a time scale of months or years and not centuries.
Adaptive radiation
The evolutionary process which produces new species from single point origin and spread to other
geographical areas (habitat) is called adaptive radiation.
Eg. Darwin finches found in Galapagos Island and Australian Marsupials.
 MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION:
Darwinism Hugo de Vries
 Evolution is small.  Evolution is small.
 It is directional.  It is random / non directional.
 Mostly beneficial  Mostly harmful to organism.
 Slow process (many steps)  Single step large mutation (saltation)
Hardy-Weinberg principle:
 allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant from generation to generation.
 The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) remains a constant. This is called
genetic equilibrium.
 Sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1. p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 or, (p + q)2 = 1
Five factors are known to affect Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:
 Gene migration or gene flow- emigration, immigration.
 Genetic drift : Sudden changes in polulation
 Mutation : sudden changes in DNA
 Genetic recombination : crossing over
 Natural selection.
Ref. Fig. 7.8.page 136, NCERT.
HUMAN EVOLUTION
Time period Name Brain capacity Remarks
10-15 Mya Dryopithecus (ape like) East Africa, Asia; closely related to
chimpanzee

Ramapithecus (man like) Shivalik Hills; erect posture, small

canine
2 mya Australopithecines ( cave 500cc African Ape Man ; height 1.5mts
dwellers)
Homo habilis 700cc Tool Maker, Community Life
1.2 mya Homo erectus 800cc to 1300cc Knew how to use fire, larger teeth
100,000- Neanderthal man 1450cc East and central Asia
40,000 mya
25000mya Homo sapiens 1650cc Modern man ; height1.5 to 1.8 mts; flat
face
 CHAPTER 8: HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE

Name of the Name of the Type Transmissio Symptoms

Disease pathogen n
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Bacterial Food & water Sustained high fever (39° to
(diagnosed by borne 40°C), weakness, stomach pain,
Widal test) constipation, headache and loss
of appetite
Pneumonia Streptococcus Bacterial Air, sharing the alveoli get filled with fluid
pneumonia and glasses and leading to severe problems in
Haemophilus utensils etc. respiration, fever, chills, cough
influenza and headache, lips and finger
nails may turn gray to bluish in
colour
Common Rhino Virus Viral Air & contact Nasal congestion and discharge,
cold with infected sore throat, hoarseness, cough,
person headache,
Tiredness.
Malaria Plasmodium Protozoan Female Periodic high fever, chilled &
Anopheles shivering.
mosquito
Amoebiasis Entamoeba Protozoan House fly, constipation, abdominal pain and
histolytica food & water. cramps, stools with excess
mucous and blood clots
Ascariasis Ascaris Roundworm Soil, water, internal bleeding, muscular pain,
lumbricoides (Helminthes plant fever, anemia and blockage of the
) intestinal passage
Elephantiasis Wuchereria filarial Culex female Lymphatic vessels of lower limbs
or Filariasis (W. bancrofti and worms mosquito are swollen. Genital organs are
W. malayi), also often affected, resulting in
gross deformities.
Ringworm Microsporum, Fungi Soil & direct Appearance of dry, scaly lesions
Trichophyton and contact on various parts of the body such
Epidermophyton as skin, nails and scalp
AIDS HIV Viral Transfusion Decrease immunity results to
of body attack other pathogens like
fluids, Toxoplasma, Mycobacterium,
unprotected fungal, viral etc.
sex etc.
LIFE CYCLE OF PLASMODIUM ON DUAL HOST (HUMAN & FEMALE ANOPHELES
MOSQUITO)

 Sprozoites are injected into the body by female

anopheles mosquito
 Sporozoite reach the liver through blood
 Parasite reproduces asexually in the liver and comes
out in the blood by bursting the liver cells
 They enter the RBC
 PARASITE REPRODUCE ASEXUALLY IN RBC
and by bursting them releases haemozoin which
causes cycles of fever
 Released parasite enter new RBC and infect them
 Parasite starts the sexual stage and forms
gametocytes in RBC
 Female anopheles mosquito takes up gametocytes
 Fertilization of gametes and development takes place
in the mosquitoes intestine
 Mature infective sporozoite escape from the intestine
and migrate to the salivary glands of mosquito
 Mosquito bites again and injects the sprozoites into
human body.
 ANTIBODY STRUCTURE

TYPES OF ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

ACTIVE IMMUNITY PASSIVE IMMUNITY

- Antibody produced within own - Antibodies transferred from

body another individual.
- it is long lasting - Not long lasting.
- Does not Cause allergy - Sometimes cause allergy
- Takes time to activate -Provides immediate relief.
-

Lymphoid Organs

Primary Lymphoid Secondary Lymphoid Organ

Organ 1. Spleen
1. Bone Marrow 2. Lymph Nodes
2.Thymus 3. Peyer’s Patch
4. Tonsils
5. Mucosal associated lymphoid
tissue (MALT)

Function: Function:
Provide 1. Spleen: Filter the microbes from blood
microenvironment
For the development and 2. Lymph Nodes: Trap the microorganisms
Maturation of
lymphocyte 3. Peyer’s Patch: Present in small intestine
and help In the formation of effector celles

4. Tonsils: Trap microbes entering through

Mouth

5. MALT: Traps Microbes

 Types of Immune Response

Primary Response Secondary Response

- Exposure of body to pathogen for - Subsequent exposure to same

first time pathogen
- Of Low Intensity - Response of body is hieghtened

Allergy

Common allergens
Symptoms Ways to reduce allergy
(Substances that cause
allergy Sneezing Antihistamine
Eg:- Dust,Pollen,Fur Running nose Adrenaline
Some foods, some Steriod
Watery eyes
Chemicals)
Itching

