Effective Teaching and Learning en PDF

Effective teaching
and learning in
vocational education
Consulting | Outsourcing | Research | Technology | Training

September 2011
Effective teaching
and learning in
vocational education
Sally Faraday, Carole Overton, Sarah Cooper
Consulting | Outsourcing | Research | Technology | Training

Published by LSN
www.lsnlearning.org.uk
LSN is committed to providing publications that are accessible to all.
To request additional copies of this publication or in a different format,
please contact:
Information and Customer Centre
LSN
Fifth Floor, Holborn Centre
120 Holborn
London EC1N 2AD, UK
Tel +44 (0)20 7492 5000
Fax +44 (0) 20 7492 5001
Email [email protected]
Registered with the Charity Commissioners
Designer: Joel Quartey

110052RS/10/11/web upload only
ISBN 978-1-84572-656-0
© LSN 2011
You are welcome to copy this publication for internal use within your
organisation. Otherwise, no part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, electrical, chemical, optical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without prior written permission of the copyright owner.
Further information
For further information about the issues discussed in this publication
please contact:
Tel +44 (0)20 7492 5000
[email protected]
Contents
Acknowledgements
Executive summary 1
Background and introduction 1
Summary of main findings 2
Summary conclusions 3
1 Introduction 5
2 Research design and approach 7

2.1 Research aims and objectives 7
2.2 Methodology 7
3 Vocational teaching and learning in practice 9
3.1 Teaching relationships 11

3.1.1 Teaching relationships – comments 14
3.2 Teaching models 15

3.2.1 Acquiring skills/ behaviour and cybernetic family of models 18
3.2.2 Acquiring concepts/Information processing family 21
3.2.3 Constructing knowledge/social family 24
3.2.4 Personal family 29
3.2.5 Teaching models – comments 30
3.3 Teaching skills and strategies 32

3.3.1 Planning and preparation 33
3.3.2 Delivery of teaching and learning 34
3.3.3 Assessing learning 45
3.3.4 Teaching skills and strategies - comments 47
3.4 Teacher reflection 48

3.4.1 Reflective practice 48
3.4.2 Responding to learner feedback 49
3.4.3 Improving practice through personal reflection 50
3.4.4 Sharing with colleagues to improve practice 50
3.4.5 Developing a repertoire of skills and strategies 51
3.4.6 Learning from experience 52
3.4.7 Observation of teaching and learning 52
3.4.8 Support from colleagues 53
3.4.9 Developing learning organisations 53
3.4.10 Teacher reflection – comments 53
4 Towards a Framework for Developing Effective Vocational Teaching 54

and Learning
4.1 Using the Framework for Developing Effective Vocational Teaching 56

and Learning
4.2 Analysis of travel and tourism session 56
5 Conclusions 60
6 Bibliography 64
Appendix 1 Methodology and approach 74
Appendix 2 Effective vocational teaching and learning – a brief review 78
Appendix 3 Effect-size research 95
Appendix 4 Vocational qualifications in the UK 96
Appendix 5 Wider skills frameworks from across the world 98
Appendix 6 An overview of subjects ‘well taught’ and needing ‘improvement’ 99
Appendix 7 Examples of teaching models 100
Appendix 8 Learning styles 104

Acknowledgements
LSN would like to thank a number of people who kindly contributed their ideas,
critical feedback, suggestions and guidance to this work. Geoff Petty and Bill
Lucas were particularly helpful as well as colleagues at LSN and City and Guilds
Centre for Skills Development; all provided their insights and feedback as the
work progressed. We would particularly like to thank a number of colleagues
within colleges who gave up their time to be interviewed and those who were
open to our researchers conducting observations of their lessons. Without
their willingness to be involved, this project would not have resulted in such
interesting and informative findings. Finally, special thanks go to college
representatives who also attended a seminar to discuss and critically reflect on
the findings and to help us develop useful and practical guidance for teachers
and practitioners in the sector. We hope that the outcomes of this research will
not only spark debate and further work on vocational pedagogy but that our
resulting guidance document, Developing effective vocational teaching and
learning through teaching models: a guide, will be of use to those who work at
the front line of teaching.
1
Executive summary
LSN and the City and Guilds Centre for Skills Development present this research
report on Effective Teaching and Learning in Vocational Education.
Background and introduction

The changing nature of skills required for the 21st Century, the need to
improve the skills of the UK workforce and the current economic crisis, mean
that vocational education is more important than ever. Yet despite recent
improvements in provision, Ofsted (2010) reported that the delivery of vocational
education and training was variable in quality. Too much teaching and learning
was mediocre and more emphasis was required on meeting individuals’ needs
through more suitable teaching methods.
This project aimed to promote more effective teaching and learning in vocational
education, by encouraging thought, debate and discussion about vocational
pedagogy. There were four stages to the research. This report covers the first
two. The first phase was a review of literature that explored the quality of
vocational teaching and learning and what was effective teaching and learning
in the vocational context. It included studies that identified which factors
had the greatest effect on improving learner attainment and an overview of
learning theories and teaching models. The second phase examined examples
of vocational teaching and learning in organisations identified as outstanding
by Ofsted. A framework that encompassed four different elements of effective
teaching – Teaching Skills, Teaching Relationships, Teacher Reflection and
Teaching Models (Hopkins, 2007) – was used to analyse examples of vocational
teaching and learning in practice. There were visits to eight Further Education
Colleges (FECs) involving observations across four curriculum areas and
interviews with a range of staff. The data collected were analysed and primary
research provided the opportunity to understand how the range of teaching and
learning skills, strategies and models were being used in practice.
Given the interchangeable use of terminology and the different meanings
evident in the literature, we defined exactly what we meant by each of the
essential components in the framework:
Teaching relationships – teachers’ commitments to their learners, the
relationships they develop with their learners and range of roles that teachers
take. This component was identified as critically important by teachers.
Teaching models – are prescribed structured sequences, which are
designed to elicit a particular type of thinking or responses, to achieve
specific learning outcomes.
Teaching strategies – are the ‘tools for teaching and learning’ that teachers have
available to them and ‘teaching skills’ are the ways in which teachers select and
use the ‘tools’ at their disposal to achieve effective learning.
2 Effective teaching and learning in vocational education
Teacher reflection – is a threefold process comprising direct experience, analysis

