Computer-process interface for data acquisition and control

In direct computer control individual controllers are replaced by digital computer. Then the
control functions (e.g., feedback, P, PI, PID laws) will be performed by an executable program
(in BASIC, FORTRAN, assembly language, etc.), which resides in the memory of the computer.
The control program requires the input data which are the values of the measured outputs. It
estimates the output results as the manipulated variables to control the process. For a digital
computer both input data and output results are in digital form and correspond to discrete time
value.

1. Samplers

The process measurement data (flow rates, pressures, liquid levels, temperatures, etc,) are
provided continuously by the various sensors and transducers. However, the computer can
handle information on a discrete time basis. The time taken by the computer to “read” the
measured value, calculating the error, and making a control correction is finite. If during this
period measured value changed, this is not recognized by the computer. Sampler is a switch
which closes at specific time intervals. Within that interval continuous signal is converted into
sampled values. Each sampled value is used by the computer control algorithm to give output
result within the specific time interval of sampling.
 2. Hold element

Most of the final control elements (pneumatic valves particularly) are actuated by continuous
time signals (e.g., compressed air). Therefore, control commands produced by the computer
program (discrete signals) should be converted from discrete-time to continuous-time signals.
This is accomplished by hold elements.

3. Analog-to-digital converter

A/D converters convert an analog voltage signal lying within a specific range (such as ± 10 V, 0
to 5 V, etc.) to an integer number. The maximum size of the integer number, and hence the
resolution of the conversion, depends on the number of bits handled by the converter. The
range of the integer I is given by Irange = 2N, where N is the number of bits. The maximum integer
range for the 12-bit converter is 212 = 4096. This number of integers is chosen to run between-
2048 ≤I ≤+ 2047, where I= 0 falls between the negative and positive integers. For the positive
range (2047), the resolution of the converter is the voltage range divided by the intervals
between integers, or:
Resolution = (10/2047) V = 0.00489 V
This gives an expected error of ± 1/2 of the resolution, or± 0.00244 V. In this case the relative
error in conversion is approximately given by:
Relative error = 0·00244 V/│measured voltage│
The throughput speed of A/D converters is routinely 50,000 - 100,000 conversions/s, and high-
performance models can achieve even higher rates.
Ex: As an illustration of A/D conversion, suppose the 12-bit converter shown in Figure above
measure voltages and reports the integer 1261 and 21 as a result of the conversion. Determine
the actual measured voltage for I=1261 and 21. Assume expected error is ± 1/2 of the
resolution.
For I=1261,
Vmeasured = (10 ×1261/2047) = 6.16023 V
where for this input voltage, the relative error is:
Relative error = ± 0·00244/6.16023 = ± 0.000397 =± 0.0397%
For I=21
Vmeasured = (10 ×21/2047) = 0.102 V
where for this input voltage, the relative error is:
Relative error = ± 0·00244/0.102 = ± 0.024 =± 2.4%
 4. Digital-to-analog converter
D/A converters operate as just the reverse of A/D conversion. An integer with range 2N is placed
in a register and converted to an analog voltage output. The 12-bit D/A converter is shown in
the Figure above.
Ex: For output of 3.5 V determine the input integer for a D/A converter.
One uses the formula:
Iinput =2047× Voutput/10 = (2047) (3.5) /10=716.45 ≈716
which is rounded to Iinput = 716. This gives an actual output voltage of:
V output = 716 X 10 /2047 = 3.49780 V≈3.5 V
5. Multiplexer
In some applications, there will be many similar measurements at a remote location, and it is
usually most efficient to multiplex these at the source and transmit them sequentially over only
a few lines. As an example, consider 10 thermocouple measurements from a process, each with
a voltage signal of – 10 mV. First of all, one may not wish to run 10 lines and use 10 channels of
our A/D converters just for these signals, so multiplexing is necessary. This is an electronic
switch with several ports, which can serve sequentially several lines carrying analog signals.