Auto-immunity Condition when structural & functional damage is caused due to the attack
of the self cells of the body by its own immune cells . Examples : Rheumatoid arthritis,
Insulin- dependent diabetes

CANCER

CAUSES DETECTION TREATMENT

SURGERY
RADIATION
SYSTEMIC :
IONISING RADIATION a] CHEMOTHERAPY, b] HORMONTHERAPY
CHEMICAL eg : TAR FROM, CIGARETTS BIOPSY AND c] MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY, SUPPORTIVE
VIRUS - PAPILLOMA HISTOPATHOLOGICAL STUDY CARE
HEREDITARY PREDISPOSITION C.T, M.R.I, X RAY d) α INTERFERON

Addiction and Dependence:

Addiction is a psychological attachment to certain effects –such as euphoria and a temporary
feelingof well-being – associated with drugs and alcohol.
 Withdrawal syndrome : if regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued. This is
characterised by anxiety, shakiness, nausea and sweating, which may be relieved when use is
resumed again.
Prevention and Control : Avoid undue peer pressure, Education and counseling, Seeking
professional and medical help.

Chapter 9: Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production

Animal Breeding-objectives:
 Improved growth rate.
 Increased production
 Improve desirable qualities.
BEE KEEPKING/ APICULTURE : Apis indica
 The following points are important for successful bee-keeping:
o (i) Knowledge of the nature and habits of bees,
o (ii) Selection of suitable location for keeping the beehives,
o (iii) Catching and hiving of swarms (group of bees),
o (iv) Management of beehives during different seasons, and
o (v) Handling and collection of honey and of beeswax.

METHODS OF ANIMAL BREEDING:

 Inbreeding:- Inbreeding refers to the mating of more closely related individuals within the
same breed for 4-6 generations.. Eg.- cows, buffaloes, poultry
 Outbreeding : crosses between different breeds are called outbreeding.
 In breeding depression- continued in breeding reduces fertility even productivity. A single
outcross often helps to overcome inbreeding depression
ii) Outbreeding- breeding between unrelated animals of two types –
1.) Out crossing- mating within the same breed but not having ancestors.
2.) Crossbreeding- superior males of one breed are mated with superior females of
another breed to get better progeny .e.g.- cows of inferior breed with superior bull.
Hisardale- is a new breed of sheep developed in Punjab by crossing Bikaneri Eves
and Marano Rams.
 3) Interspecific hybridization- male and female animals of two different species are
mated. E.g.- mule is crossbreed of male donkey and female horse.
4) Control breeding-
(a) Artificial insemination- semen of superior male is collected and injected unto the
reproductive tract of selected female. The spread of certain diseases can be controlled
by this method.
(b) MOET (Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer )- Technique for herd improvement
by successful production of hybrids.
i) Hormone(FSH) are administered to the cow for inducing follicular maturation and
super ovulation. ii) Cow produces 6-8 eggs instead of one egg & is either mated
with elite bull or artificially inseminated. iii) Fertilised egg at 8-32 cell stage are
recovered non-surgically & transferred to surrogate mother. iv) IDone in cattle,
sheep, rabbits etc.
Steps in Plant breeding:-
1 Collection of variability-Collection and preservation of all different wild varieties, species,
relatives of cultivated species etc. are also called germplasm collection.
2. Evaluation and selection of parents-Germplasm is evaluated to identify plants with desirable
traits.
3. Cross hybridization among the selected parents-Two plants having two desired characters
are hybridized to get new hybrid having two desired characters.
4. Selection and testing of superior recombinants-Selection of the plants having desired
character combinations.
5. Testing, release and commercialization of new cultivars-Newly selected lines are evaluated
for their yield, agronomic traits, disease resistance etc. and released into the market.
Green revolution - Crop production.
White revolution - Milk production
Blue revolution - Fish production

Hidden Hunger: Deficiency of protein and vitamin is called hidden hunger because they cannot
afford to buy enough fruits, vegetables, legumes, fish and meat.

Biofortification - Breeding crops with higher levels of proteins, vitamins and minerals eg. Wheat
variety Atlas- high content of protein, Vitamin A rich golden rice, Vit C rich bitter gourd, mustard,
tomato; protein rich beans lablab etc.

SCP (Single cell protein) - Protein rich cell biomass from microbes such as bacteria, yeast, algae are
used as alternative food. Eg-Spirulina can be grown in waste water (from potato processing plant)
to produce protein rich biomass treated as food.
Advantages: i) Provides protein rich food supplement in human diet ii) Reduces pressure of
conventional agricultural production iii) Use of Waste water reduces pollution level
iv) High rate of biomass production in large amount in short period.
Tissue culture - Technique of in vitro regeneration of whole plant by growing any plant part called
explant in culture medium under aseptic condition.
2. Micropropagation-
 Tissue culture technique used for rapid vegetative multiplication of ornamental plants and
fruit trees by using small explants.
 Micropopagation is done by shoot meristem culture & somatic embryogeny. It results in
genetically identical plants & used widely in forestry & floriculture.
 Chapter – 10: Microbes in Human Welfare
Microbes in household products
S. No Microbes Causative organism Action Product