of beliefs, values or knowledge about that experience, and consideration of the
options which should lead to action as a result of the analysis.
As work progressed against the framework it became clear that there was
one additional, distinctive feature that in part defined vocational learning and
that was the context within which it takes place. ‘Teaching context’ – covers a
mixture of aspects and includes the nature of the vocational subject, the setting
where teaching and learning takes place, objectives and desired outcomes for
a session plus specifications of the qualification, the nature of the learners,
their level and how they learn best including their learning styles.
Summary of main findings

1. The sessions observed confirmed the findings of research in the literature
review: teaching and learning is a highly complex process and effective practice
results from a complex interaction of factors.
2. There was little evidence that vocational teaching and learning was
fundamentally different from any other type of teaching and learning except in
one respect – that of context. Given the importance of context, a new Framework
was developed from that of Hopkins (2007), to include ‘context’ as a separate,
specific component.
A Framework for Developing Effective Vocational Teaching and Learning
eacher Reflection
Teaching Teaching Skills

Models and Strategies
Teaching Teaching
Relationships Context
Teacher
Reflection
These five interrelated and overlapping components in the Framework must

work in synergy to provide effective teaching and learning that meets the
required learning objectives and learning outcomes.
Executive summary 3
3. There were many examples of effective practice in vocational teaching and

learning evident in the sessions observed, although this study did select
organisations that were known to have effective practice and so the findings
may not be typical of vocational teaching and learning.
4. Teachers believed that in many cases, practice is directly transferable from one
vocational area to another.
5. Teachers indicated that they also varied their practice, for example, in response
to the different levels of the programmes and abilities of learners.
6. Vocational teaching and learning is underpinned by some learning theories –
experiential learning and learning styles theories being the most prevalent.
7. Teachers drew extensively on their own experiences and those shared
with colleagues.
8. Teaching relationships were identified both in the literature and by teachers as
crucially important.
9. Teaching models did not appear to be used intentionally in a planned and
systematic way by teachers when deciding how to teach although we were able
to infer that some aspects of teaching models were utilised.
10. Teachers used their skills to choose from a very wide range of strategies. These
included strategies for: differentiation, presentation and demonstration, using
technology, group and individual learning, reinforcing learning and assessing
learning as well as the use of multiple strategies within a session.
11. In the very best sessions, teachers had high aspirations and sought to stretch
their learners. They planned to develop a range of learners’ skills beyond
just mastering a particular skill or acquiring information to meet a course or
qualification specification. These skills included higher order learning and
thinking skills (such as ‘advance organisers’ and learning to learn), social and
interpersonal skills to communicate effectively and employability skills. These
were consistent with the skills for the 21st century, as described in the literature
review.
12. Effective teachers were reflective; they constantly reviewed their practice,
discussed it with their colleagues and sought to develop new and better ways
of teaching.
Summary conclusions
These are drawn from the full range of interviews and observations completed
as well as the literature review, which set the overall context and framework for
the research.
●● While there is evidence of very good practice within vocational education, it is
clearly not universal, as evidenced from inspection, so there is considerable
scope for identifying, disseminating and sharing good practice and for further
development as a means of improvement.
●● Teaching models are not yet established in vocational learning but the whole
concept of teaching models could provide a powerful new element in vocational
teachers’ repertoires. Research evidence shows that learners’ attainment could
be enhanced by the consistent use of teaching models. There is a need for
substantial further research to further develop teaching models and for these to
be further developed and tested in the vocational context.
●● The ‘Framework for Developing Effective Vocational Teaching and Learning’
(page 6) could provide a clear basis for thinking about vocational teaching and
learning as well as a vehicle for sharing and promoting effective practice.
●● There is also scope for using the ‘Framework for Developing Effective Vocational
Teaching and Learning’ to provide a structure within which to offer guidance –
this guidance should use the Framework to illustrate the inter-relationships
between the five components of teaching relationships, teaching models,
teaching strategies and skills, teaching context and teacher reflection.
●● The implications of the findings of the research could potentially be wide
ranging. There could be an impact on initial teacher training for vocational
teachers and their continuing professional development. This in turn could
have consequences for teaching qualification specifications and course
design and delivery.
5
1 Introduction
The changing nature of skills required for the 21st Century, the well-documented
need to improve the skills of the UK workforce and the current economic crisis,
necessitate the delivery of high quality vocational education. (Unwin, 2004,
Statz et al, 2004, Conlon et al, 2010 in Wolf, 2011). This means that vocational
education is more important than ever.
Most recently, the Department for Education’s (DfE) response to the Wolf Review
(2011) recognised the role vocational education plays in helping young people
progress in education and employment and in supporting the skills needs of
the future labour market. The Wolf Review (2011), published during the course
of this research, indicates that systematic changes are underfoot in vocational
education. Wolf’s main concerns are the relevance of vocational courses to the
economy, the transparency of the qualifications system and the ease in which
young people can make choices regarding courses and places of study. Wolf’s
recommendations deal with funding, organisation and oversight, and provide
the context for the future of vocational teaching and learning.
The strength of the focus on improving vocational education through systemic
changes is in direct contrast to the lack of focus placed on vocational pedagogy.
Research, however, does tell us that the type and depth of learning acquired on
vocational programmes is variable (Statz et al, 2004). Achieving a high quality
vocational education system assumes high quality and effective vocational
teaching and learning. Research has told us that the quality of teaching is the key
factor in improving learner achievement and a recent review of 20 of the world’s
top education systems concluded that the quality of an education system cannot
exceed the quality of its teachers. It suggests that the only way to improve
learner outcomes is to improve instruction (Barber and Mourshed, 2008).
In 2009 the Skills Commission Inquiry into Teacher Training in Vocational
Education found that the repertoire and flexibility of vocational pedagogy is
often too narrow and that while the setting and context may be engaging, the
methods used can be too passive and uninspiring. The inquiry concluded that
vocational pedagogies remain in their infancy and relatively little research has
been undertaken into them. Amongst others, Lucas et al (2009), echoed similar
concerns. They suggested that key to the delivery of excellent teaching and
learning is knowledge and understanding about pedagogy.
The most important research gaps in the field of practical and vocational
education in the UK relate to the naïve, incomplete and sometimes doctrinaire
models of learning that underpin Practical Vocational Education (PVE).
(Lucas et al, 2009, p 3)
LSN and the City and Guilds Centre for Skills Development present this report on
Effective Teaching and Learning in Vocational Education. We aim to support the
sector by contributing to thinking on vocational pedagogy by examining effective
teaching and learning. We therefore hope that this report will prompt debate with
professionals and experts in vocational education on how improvements and
developments can be supported and achieved and that it acts as a catalyst for
further work into all aspects of vocational pedagogy.
7
2 Research design and approach
2.1 Research aims and objectives