A/D converter with multiplexer

6. Digital I/O
A digital computer is digital I/O. It is used in a control system for the reasons below,
1. Information concerning
a) Status of relays turning pumps, valves, lights, and other devices on or off.
b) Status of multiplexers
c) Settings of various switches
d) Status of communication peripherals and various digital logic devices
 2. Control commands to:
a) Relays, switches, solenoid, digital logic devices
b) Stepping motors
3. Communication between
a) Several computers
b) A computer and its peripherals, etc.
The digital signals are fully compatible with a computer. The transmission (input/output) of
digital signals by I/O interface can either in parallel (two way, in and out, simultaneous
transmission) or in series (one way, in or out transmission). The transmission rates vary from
very low to very high, and are expressed in terms of baud rates, where
Baud rate=10 × (number of character transmitted/sec)

Computer control loops (multiple)

Modes of Computer Control
Computer control is usually carried out in one of two modes: supervisory control or direct
digital control (DDC).
Supervisory control, illustrated in Figure involves resetting the set-point of the local controller
according to some computer algorithm. Thus the computer control scheme need only supervise
and coordinate the actions of the local controllers. Direct digital control, by contrast, requires
that all the controller action be carried out by the digital computer. Measurements are sent to
the computer and compared with the set point; then the computed control action is
transmitted to the actuator. This is illustrated in Figure below.

Programmable logic controller (PLC)

Modern industrial control systems are microprocessor-based programmable systems containing

hardware and software for direct digital control, distributed control, programmable control,
and PID action.

The processor in a PLC system has software that is easily programmable and flexible, making
the initial program, updates, modifications, and changes easy to implement. Because of the
complexity and large number of variables in many process control systems, microprocessor-
based PLCs are used for decision making. The PLC can be configured to receive a small number
of inputs (both analog and digital), and control a small number of outputs. The system also can
be expanded with plug-in modules to receive a large number of signals, and simultaneously
control a large number of actuators, displays or other types of devices. PLCs are categorized
into low-end, midrange, and high-end, where low-end is from 64 expandable up to 256 I/Os,
midrange is expandable up to 2,048 I/Os, and high-end is expandable up to 8,192 I/Os. PLCs
have the ability to communicate with each other on a local area network (LAN) or a wide area
network (WAN), and to send operational data to, and be controlled from, a central computer
terminal.

The individual control loops are not independent in a process but are interrelated, and many
measured variables may be monitored and manipulated variables controlled simultaneously.
Several processors also may be connected to a mainframe computer for complex control
functions.
Controller operation

The central processing unit can be divided into the processor, memory, and input and output
units or modules, as shown in Figure 14.4. The units are interconnected by a two-way 16-bit
data bus, a one-way address bus, and a one-way enable bus. The address and data buses are
common to all units, and the enable bus will select the individual units being addressed and
connect the unit’s data bus drivers or receivers to the data bus. The enable and address buses
are controlled by the processor, which uses software instructions for its direction. When
addressing an input module, the module is selected with its enable bus code. The address bus
then can be used to select which external input data is to be put onto the two-way data bus.
This data is then transferred to memory to wait for the next step from the software
instructions. The output modules are addressed and selected in the same way as the input
modules. The unit is selected by the enable code, and the address bus directs the data placed
on the data bus from the memory by the processor to its output.

The operation cycle in the PLC is made up of two separate modes; these are the I/O scan mode,
followed by the execution mode.

I/O scan mode is the period when the processor updates the output control signals, based on
the information received from the previous I/O scan cycle after its evaluation of the signals. The
processor then scans the inputs in a serial mode and updates its internal memory as to the
status of the inputs.

Execution mode follows the I/O scan mode. In this mode, the processor evaluates the input
data stored in memory against the data programmed into the CPU. The processor then can
determine the actions to be taken by the output modules, and puts the data into memory for
transfer to the output modules during the next I/O scan mode.

Scan time is the time required for the PLC to complete one I/O scan plus the execution cycle.
This time depends on the number of input and output channels, the length of the ladder
instruction sets, and the speed of the processor. A typical scan time is between 5 and 20 ms. As
well as evaluating data, the PLC also can generate accurate time delays, store and record data
for future use, and produce data in chart or graph form.
 Block diagram of programmable controller

Block diagram of processing unit

Reference

William C. Dunn, Introduction to Instrumentation, Sensors, and Process Control, ARTECH

HOUSE, Norwood, MA, 2006