1 Bacteria Lactobacillus Convert milk into Curd with increased

curd vitamin B-12
2 Yeast Saccharomyces Fermentation Baker’s yeast
cerevisiae
3 Bacteria Propionibacterium Production of carbon Swiss cheese
sharmanii di oxide

Microbes in industrial products-

S.No Microbes Causative organism Product
1 Fungi Penicillium notatum Antibiotics
2 Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae Alcohol
3 Fungus Aspergillus niger Citric acid
4 Bacteria Acetobacter Acetic acid
5 Bacteria Clostridium butylicum Butyric acid
6 Bacteria Lactobacillus Lactic acid

Enzymes and other bioactive molecules

S. No Microbes Products Uses
1 Streptococcus (bacterium) Streptokinase Clot buster
2 Trichoderma polysporum (fungi) Cyclosporin A Immunosuppressive agent
3 Monascus purpureus (yeast) Statins Blood cholesterol lowering
agents

Enzymes and their actions

S.No Enzymes Action
1 Lipase Removing oily strains
2 Pectinase Clarified bottled juices
Biogas plant:
 Concrete tank 10- 15 mts deep, slurry or
dung fed.
 Floating cover placed above rises as
biogas content rises.
 Connecting pipe for supply of biogas.
 Used for cooking and lighting.
 Development by IARI :- Indian
Agriculture Research institute & KVIC:-
Khadi and village Industries
Commission.
Microbes as Biocontrol Agents:
 Insecticides and Pesticides toxic, harmful & are pollutants.
 Natural predation better method.
 No of pests kept in check, not totally eradicated.
 Food chains not disturbed Eg. Ladybird and Dragon flies useful to get rid of aphids and
mosquitoes.
 Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) used to control butterfly caterpillar.
 Mode of spores operation.
 Available is sachets, mixed with water and sprayed on plants.
 Eaten by insect larva
 Toxin released in gut kills larvae.
 Now Bt toxin genes introduced into plants – resistant to insect pests. e.g. Bt cotton.
Advantages :-
 No negative impacts on plants, mammals, birds, fish or target insects.
 For overall IMP (Intergrated pest Management) programme.
 For ecologically sensitive areas.
As Biofertilizers:
 Main sources of biofertilizers. Bacteria, Fungi & Cyanobacteria. Eg Rhizobium present in
roots of leguminious plants fix atmospheric nitrogen into usable organic form. Azospirillium
and Azotobacter – free living bacteria – fix atmospheric Nitrogen.
 Symbiotic Associations Eg.Genus Glomus sp. form mycorrhiza
 Cynobacteria– autotrophic – fix atmospheric nitrogen Eg. e.g. Anabaena, Nostoc,
Oscillatoria.
 Blue green algae – increase fertility by adding organic matter.
 Chapter - 11: BIOTECHNOLOGY: PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES

Tools of r-DNA technology : Restriction enzyme, Polymerase enzyme, Ligase, Vectors and Host
organism
Steps in producing recombinant DNA
1. The required gene is cut from a DNA molecule using a restriction enzyme.
2. A bacterial plasmid is isolated and cut with the same restriction enzyme. This ensures cut
ends are complementary (same base sequence) to the ends of the required gene.
3. The required gene is joined to the plasmid using the enzyme DNA ligase in a process called
ligation.
4. The resulting recombinant plasmid is returned to the bacterial cell.
5. The bacteria reproduce and the required gene is cloned.

Recombinant DNA Technology

Procedure: Introduction of recombinant DNA into

- Isolation host cells:
- Digestion Some commonly used procedures:
- Fractionation 1. Transformation
- Purification of the TARGET 2. Transfection
fragment 3. Electroporation
- Cloning into vectors 4. Biolistics
- Transformation of host cell and Agrobacterium mediated gene
selection transfer
- Replication
- Analysis

Naming of Restriction enzymes:

 the first letter of the name comes from the genes and the second two letters come from the
species of the prokaryotic cell from which they were isolated.
 Like EcoRI comes from Escherichia coli RY 13. In EcoRI, the letter ‘R’ is derived from the
name of strain.
 Roman numbers following the names indicate the order in which the enzymes were isolated
from that strain of bacteria.

Types: a) Exonucleases remove nucleotides from the ends of the DNA whereas,

b) Endonucleases make cuts at specific positions within the DNA.

Restriction enzymes recognise a specific short nucleotide sequence called Palindromic

sequence. For example, EcoRI recognises the sequence

Refer to NCERT text book fig. 11.1

Characteristics of a Cloning Vector

 Origin of replication (ORI)

 Selectable Marker

 Restriction sites

Vector for cloning Plant and Animal cells

Most commonly used plant cloning vector "Ti" plasmid, or tumor-inducing plasmid. Found
in cells of the bacterium known as Agrobacterium tumefaciens, normally lives in soil. Bacterium
has ability to infect plants and cause a crown gall, or tumorous lump, to form at the site of infection.

Ti plasmid - called T DNA - separates from the plasmid and incorporates into the host cell
genome. This aspect of Ti plasmid function has made it useful as a plant cloning vector (natural
genetic engineer).
Disarmed Retroviruses can be used to deliver desired genes into animal cells.

PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction):

PCR is a technique for the in vitro amplification of a desired sequence of DNA. PCR allows
the generation of a large quantity of DNA product (up to several
It has been shown that PCR can be used to generate a detectable quantity of DNA from only one
starting target (or template) molecule.
Refer NCERT text book fig. 11.6

PCR is a cycle of three steps:

1. DENATURATION - the strands of the DNA are melted apart by heating to 95°C
2. ANNEALING - the temperature is reduced to ~ 55°C to allow the primers to anneal
to the target DNA
3. POLYMERISATION / EXTENSION - the temperature is changed to the optimum
temperature for the DNA polymerase to catalyse extension of the primers, i.e. to
copy the DNA between the primers.
The thermostable DNA polymerase Taq polymerase, is isolated from the thermophilic bacterium,
Thermus aquaticus, which lives in hot springs.
 Chapter – 12: BIOTECHNOLOGY & ITS APPLICATION
Application in agriculture : Genetically modified organisms (GMO)
Transgenic crops (GMO) -Crops contain or express one or more useful foreign genes.
Advantages -i) More tolerant to stresses (heat, cold, draught).
ii) Pest resistants GM crops, reduce the use of Chemical pesticides. Eg- BT-Cotton
iii) Reduced post harvest losses. iv) Enhance nutritional value of food.
PEST RESISTANT PLANTS : Bt- cotton --Bt stands for Bacillus thuringiensis (Soil Bacteria).
Bacterium produces proteins (Crystal Protein-cry I AC, cry II AB). A crystalline insecticidal protein
that kills the insects.Hence cry-Genes have been introduced in plants to produce crystal proteins as
Protoxin (inactive toxin), which is converted to toxins in alkaline medium (i.e. in the gut of insects)
and cause death of the insect larva.
Protection of plants against nematodes –Nematode, Meloidogyne incognita infects tobacco
plants & reduces yield. Specific genes (DNA) from nematodes introduced into the plants using
Agrobacterium tumifecians (soil bacteria). Genes produce sense and antisense complementary RNA.
Act as dsRNA and initiates RNAi ( RNA interference) and silences the specific mRNA.
Complementary RNA neutralizes the specific RNA of nematodes by a process called RNA
Interference and parasite cannot live in transgenic host.
In medicine- genetically engineered insulin— (Refer NCERT text book for diagram)
 r-DNA technology was applied in therapeutic application by generating genetically
engineered insulin for man. In 1983, Eli Lilly, an American company prepared 2 DNA
sequences coding for chains A & B.
 Human insulin consists of two short Polypeptide chains A & B being linked by disulphide
bridges. In man, Insulin secreted as Prohormone containing C peptides that is removed during
maturation.
 In r-DNA technique, insulin could be generated by preparing two separate DNA sequences
of A & B chain which are incorporated into plasmids of E. coli to produce insulin chains.
Gene therapy
 Gene therapy involves correction of the gene defects in child or embryo.
 Adenosine deaminase deficiency is a kind of immuno-disorder caused by deletion of gene
coding for ADA.
Molecular diagnosis --
 Early & accurate detection of diseases can be done through : PCR (Polymerase chain
reaction): Short stretches of pathogenic genome is amplified for detection of suspected AIDS,
Cancer or genetic disorder.
 ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay) used to detect AIDS based on detection of
antibodies produced against antigen of pathogen.
Transgenic Animals
They are useful-
1. To know how genes contribute to development of disease.
2. To get biologically useful products . Eg. The first transgenic cow Rosie produced
human protein enriched milk
3. To verify vaccine and chemical safety.

Biropiracy -- Some organizations and multinational companies exploit or patent bioresources of

other nations without proper authorization. Indian patent bill is there to prevent such unauthorized
exploitation.
GEAC- For validity of GM research and the safety of introducing GM organism.
 Chapter – 13: ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS
Ecology
It deals with the interaction among organisms between organisms & physical environment.

Biome: the largest ecological regions distinguishable by characteristic plants and animals.
There are six: tundra, conifer, deciduous forest, grassland, tropical, and desert.
Environment simply means the surrounding
Environment

Abiotic factors Biotic factors

Temperature, soil, Microorganisms, plants,
water, light Animal
Light
Temperature Photosynthesis and release of oxygen light
Eurythermal - wide range of temperature tolerance dependent.
Stenothermal-Narrow range of temperature tolerance
Soil
Water Response to environmental condition
Soil composition, grain size and aggregation
Euryhaline- Wide range of salinity tolerence
determine percolation and water holding capacity
Stenohaline- Narrow range of salinity tolerance.
Regulation of soil.

RESPONSE TO ABIOTIC FACTORS

Regulation
Organisms maintain homeostasis achieved by physiological and behavioral means Thermo
regulation and osmoregulation.
Conformation Cannot maintain constant internal Environment # Body temperature and osmotic
concentration of body changes with ambient temperature and concentration of medium.-Thermo
confirmer and osmo confirmer .

Migration : Organism moves away temporarily to another habitat in stressful condition

Suspension
Organisms suspend their metabolic activities during stressful condition
Resume their function at the return of favorable conditions.
E.g. Hibernation (winter sleep) of Frog, Reptiles, Polar Bear etc , Aestivation (summer sleep)
in Snail and Fish.
Adaptation
Morphological, physiological and behavioral changes that enable organisms to adjust to the ever
changing environment .
E.g. Kangaroo rat survives in desert conditions through internal oxidation of fat, removing
concentrated urine of limited quantity.
# Allen‘s rule-cold climate mammals have shorter ears and limbs to minimize heat loss.
# Polar mammals like seals have blubber to prevent heat loss.
# Burrowing habit to escape from heat
# Higher count of RBC, Hb(haemoglobin) at high altitudes.
Population attributes
*Birth Rate/ NATALITY – Number of individuals born per thousand per year.
*Death Rate/MORTALITY – Number of individuals die per thousand per year.
*Sex Ratio – Ratio of male-female in the population.
Population density. - the number of individual organisms per unit area (appropriate measure –
total number-sometimes difficult to determine or meaningless because 4 factors N+I-M+E are
concerned w.r.t habitat concerned

Age pyramids
# Three ecological ages: Pre-reproductive, Reproductive and Post-Reproductive , High
proportion pre-reproductive individuals occur in Expanding population , Pre-reproductive
and reproductive individuals are uniform in Stable population and Pre-reproductive
individuals are less in Declining population.