This report aims to promote more effective teaching and learning in vocational
education through encouragement of thought, debate and discussion around
vocational pedagogy. The objectives of the research were to:
●● examine the literature on effective teaching and learning in vocational education
and training
●● analyse examples of vocational teaching and learning in practice
●● compare the outcomes from the literature review and the examples of teaching
and learning to develop a framework for effective vocational education and
training and draw from the findings in order to offer guidance for practitioners
and others
●● identify the implications for policy and further areas for development.
2.2 Methodology
The overall research design encompassed a detailed literature review, primary
research, analysis and synthesis of data, a final report and resulting guidance
for further education (FE) lecturers. The overall approach involved four key
phases of activity as detailed below. Each phase of activity is further detailed in
Appendix 1.
Phase One involved a literature review exploring effective teaching and learning
based on evidence based research. Appendix 2 of this report, therefore,
describes the vocational education context, current vocational provision and
explores the quality of current vocational provision. It also explores effective
teaching and learning by considering an initial framework around teaching skills,
teacher relationships, teacher reflection and teaching models.
Phase Two explored vocational teaching and learning in practice. We conducted
site visits to eight Further Education Colleges (FECs) involving observations
across four curriculum areas and interviews with teachers of the observed
lessons, Quality and Curriculum Managers, other teachers of selected curriculum
areas and senior managers. The data collected were analysed and presented
in Section 3 of this report. This primary research provided the opportunity
to understand how the range of teaching and learning skills, strategies and
models, identified in the literature review, are being used in practice.
Phase 3 built on phases 1 and 2 by using a formative seminar with practitioners
who had taken part in phase 2 of the research. The seminar was designed to
collate feedback on the report findings and ways forward, including the content
and approach for the resulting guidance designed specifically for practitioners.
Phase 4 involved development of guidance to support vocational lecturers

and initial teacher training (ITT) educators, including exemplars and cameo
case studies to translate theory into practice. The aim was to provide practical
guidance on effective teaching and learning in vocational education which could
be adopted by practitioners.
This report is based on the work conducted for phases 1 and 2, as described
above. The report was designed to provide an understanding of effective
teaching and learning drawn from theory and practice and to promote debate on
the implications of the findings amongst policy makers and professionals across
the sector. The guidance resulting from the research is designed specifically for
vocational teachers and practitioners and is available as a separate document.
9
3 Vocational teaching and learning

in practice
This chapter builds on the literature review and reports on the findings of an
analysis of observations of 20 teaching and learning sessions, interviews with
the teachers of the classes observed, interviews with other teachers of the same
subject areas and interviews with quality managers and/or senior leaders. The
observations were conducted in eight colleges and covered four vocational
areas: business administration, construction, information and communication
technology, and travel and tourism. The colleges were chosen because they were
identified by Ofsted as outstanding.
Method of analysis
The approach to the analysis broadly drew on grounded theory. In grounded
theory, the theory is generated from data, in the process of conducting the
research. Key points in the written records of the observations and interviews
were coded. The codes were then grouped into similar concepts and a
framework for analysis was generated. Initially, three broad groupings emerged:
teaching skills; teaching strategies; and underpinning teaching and learning
theories and models. We then departed from grounded theory and referred
to the literature review, which is reported in full in Appendix 2, to establish a
structure for synthesising and reporting the findings.
The findings from the observations and interviews aligned closely with the
four ways of thinking about teaching, illustrated in Figure 1 below, that was
developed from the Improving the Quality of Education for All (IQEA) research
project (Hopkins, 2007). This framework encompasses four different elements of
effective teaching – Teaching Skills, Teaching Relationships, Teacher Reflection
and Teaching Models. Importantly, it is only when these four elements are in
synergy that they are able to support effective teaching. Creemers, who analysed
the factors and variables in the teaching and learning process to identify
those that could explain the differences in outcomes for comparable groups of
learners, informs us that ‘isolated components or effective elements of individual
components do not result in strong effects on student achievement’ (Creemers,
1994, p 93). (see Appendix 2 – literature review for further details).
Figure 1 Four ways of thinking about teaching, (Hopkins, 2007)
Teaching Skills Teaching Models
Teaching
Reflection
Teaching Relationships
These four components: teaching relationships, teaching models, teaching skills