Population growth : Growth Models :

(i) Exponential growth: When resources in the habitat are unlimited.

(ii) Logistic growth: When resources are limited.

(REFER NCERT TEXT BOOK FIG. 13.5)

Density of population at any time at a given place depends on Natality, Mortality, Emigration
Immigration .

POPULATION INTERACTION

Type of Species A Species B Examples

interaction
Mutualism + + Lichen, Mycorrhiza
Predation + - Tiger & deer, Birds & seeds
Competition - - Abington tortoise & goats, flamingos & fishes
Parasitism + - Ascaris (endo), Lice(ecto), Koel (brood)
Commensalism + 0 Egrets & cattle, clown fish & sea anemone
Ammensalism - 0 Penicilium & Staphylococcus
 Chapter - 14: ECOSYSTEM
The components of the ecosystem are seen to function as a unit: Productivity, Decomposition, Energy
flow and Nutrient cycle.

PRODUCTIVITY:

 Primary productivity:
o The amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time period by
plants during photosynthesis.
 Gross primary productivity: (GPP) is the rate of production of organic matter during
photosynthesis.
 Net primary productivity: GPP – R = NPP.
 Secondary productivity: is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by the
consumer.

DECOMPOSITION:The process of decomposition completed in following steps:

o Fragmentation : Break down of detritus into smaller particles by detritivore (e

arthworm).
o Leaching: Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and get
precipitated as unavailable salts.
o Catabolism : Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simple inorga
nic substances.
o Humification: Accumulation of dark coloured amorphous substances called humus.
o Mineralization: The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release
of inorganic nutrients occur.

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM:

Only 10% of energy transferred from one trophic level to other.

Food chain:
 Grazing food chain (GFC): it extends from producers through herbivore to carnivore.
Grass---- Grass hopper---- Frog----- Snake------- Hawk
 Detritus food chain (DFC): Begins with dead organic matter (detritus) and pass through
detritus feeding organism in soil to organisms feeding on detritus-feeders.
Detritus--- Earthworm--- Bacteria/ Fungi ---- Plants--- Animals
 Standing crop: each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time
called as the standing crop.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID:
Three types : number, energy or biomass. In most ecosystems, all the pyramids, of number, of
energy and biomass are upright.

 The pyramid of number in a tree ecosystem is inverted.

 The pyramid of biomass in sea also inverted because the biomass of fishes is far exceeds
that of phytoplankton.
 Pyramid of energy is always upright, can never be inverted, because when energy flows
from a particular trophic level to the next, some energy is always lost as heat at each step.

(REFER TO NCERT TEXT BOOK FIG. 14.4 (a) TO (d) )

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:

 The gradual and fairly predictable change in the species composition of a given area is
called ecological succession.
 All the changes lead finally to a community that is in near equilibrium with the environment
and that is called climax community.
 Primary succession: succession that starts where no living organisms are there- these could
be areas where no living organism ever existed may be a bare rock or new water body.
 Secondary succession: succession that starts in areas that somehow, lost all the living
organisms that existed there.

TYPES : Based on the nature of habitat – whether it is water or it is on very dry areas-
succession of plants is called hydrarch or xerarch.

Xerarch succession: Succession in bare rock:

Lichen—Mosses—herbaceous plants--- shrubs--- trees

Hydrarch (succession in aquatic environment)

Phytoplankton--- Zooplanktons --- rooted hydrophytes---- Sub merged and free-floating plant stage-
---- Reed-swamp stage---- Marsh-meadow stage--- Shrub stage--- Trees--- the forest

NUTRIENT CYCLING: Of two types: Gaseous cycle & Sedimentary cycle.

Ecosystem – Carbon cycle (Refer NCERT text- book for diag.)

 Much carbon is fixed in the biosphere by photosynthesis, annually.

 Large amount of carbon returned to the atmosphere as CO2 through respiration of producers
and consumers.
 Decomposers also return CO2 to reservoir during decomposition process.
 Some amount of Carbon is lost to sediments and removed from circulation.
 Burning wood, forest fire, combustion of organic matter, fossil fuel, volcanic activities are
additional sources for releasing CO2 to atmosphere.