and teacher reflection, were adopted as the basis for analysis. We also drew on
effect-size research 1 which identified consistently high correlations between
learner achievement scores and classroom processes. From this stage, the
process of analysis and the refinement of the framework for analysis has been
an iterative one.
Definition of terms
Given the interchangeable use of terminology and the different meanings evident
in the literature for these four concepts and the terms used to describe them,
we have set out exactly what we mean in this report by each of these essential
components and the relevance/importance of each to effective vocational
teaching and learning.
Teaching relationships encompasses both the teachers’ commitments to
their learners and the relationships they develop with their learners. In the
observations, teachers identified that their relationships with their learners
was of critical importance to the effectiveness of their teaching and learning.
‘Teaching relationships’ also covers the range of roles that a teacher can take
within a session and varies between ‘high structure,’ in which the teacher’s role
is dominant, directing the learning and ‘low structure’ in which learners take
more control of the process of learning.
Teaching models are derived from theories about teaching and learning. Each
model can be described as a structured sequence, which is designed to elicit a
particular type of thinking or response, to achieve specific learning outcomes.
The choice and use of the appropriate model (or combination of models) is
influenced by the type of learning objective and nature of the learner as well as
other factors such as the repertoire of teaching strategies available and skills of
the teacher. A strong body of research and practice suggests that the quality of
teaching and learning and learners’ attainments can be enhanced by the use of
specific models (DfES, 2004b, Hattie, 2009 and Marzano, 1998).
We have defined ‘teaching strategies’ as the ‘tools for teaching and learning’
that teachers have available to them and ‘teaching skills’ as the ways in which
teachers select and use the ‘tools’ at their disposal to achieve effective learning.
Since we found these to be closely aligned, we have put them together for our
analysis
The fourth component of ‘teacher reflection’ is a threefold process comprising
direct experience, analysis of beliefs, values or knowledge about that
experience, and consideration of the options which should lead to action as a
result of the analysis (Whitton et al, 2004).
As the analysis progressed against the framework of these four components
it became clear that there was one additional, distinctive feature that in part
defines vocational learning and that is the context within which it takes place.
Thus a new, fifth component was emerging to add to the framework. This
is discussed further in the conclusions drawn from the analysis, where we
present and discuss a new framework for effective vocational learning with five
components. However, for clarity, we provide a definition of context at this point.
1
For further details of effect-size research, refer to Appendix 3.
Vocational teaching and learning in practice 11
Teaching context covers a mixture of aspects and includes the nature of the
vocational subject and the setting where teaching and learning takes place,
including the specialist facilities and resources required for that vocational
subject. It also includes the learning objectives and desired outcomes for a
session plus specifications of the qualification. The nature of the learners, their
level, and how they learn best including their learning styles, is also a part of
the context. A teacher’s choice of teaching strategy or model to enable effective
teaching and learning is affected by context in that, for example, it would be
difficult to do ‘role play’ or whole class ‘questioning’ in a noisy workshop with
confined space.
To show how all components might work together in practice, we provide a
worked example of a sequence of activities taken from an observed session, in
section 4.2.
Presentation of analysis
In this section we now consider each of these components in turn and provide a
selection of illustrative examples and quotations, drawn from the observations
and interviews. Please note that the examples have been selected to illustrate
various points and should not be considered as exemplars to copy or necessarily
as examples of outstanding practice. It is also important to stress that in this
chapter we are looking at practice from the perspective of each component so
inevitably we will also make reference to other components. This is due to the
holistic interrelationships of the components in practice.
In the next chapter, we draw our conclusions, and present our Framework
for Developing Effective Vocational Teaching and Learning. We also provide
a worked example drawn from an observed session that indicates how the
Framework may be used to analyse the teaching and learning taking place or to
illustrate practice.
In presenting our analysis of findings we start with teaching relationships. It
would be possible to start with any component and to present the analyses
in any order but we have chosen to start with teaching relationships since
the teacher/learner relationship is of such fundamental importance and was
highlighted during the interviews as highly important in the delivery of effective
3.1 Teaching relationships

Teaching relationships refer to the relationships teachers develop with their
learners as well as how learners relate to each other. The literature review within
this report identified that in FE specifically, the tutor-learner relationships are
identified as ‘the most important link in the learning process’, (TLRP, 2006). A
meta-analysis of learner-centred teacher-learner relationships confirmed the
importance. It reported that positive teacher-learner relationships are associated
with optimal, holistic learning with above average mean correlations when
compared with other educational innovations for cognitive and behavioural
outcomes (Cornelius-White, 2007).
The way in which a teacher interacts with learners sets the scene for the
subsequent learning to take place. As indicated earlier, within the research,
teachers felt that their relationships with learners were of prime importance
for the teaching and learning to be effective. The features of effective teacher
relationships that were identified from the observations, included:
●● getting to know learners – knowing which learners need more attention
●● good rapport including listening
●● high expectations (see Hattie and Merzano’s meta-analyses of effect-size)

●● building trust
●● humour – appropriate, not sarcasm
●● relaxed atmosphere – relaxed learning with elements of fun
●● mutual respect – respect of other people’s opinions
●● behaviour management – so that all of the group have the chance to learn.
Active learning, while carrying out assignments or projects for instance,

gave many opportunities for teachers to build relationships with learners.
The teacher’s role during this activity can take various forms: demonstrator,
organiser, coach, mentor, facilitator, reflector and even co-learner. A relationship
of trust between the teacher and learners is likely to develop while working
together and discussing aspects at various stages of the assignment, so that
the teacher becomes an ‘accomplice’ in the learning process rather than the
knowledge base. The following is a selection of examples taken from the
observations and interviews.
Use humour, yes, well we class it in the building trade as banter. So if a