Ecosystem Phosphorus cycle:

 Reservoir pool of phosphorus is the rock, which contain phosphorus in the form
of phosphates.
Difference between Carbon and Phosphorus cycle:
1. No respiratory release of phosphorus
2. Reservoir for Carbon is atmosphere but for Phosporus is rocks.
 Chapter - 15: BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
 Types of biodiversity : Genetic diversity, Species diversity, Ecological diversity
Pattern of Biodiversity:
Latitudinal gradients:
 Species diversity decreases as we move away from the equator towards the pole.
Why tropical rain forest has greater biodiversity:
 Unlike temperate regions subjected to frequent glaciations in the past, tropical latitudes have
remained relatively undisturbed for millions of years and thus, had a long evolutionary time
for species diversification.
 Tropical environments. Unlike temperate ones, are less seasonal, relatively more constant and
predictable, promotes niche specialization and lead to greater species diversity.
Species area relationship:
 Within a region species richness increased with increasing explored area but only up to a
limit. (REFER NCERT TEXT- BOOK FOR FIG.)
Loss of Biodiversity:
Causes of biodiversity loss:
 There are four major causes “The Evil Quartet” are as follows:
1) Habitat loss and fragmentation:
2) Over-exploitation:
3) Alien species invasion: Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in east Africa led to
extinction of 200 species of cichlid fish in the lake.
 Parthenium, (carrot grass), Lantana, and water hyacinth (Eichornia) posed a thread to
indigenous species.
 African cat fish Clarias gariepinus for aquaculture purposed is posing a threat to indigenous
catfishes in our rivers.
4) Co-extinction
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION:
Why should we conserve Biodiversity?
Reason for conservation is grouped into three categories: Narrowly utilitarian, Broadly utilitarian
and Ethical
How do we conserve biodiversity?
In situ conservation:
 When we conserve and protect the whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all level is protected –
we save the entire forest to save the tiger. This approach is called in situ (on site)
conservation.
  Biodiversity hot spot: regions with very high levels of species richness and high degree
of endemism.(species confined to that region and not found anywhere else)
 Sacred groves: tract of forest were set aside, and all the trees and wildlife within were
venerated and given total protection.
Ex situ conservation: threatened animals and plants are taken out from their natural habitat and
placed in special setting where they can be protected and given special care.
 Zoological Park, Botanical garden, Wildlife safari, Conservation of gamete
by cryopreservation, Genetic strains are preserved in seed bank.
Convention on Biodiversity:
 “The earth Summit” held in Rio de Janeiro .
 World Summit on Sustainable development held in Johannesburg, South Africa.
 Chapter – 16: Environmental Issues
Pollution: Any undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, land,
water or soil which harms the human beings.

POLLUTION

Water Pollution
Misc. Pollution
Air Pollution
Solid Wastes: Domestic
Water Act (Prevention &Control) & Industrial wastes.
Air Act (Prevention & -1974 E-Wastes: Electronic garbage,
Control) -1981 (Wornout Computer, mobiles,
Causes: Domestic Sewage, refrigerator, etc.)
Causes: Industries, Agricultural waste Radioactive Wastes:
Vehicles, Volcanic (Insecticide & Pesticide), Utilized radioactive fuels
Industrial Waste (PCBP, Noise Pollution
Erruption, and Household.
Pollutants: Metallic & Dust Heavy metals- Pb, Cd, &
particles, Aerosols, Gases Hg) Air Act was ammended in 1987 which
included noise pollution.
(CO, SO2, NO2) Effects: Harms health
of livings(Diarrhoea, Causes: Vehicles, Industries, Loud
Effects: Harms health speaker, Jet planes.
of livings(Asthma, Naru);Retarded growth
Bronchitis);Global of plants. Effects: Sleeplessness, Increased
heart beat, Stress & Anxiety. Permanant
Warming; Premature Control: Sewage treatment, hearing loss (150dB)
death of plants. Awareness among peoples, Control: Controlled utilisation of sound
Control: Electrostatic Proper utilisation of Media. producing instruments
Precipitator, Scruber,
Catalytic converter &
Fuel Policy

AIR POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL:

Prevention of air pollution: ways to remove particulate matter:

 Electrostatic precipitator
Electrode wires that are maintained at several thousand volts, which produce a corona that release
electrons, Electron binds with particulate matter giving them a net negative charge, Positively
charged collecting plates attract the charged dust particle.
Scrubber: Removes gases like sulphur dioxide, The exhaust is passed through a spray of water or
lime. (REFER NCERT TEXT-BOOK FOR FIG.)
Methods to reduce vehicular pollution:
Catalytic converter: It reduce emission of poisonous gases. Motor vehicle equipped with catalytic
converter should use unleaded petrol because lead in the petrol inactivates the catalyst.
Controlling Vehicular pollution: A case study of Delhi:
 Use of CNG (compressed natural gas):
Advantages of CNG
 CNG burns most efficiently, Cannot be siphoned, cheaper than petrol and diesel.
WATER POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL:
 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD): the amount of Oxygen required oxidizing all organic
matter present in one liter of water.
 Presence of large amount of nutrients in water also causes excessive growth
of Planktonic (free floating) algae, called algal bloom.
 The world’s most problematic aquatic weed is water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)
called ‘Terror of Bengal’.
 Biomagnifications: increase in concentration of the toxicant at successive trophic level is
called biological magnification or biomagnifications.
  Bio magnification of DDT in Aquatic food chain.

 Eutrophication: The process of nutrient enrichment of water and consequent loss of species
diversity is referred to as Eutrophication.
 Cultural or Accelerated Eutrophication:
o Pollutants from man’s activities like effluents from the industries and homes
can radically accelerate the aging process. This phenomenon is
called Cultural or Accelerated Eutrophication.
A case study of integrated waste water treatment:
 It has been done in town of Arcata, in the northern coast of California.
 A citizens group called Friends of the Arcata Marsh (FOAM) is responsible for the
upkeep and safeguarding of this project.
Ecological sanitation:
 Ecological sanitation is a sustainable system for handling human excreta, using dry
composting toilets. ‘EcoSan’ toilets are being used in Kerala and Srilanka.
SOLID WASTES:
 Solid wastes refer to everything that goes out in trash.
 Sanitary landfills were adopted as substitute for open-burning dumps.
Case study of Remedy for Plastic wastes: (Ahmed Khan)
 Polyblend, a fine powder of recycled modified plastic, was developed by his
company.
Electronic wastes (e-wastes):
 Irreparable computers and other electronic goods are known as electronic wastes (e-wastes).
 Recycling is the only solution for the treatment of e-wastes.
AGRO-CHEMICAL AND THEIR EFFECTS:
 Pesticides, herbicides, fungicides etc, are being increasingly used.These are toxic to non-
target organisms that are important components of the soil ecosystem.
Case study of organic farming: (Ramesh Chandra Dagar of Sonipat)
 He includes bee-keeping, diary management, water harvesting, composting and agriculture in
a chain of processes, which support each other and allow an extremely economical and
sustainable venture.
RADIOACTIVE WASTES:
 Radiation from radioactive waste causes mutation at very high rate.
Disposal of nuclear wastes:
 Storage of nuclear waste, after sufficient pre-treatment, should be done in suitably shielded
containers buried within the rocks about 500 m deep below the earth’s surface.

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING: The greenhouse effect is a naturally
occurring phenomenon that is responsible for heating of Earth’s surface and atmosphere.
 Increase in the level of greenhouse gases has led to considerable heating of Earth leading
to global warming or enhanced green house effect.

OZONE DEPLETION IN THE STRATOSPHERE: The thickness of ozone layer is measured in

terms of Dobson units (DU). The depletion is marked particularly over the Antarctic region. This
has resulted in formation of a large area of thinned ozone layer, commonly called as the ozone hole.
Effects of UV rays:
 Damage skin cells and causes skin cancers.
 In human eye cornea absorb UV – B radiation and high dose of UV – B causes inflammation
of cornea called snow-blindness, cataract etc.
Prevention:
 Montreal Protocol was signed at Montreal (Canada) in 1987 to control emission of ozone
depleting substances.

A case study of people‘s participation in forest conservation: Amrita Devi Bishnoi Wild Life
Protection Award is instituted for individuals of rural areas who take keen interest in protecting wild
life.
 QUESTION- ANSWERS
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (1 MARK)

1.In organisms like rotifers, honey bees, the female gamete undergoes development to form
new organism without fertilisation. What is this phenomena called?
Ans. Parthenogenesis.
2. What are alleles ?

Ans. The various forms of a gene, are called alleles.

3. Name the diagnostic test which confirms typhoid.

Ans. Widal test

4. Which enzyme is used to digest walls of bacteria and fungi in genetic engineering?
Ans: Lysozyme digests bacterial wall and chitinase digests fungal cell wall.
5. With which population growth model is the Verhulst Pearl equation associated?

Ans : Logistic Growth

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)

1. Expand SNPs. What are they?

Ans. SNPs - Single nucleotide polymorphisms.
These are locations on DNA, where single base differences are observed.
2. What is filiform apparatus ? What is its function/significance ?
Ans. — Filiform apparatus refers to the special cellular thickenings of the synergids at the
micropylar end.
— Filiform apparatus guides the pollen tube to enter the synergid to release the male
gametes.
3. List any four important components of poultry farm management.

Ans: Four important components of poultry farm management are:

(a) Selection of a disease free and suitable breeds
(b) Proper and safe farm conditions
(c) Proper feed and water
(d) Hygiene and health care
4. The first transgenic cow produced human protein-enriched milk. Name the cow and the
protein found in the milk.

Ans: Rosie, alpha-lactalbumin.

5. Name the four functional aspects of an ecosystem.

Ans: Functional aspects of an ecosystem are:

(i) Productivity (ii) Decomposition

(iii)Energy flow (iv) Nutrient cycle

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)

1. (i) Explain the role of ovarian hormones in inducing changes in the uterus during
menstrual cycle.
(ii) What triggers release of oxytocin at the time of parturition?

Ans. (i) — Estrogen influences the uterus in the follicular phase; the endometrium is regenerated
through proliferation.
Progesterone influences the uterus in the luteal phase; the endometrium becomes further thickened
and vascularised for implantation. (ii) Foetal ejection reflex triggers the release of oxytocin.

2. Figures given below are of Darwin's finches?

Variety of beaks of Darwin's finches.

(a)Mention the specific geographical area where these were found.

(b)Name and explain the phenomenon that has resulted in the evolution of such diverse species
in the region.

(c) How did Darwin visit the particular geographical area?

(a) Galapagos Island.

(b)Adaptive radiation —The process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area
starting from a point and literally radiating to other areas of geography (habitats) is called adaptive
radiation.
(c )Through sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S. Beagle.
3. (a) why are the fruit juices brought from the market clear as compared to those made at
home?
(a) Name the bio active molecules produced by Trichoderma polysporum and Monascus
purpureus.

Ans: (a) The fruit juices brought from the market are clearer because they have been
clarified by pectinases and proteases.
(b) Trichoderma polysporum: Cyclosporin A
Monascus purpureus : Statins

4. How and why is the bacterium Thermus aquaticus employed in recombinant DNA
technology? Explain.

Ans: DNA polymerase is obtained from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus. DNA polymerase
from this organism (thermostable) remains active during the high temperature induced
denaturation of double stranded DNA. The amplified fragment if desired can now be used to
ligate with a vector for further cloning.