student’s not enjoying themselves they won’t learn. You’ve got to be humorous
sometimes because if the student is bored or not enjoying something, they’ll
turn off, you’ve got to have things that are interesting. I mean, they say that you
shouldn’t ‘pull people’s legs’, but when you get into the building trade, when
you get on site, you’ve got to have that understanding – the difference between
when someone’s having a laugh and when someone’s being horrible to you.
There’s a big difference between laughing with somebody and laughing at
somebody.
Part of relationship building is the skill of the teacher in managing the behaviour
of groups and individuals within a learning session. For example, a teacher
might not allow learner discussion during the creation of plans, so that work is
individual and then, might use pairings to discuss how each plan was created
and the advantages and disadvantages of each plan. Therefore, managing
behaviour is in part an individual teacher activity but also an organisational
activity.
In one college (shown in the example below), within the study, they decided
to change the culture of the college making behaviour one of the issues –
behaviour of all staff and all learners. Over a period of time the culture
changed so that relationships between teachers and teachers, teachers and
learners and learners and learners became ones of mutual respect in which
learning could flourish.
The college itself went through a culture change and that was really important.
All the managers for the first time met away from college. I don’t know how you
find the atmosphere (in the college) but most people say that they find it open
and friendly and it didn’t used to be like that.
A charter was put together in the college.
In our divisional meetings, we had to say what actions we would do to make
sure that this (the charter) was embedded. So one of the things was that we
would communicate effectively, so we all had to sit in a division meeting and
say how we would communicate effectively.
The two actions we gave ourselves were, we’d always reply to an email
within twenty four hours and have something on our desk that said where we
were teaching and when we were in the staff room or we would write on the
whiteboard where we would be. There were ten things on the charter but the
last one, the tenth one said, ‘We will all follow all of those above’.
Then things started to change and that’s really I think when we started to have
a feeling of mutual trust between staff and that also developed in the students.
We wouldn’t let students hang round in gangs or groups. We wouldn’t let them
wear hats or hoods. We expected them to get to their work on time, we expected
them to ring up if they weren’t going to be in and whereas before you had to
keep nagging them, it just became the expectation.
As part of that, we developed a teaching and learning model that said students
need to be active and engaged and because there was an atmosphere of
mutual respect they could develop, and people bought into doing that.
Within each teaching model there is a ‘social system’, that is, the roles and
relationships that learners and teachers take within each teaching model. For
example, in some teaching models, the teacher is the source of information, the
demonstrator or organiser. In these cases the teacher provides the structure and
is in control as in a session within this study, where the teacher was organising
the learners to play a game of dominos where one half of the domino was a
question and the other half was an answer to a different question. The teacher
needed to orchestrate the ‘play’ and the learners followed the instructions in the
process, gaining knowledge from the game. In other teaching models, activity
(and control) is divided more equally between the teachers and learners and the
teacher acts as a facilitator, questioner or reflector as in the following example
where a teacher is working with learners on an ICT assignment and facilitating
their progress.
I’m facilitating them, watching them, making sure that they’re all on task really
because you do get odd students who will go off task quite easily but I think
they did well today. I asked them what they wanted to do, what they want
to achieve and then laid the task out for them, reminding them they have a
hand-out to have a look at and follow the instructions. Students don’t enjoy
instructions! But I just remind them to look at the hand-out as I went through
things, such as, remember you’ve got to put the key frame in, and showed
them how to do it. I did demonstrate with a few students how to do it. I advise
as well on the colours that they’re using or if they’re saying to me, ‘I can’t draw’
I say, ‘Well, you can draw this,’ and I’ll draw them a little telephone, show a
little sample, just to encourage them to do it.
The final stage is where the learners take complete control and are learning
independently. In this following example the class decides they now want to get
on with the practical themselves and they don’t need any more demonstration
from the teacher. Importantly the teacher knows the group well enough to feel
confident that the learners will be able to progress on their own.
In the theory session they will have had verbal instruction; in the workshop they
will have verbal and written instruction and can also see the finished item on
the board. They have seen the teacher creating one as well. So, I am working
with them. When I asked them, ‘would you like me to do one?’ they said no.
They were far more interested in doing it and me helping them. So, straight
away, I picked up on that because I know the group and I thought, I’ve done
my bit, they are happy to carry on, so I’ll leave them to it now.
A useful way of considering the social system or describing the respective roles
and responsibilities of teacher and learner has been provided by Fisher (2008)
in what he describes as ‘a gradual release of responsibility model’. Four
stages are described, moving from teacher directed or focused activity to
independent work:
●● teacher focus – teachers are in control and might demonstrate or ‘model’ what is
required from learners
●● guided instruction – teachers prompt, question, facilitate, or lead learners
through tasks that increase their understanding of the content
●● collaborative learning - to consolidate their understanding of the content,
learners need opportunities to problem solve, discuss, negotiate, and think with
their peers. Collaborative learning opportunities ensure that learners practice
and apply their learning while interacting with their peers
●● independent work – this is the overall goal. Independent learning provides
learners with practice in applying information in new ways. In doing so, they
synthesise information, transform ideas, and solidify their understanding.
Fisher points out that importantly, the gradual release of responsibility model is
not linear. Learners move back and forth between each stage as they progress
with their learning.
Teachers themselves decide within the teaching models that they are using,
what actions or reactions to take to further the learning for individuals and
groups. In some teaching models, the teacher tries to shape behaviour by
rewarding certain learner activities and maintaining a neutral stance toward
others. In other teaching models, such as those designed to develop creativity,
the teacher tries to maintain a non-evaluative, equal stance so that the learner
becomes self-directing. Principles of reaction help the teacher respond to what
the learner does. They can help teachers select the responses they will have in
their interaction with the learners and provide them with guidelines by which
they can better tune in to the learners and select model-appropriate responses
to what the learners do (Ji-Ping and Collis, 1995).
3.1.1 Teaching relationships – comments

The more teachers know their learners, then the more able are they to ensure
that each individual learner is learning in as effective a way as possible and
that the group collectively is being managed in the best way for effective
learning to take place. Behaviour management is made easier if teacher-learner
relationships are well developed and trust is part of the culture of the group.
The literature review identified that teacher-learner relationships were the
most important link in the learning process - a crucial part of the teaching
and learning framework – and this was confirmed by the observations and
interviews in this study.
The extent of the teaching relationship development with a group of learners
is likely to affect the choices and operation of the other components in the
Framework, including the teaching model. In some teaching models the teacher
takes the lead and provides the structure for learning while in other teaching
models there is a sharing of control between the teacher and the learners or
ultimately, learner independence in learning. It is important that the teacher
has understanding of individuals within the group to be able to make effective
decisions on teaching strategies and teaching model choice. We look at the
different teaching models in the next section.
3.2 Teaching models

Teaching models are derived from theories about teaching and learning. Each
model can be described as a structured sequence, which is designed to elicit a
particular type of thinking or response, to achieve specific learning outcomes.
The choice or use of the appropriate model (or combination of models) is
influenced by the type of learning objective and nature of the learner as well as
other factors such as teaching strategies and teaching skills. A strong body of
research and practice suggests that the consistent use of specific models can
make learning more effective (DfES, 2004b, Hattie, 2009 and Marzano, 1998).
What is a teaching model?

It is important to note what we mean by a teaching model. We have found that
the term ‘teaching model’ has been used to describe many other approaches.
In different documents a number of terms appear to be used interchangeably:
models; strategies; approaches; techniques and methods, to name a few.
Teaching models are not the ‘real world’ but merely a way of helping us
understand and think about teaching. There are a vast number of teaching
models, some variations of others, and they come in many shapes, sizes, and
styles. To add to the confusion, some terms, such as ‘demonstration’, can be
used for both a teaching model and also a strategy or method.
To draw the distinction between teaching strategy and a teaching model, the
definition of a teaching model we have used has two distinctive features. The
first distinctive feature is the nature of the learning objective and outcome
required and whether the learning is related to:
●● acquiring and learning skills, procedures or knowledge, or
●● processing information, building concepts and rules, generating and testing
hypotheses and thinking creatively, or
●● collaboration and learning together to construct new knowledge and
understand concepts
The second distinctive feature is the structured sequence of steps or phases

(the syntax) used to achieve that particular type of learning objective. In
teaching models, it is the tight linkage between these two aspects that defines
a teaching model. Strategies do not have the same linkage and may be deployed
more widely, as an essential part of a teachers’ repertoire to achieve a range of
learning outcomes.
The term teaching model is also used in vocational teaching and learning to
describe other different concepts. If these concepts lack the distinctive linkage
between these two particular features above, then they are not what we mean
here by a teaching model.
In our analysis of the observations and interviews we found no evidence of

the intentional, planned and systematic use of teaching models, as defined
above. That is not to say that teachers’ practice was uninformed by theory. In
some cases teachers stated explicitly the aspects of teaching and learning
theories that underpinned their practice – experiential learning and learning
styles theories being predominant. Teachers referred to the importance of
actively engaging learners and the observations and interviews showed that
experiential, activity-based learning was the norm. Although there was no direct
reference by teachers to any particular theory of experiential learning. When
referring to learning styles, teachers frequently mentioned that their learners
were for example, ‘visual learners’ or ‘kinaesthetic learners’ and explained how
they had planned their teaching to take account of these factors. However,
conceptualisations of teaching models did not, in the data available for analysis,
appear to inform their practice. Teachers appeared to draw pragmatically from
a very wide range of strategies, based on experience of what worked for them
with their learners, in their contexts. Sessions were generally complex with a
very large number of different activities within sessions that could combine the
use of a number of different strategies. Teachers did not generally articulate a
relationship between the strategies they chose and ‘teaching models’.
This presented us with a dilemma. Since there is evidence in the literature to
suggest that learning could be enhanced by the consistent use of models
(DfES, 2004b, Hattie, 2009 and Marzano, 1998), we needed to establish whether
they could be applied to vocational learning. Given that teaching models
are currently not prevalent or explicit in the vocational learning discourse,
our task in analysing the data was to see if we could infer what might be
described as teaching models from the observed and described practice. In
analysing teaching models we have drawn on the DfES (2004b) guidance on
teaching models and the taxonomy of models produced by Joyce et al (2008)
as a framework for reference, as shown in the following table. More detailed
descriptions of these models are provided in Appendix 7.
Table 1 Teaching models compared
Type of objectives DfES categories DfES teaching models Joyce families Joyce teaching models
Acquiring and Acquiring and l Direct interactive Behaviour & l Social learning
learning skills & learning skills teaching cybernetic l Mastery learning
procedures l Modelling l Programmed learning
l Demonstration l Simulation
l Mastery learning l Direct teaching
l Simulation l Anxiety reduction
l Coaching
Processing Acquiring l Inductive (classifying) Information l Inductive

information concepts l Enquiry processing l Inquiry training
Building concepts l Concept attainment l Cognitive growth
Operating and l Visualisation l Advance organisers
testing hypotheses l Metaphor/analogy l Mneumonics
Thinking creatively l Bridging
Constructing Constructing l Constructivism Social l Group investigation