5. Mention the 3 important features that make a stable biological community.

Ans: Features that make a stable biological community are:

(i) Communities should have greater biodiversity for greater stability

(ii) It should be able to prevent invasion by alien species
(iii)It should be able to restore itself in a short period of time

VALUE BASED QUESTIONS (4 MARKS)

1. A Gynaecologist advised Hema to undergo MTP, as she diagnosed a certain problem in the
foetus, which may affect the mother too. Another patient Mrs. Rita, wanted the doctor to
confirm the sex of the foetus and remove the foetus, if it were a female. The doctor refused.

(a)Name the technique the doctor has used to detect a problem in the foetus.
(b)What is done in this technique?
(c)What values does the doctor promote in this case?
(d)How has the government been handling such problems?

Ans. (a) Amniocentesis.

(b)A small sample of the amniotic fluid, found around the foetus, is taken out, without
causing any harm to the foetus. The free cells in the fluid are cultured and then analysed for
chromosomal or metabolic abnormalities.
(c)Values of professionalism, ethics and honestly.
(d)Government has already enforced a ban on this technique with strict punishment.
2. In a survey conducted to find out the age group which was most affected by drug and alcohol
abuse it was found that the adolescents were the main goup.
(a)What is the possible reason for this report?
(b)What are the common warning signs of drug and alcohol abuse among youth?
Ans: (a) (i) Curiousity, need for adventure and excitement, and experimentation constitute
common causes.
(ii) Examinations-related and competition-related stresses.

(iii)Unstable or unsupportive family structures and peer pressure.

(iv) Perception among adolescents that it is cool or progressive to use alcohol and drugs.

(b) Drop in academic performance, unexplained absence from school/college, lack of interest in
personal hygiene, aggressive and rebellious behavior, deteriorating relationships with family and
friends, fluctuations in weight, appetite, etc.

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 MARKS)

1. Describe megasporogenesis in an angiosperm.

Ans. — Megasporogenesis is the process of formation of megaspores from the megaspore
mother cell.
— A single megaspore mother cell is differentiated at the micropylar region ofthe nucellus
of an ovule.
— This cell is large and possesses a dense cytoplasm and a prominent diploid nucleus.
— The megaspore mother cell undergoes a meiotic division forming a linear tetrad of
haploid megaspores.
— Later three of them degenerate while one remains functional.

2. What is meant by semi conservative replication? How did Meselson and Stahl prove it
experimentally?
Ans. the two strands of DNA would separate and act as a template for the synthesis of new
complementary strands. After the completion of replication, each DNA molecule would have one
parental and one newly synthesised strand. This scheme was termed as semiconservative DNA
replication.
Meselson and Stahl, performed an experiment using E.coIi to prove that DNA replication is semi
conservative.
 - They grew E. coli in a medium containing 15NH4Cl.
- Then separated heavy DNA from normal (14N) by centrifugation in CsCl2 density
gradient.
- The DNA extracted, after one generation of transfer from 15N medium to 14N medium,
had an intermediate density.

- The DNA extracted after two generations consisted of equal amounts of light and hybrid
DNA.
- They proved that DNA replicates in a semi- conservative manner.
(Refer figure 6.7, page 105, NCERT Biology Xll).

3. (i) Explain the role of the following in increasing the soil fertility and crop yield.

(a) Leguminous plants

(b) Cyanobacteria
(c) Mycorrhizae

(ii) Baculoviruses are excellent candidates for integrated pest management in an ecological
Sensitive area. Explain giving two reasons.

Ans: (i) (a) Leguminous plants possess root nodules where nitrogen is fixed by the symbiotic
nitrogen fixing bacteria rhizobium and fertilize the soil.
(b)Cyanobacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen and increase the organic matter of the soil
through their photosynthetic activity. Example nostoc, anabaena, oscillatoria etc.
(c) Mycorrhizae as biofertilizer: Fungi from symbiotic association with the roots of
higher plants called Mycorrhizae, e.g., Glomus.

(ii) ) The reasons are:

(a) Baculoviruses are biological control agents which are excellent candidates for species
specific, narrow spectrum insecticidal applications.
(b)They have no negative impact on plants mammals and even on non target insects.

4. Enumerate the different steps which are involved when a biotechnologist wants to obtain a
recombinant protein.

Ans: Hints: (Explanation as per NCERT text book )

-Isolation of genetic material (DNA).
- Cutting of DNA at specific location
- Amplication of gene of inters using PCR
- Insertion of rDNA into the host cell/organism
- Obtaining foreign gene product
- Downstream processing.
5. Name and explain the interaction in each of the following:

i) Cuscuta growing in a shoe flower plant.

ii) Mycorrhizae living on the roots of higher plants
iii) Clown fish living among the tentacles of sea anemone
iv) Koel laying its eggs in crow’s nest.
v) Ascaris worms living in the intestine of human

Ans:

i) Parasitism as Cuscuta derives food from the shoe flower plant harming the plant.

ii) Mutualism as fungi helps in obtaining nutrients from the soil and plant gives food to fungi

iii) Commensalism as clown fish gets protected by stinging cells of sea anemone while the later gets
neither benefit nor harm from the fish

iv) Brood parasitism because koel does not prepare its nest but destroys the crow’s eggs and lay its
own.

v) Parasitism as ascaris derives food hrom human intestine while harming the human body

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