knowledge knowledge l Group problem solving l Social inquiry
Addressing l Role play l Jurisprudential inquiry
misconceptions l Dialogic teaching l Laboratory method
Solving problems l Role playing
Reasoning l Positive
empathetically interdependence
l Structured social
inquiry
Personal l Nondirective teaching
l Awareness training
l Classroom meeting
l Self-actualisation
l Conceptual systems
Although the models listed are indicative rather than comprehensive, what is
immediately evident is that while there are commonalities between the two ways
of thinking, they are by no means identical. For example, there is no equivalent
of Joyce’s personal family in the DfES categories.
In the sections below we provide information about each of the four categories
of teaching models:
●● acquiring skills/behaviour and the cybernetic family
●● information processing
●● constructing knowledge/social family
●● personal family
The observations conducted through this research provided material for the
explanations of teaching models that follow. This material was drawn from the
data where we were able to recognise that some models (or aspects of models)
were being used. In these cases, we were able to infer that models were used in
practice although they did not seem to be used intentionally or systematically
and in many cases, the phases of activity that define a model were not fully put
into practice.
The examples (drawn from observations and interviews) are provided to

illustrate how models are used in practice and are not necessarily examples of
best practice or ideal models. For each example that follows we have provided
an introduction describing the context for the session, the learning objective(s)
and outcome(s) and the sequence of activity (‘syntax’) of the session, in terms
of a series of phases. Most of the examples shown take only a small part of a
lesson. In practice teachers used a very wide variety of strategies within a single
lesson and it was difficult to discern a single teaching model that applied to a
whole session.
3.2.1 Acquiring skills/ behaviour and cybernetic family of models

Joyce’s behaviour and cybernetic family of models are related to the acquisition
and development of skills. Direct interactive teaching, modelling, demonstration
and coaching are teaching models that are particularly effective in helping
learners to learn new skills and procedures and acquire knowledge (DfES 2004b).
Teaching models include:
DfES Joyce et al
Direct interactive teaching Social learning
Modelling Mastery learning
Demonstration Programmed learning
Mastery learning Simulation
Simulation Direct teaching
Coaching Anxiety reduction
The critical point about behavioural models is that learners change what they
do in response to feedback. Feedback was seen to be one of the most powerful
factors evident in the effect-size research. Different techniques were evident for
providing feedback and helping learners to master a particular skill or piece of
information.
Direct teaching/programmed learning

From the example below it is possible to infer two teaching models: elements of
the direct teaching model and the programmed learning model.
Direct teaching is particularly effective in enabling learners to acquire skills. It is
a very structured approach involving a high level of interactivity which is teacher
directed and involves direct communication usually with a whole class, although
it might be undertaken with an individual or small group of learners. Direct
teaching has the highest effect-size of any single teaching strategy, though this
may be in part because ‘Direct Instruction’ is a ‘Russian Doll’ that includes many
other strategies such as active learning, reviews, and homework, so there is
an additive effect (Petty, 2009). This model usually involves direct input from
the teacher together with a strategy of modelling or demonstration and clear
instructions to the learners. The teacher then checks the learners’ skills or
understanding, provides guided practice and ultimately the learners undertake
independent practice.
Programmed learning is a self-paced, self-administered programme (computer
based in this case) presented in a logical sequence and with much repetition of
concepts or skills.
The example below shows how the teacher builds up skills through
demonstrations, practice, feedback, and coaching until the skills are mastered.
(Demonstration is a strategy that was frequently used by teachers in analysis of
observations and there is further information about it in the skills and strategies
section, 3.3). The context is a computer aided design course that is structured to
teach basic skills to a group and then enable individuals to work through a series
of activities to master a basic range of skills. As the learners progress through
the programme, there are exercises designed to enable them to work at their
own pace. In this example, after initially taking a highly structured, information
giving role, the teacher adopts a facilitating role with learners taking increasing
responsibility for their learning.
The lesson’s learning objective is to draw four different shapes using Computer
Aided Design (CAD) – a square, a circle, a triangle that includes using angles and
a five pointed star which is a more complex shape. In this session the teacher
introduces the learners to the basic tools in CAD, the line and circle tools and the
erase tools, by demonstrating them.
Sequence of activities (syntax)

The lesson starts with the learners all at the same stage and the teacher
employs direct teaching.
Phase 1. In the first session, the teacher logs on to the computer with the
screen visible to the learners on the wall and the learners log on to their
computers. The teacher draws the square first, as it’s the easiest. The teacher
clicks on the line tool and tells the learners to find and click on the line tool.
The teacher draws a line of a given length, 45mm. As she demonstrates, she
describes what she is doing.
Phase 2. The learners select the tool and draw the line of 45mm and then
draw a square.
Phase 3. The teacher questions the learners and checks their progress,
guiding them as required.
Phase 4. Once they are confident, learners practice by drawing squares of
different sizes on their own.
The teacher demonstrates the tools necessary to draw a circle and the cycle of
phases is repeated. The session proceeds step by step until all the tools and
skills have been covered. When an individual learner is stuck, the teacher sits
next to the learner, takes the mouse, demonstrates and describes what to do,
then asks the learner to do exactly the same. If the learner makes a mistake,
the teacher explains what is wrong and makes the learner repeat the task
correctly. The learner practices until the skill is established and the teacher
does not take the mouse again but might point to the main screen or question
and prompt the learner if required.
At this point, the learners all start working through a programme with a series
of basic drawings, practising new techniques each week and progressing
through it at their own pace. The model here might be seen as programmed
learning where the teacher’s role becomes increasingly non-directive, guiding
and facilitating as necessary.
Every student each week is told, ‘Complete this drawing using your erase tool
or your trim tool – to tidy up the edges you use your trim tool. Try to do layers
by yourself rather than asking questions all the time.’ Another student might
be told, ‘Well, last week you got loads and loads of help from me, this week
can you do a little bit more independent work?’ Each student has their own
individual objectives and learners progress to more complex drawings once
they have mastered the basic skills.
Direct teaching using physical guidance

In a construction session, the teacher provides direct teaching with physical
guidance to help learners acquire the learning objective of mastering the skill of
welding.
In terms of context, the session takes place in a workshop. The teacher is also
concerned with his relationship with the learner. He is very aware of the issues
of personal contact and invading personal space so ensures that he has the
learner’s consent for physical contact. The teacher guides the learner and
progressively removes his support, a process described as ‘scaffolding’ learning.

The teacher had previously demonstrated welding.
Phase 1. The teacher asks the learner if he minds if he guides his hands; the
learner agrees. (The teacher points out that if the learner had objected, he
would not have done so.)
Phase 2. The teacher holds both of the learners hands as he starts to weld
because the learner doesn’t yet have the fine motor skills.
Phase 3. The teacher tells the learner that he is slowly going to take his hands
away and he wants the learner to carry on. (He explains that if he
had just removed his hands without warning, the learner’s hands would have
gone up).
Phase 4. The teacher removes his hands and the learner continues to
weld unaided.
The teacher comments that it is a contentious technique but it is an effective
way of teaching someone to weld. He points out that often they hold the torch
too far away from the work. Teaching them the right distance is important as
the learner needs to operate safely. ‘If you tell them to go closer they might go
too close and then the flame could dip into the pool and splash.’
Direct teaching using demonstration

There are a number of ways of implementing the direct teaching model. The
model used here is known as the ‘PAR’ model: Present, Apply, Review, which is
a structured skills version that could be suitable for many vocational areas.
There are three stages:
1. Present new material
2. Apply this new learning (learner activity)
3. Review the skills learned this lesson.
The teacher in this session uses the teaching model of direct teaching and the
strategy of demonstration as the tool, in this case, to present new material and
achieve the learning objective of acquiring the skill of technical drawing.

Phase 1. The teacher sketches a drawing on the white board. This is done in
stages, to teach the learners how to do a technical drawing.
Phase 2. The learners copy the drawings stage by stage, as the teacher
does them.
Phase 3. Once the learners have completed their drawings, the teacher
talks about what they have copied, goes round to each learner and provides
feedback, praising good drawings and indicating where they need to improve.
The teacher points out the importance of being able to draw so the customer
can see exactly what you are intending to do…‘and this is why the tradesperson
should be able to express themselves not only in the written word but in
sketches.’
Simulation
In this model the learners engage in activity to achieve the goal of the
simulation. There is a worked example of this model in practice in section 4.2.
In this example, as an alternative to simply providing information about why
the aircraft safety demonstration is important, the teacher chooses a strategy
that ensures that learners have direct experience through the simulation from
which to learn.
3.2.2 Acquiring concepts/information processing family

Cognitive teaching and learning models help learners to process information,
develop and acquire concepts and rules, generate and test hypotheses and
think creatively. These models are useful for learning objectives concerned
with developing and acquiring concepts, reasoning, processing information
and thinking creatively (DfES, 2004b). The teaching and learning models that
are effective in meeting these types of learning objectives are often called
‘cognitive’, and are also referred to as ‘information processing’. Cognitive
approaches are structured sequences and include models that require learners
to think and reason in specific ways. By engaging in these sequences learners
also develop their thinking and learning skills.
DfES Joyce
Inductive (classifying) Inductive (classifying)
Enquiry Enquiry
Concept attainment Concept attainment
Visualisation Cognitive growth
Using metaphor Advance organisers
Bridging Mnemonics
Enquiry
Elements of enquiry, researching and investigating topics were evident in the
observations.
The use of the enquiry model helps learners to collect information, build
concepts and test hypotheses. In this first example, the learning objective is for
learners to identify and remember key statistics relating to health and safety in
(the construction) industry. The learning objective is concerned with searching
for specific information and remembering it.
This is an example of the 5-E model of enquiry. This model focuses on the five
phases of engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration, and evaluation.

Phase 1. The teacher welcomes the learners and outlines the learning
objectives for the day. She provides five questions relating to health and safety
statistics and directs the learners to the Health and Safety Executive website.
Phase 2. The learners search to find the answers and record their answers.
While they are doing this, the teacher informs them that they will be asked to
give a brief presentation of their findings.
Phase 3. The teacher asks for volunteers to present their findings.
Phase 4. Following the presentations there is class discussion facilitated by the
teacher.
Phase 5. The evaluation phase is not completed in this session but there is a
short quiz and recap in the next session in terms of what was hard and what
easy, what they needed to be aware of.
The teacher knows from experience that by simply telling the learners the
relevant statistics they would think it was ‘boring’ and would be unlikely to
remember the information. Through the use of this model, the learners are
actively engaged in researching the information and the impact is increased
by them presenting their findings to the rest of the group, thus reinforcing
the learning. (The teacher’s skill is used to ensure that over time all learners
present their findings, not just the same ones who volunteer.)
This teacher, in a computing session, devises an activity that requires the

learners to undertake enquiry. The learning objectives are to be able to
understand and describe in detail the capacity and functionality of printing
equipment, to understand how, in customer support, they can improve the use
for the customer and teach the customer more about the equipment they already
have. This example takes one part of a complex session, to demonstrate how
the teacher undertook the first part of the objective. The model we infer to be
in use for this part of the session might be described as enquiry (information
processing family), with individuals undertaking their own investigations to find
out the information required.

Phase 1. The teacher puts up a slide and asks them, on their own notepaper,
to take down the basic specifications of the computer.
Phase 2. The learners investigate how to find these specifications and which
are different on these machines from the ones they are used to. They make
handwritten notes on what they find out. The teacher aids their exploration,
partly on PowerPoint and partly by walking around and questioning the
learners – ‘What does this mean?’ and ‘How do I tell what that is?’
Phase 3. The teacher provides a printout of a questionnaire, a hardware log,
for the learners to go through and fill in all the information required about basic
specifications, such as where they plugged in the computer.
Phase 4. The teacher uses a short clip from an Eddie Izzard comedy stage show
about having trouble with a printer to introduce the activity of reporting back
all the information the learners have found out about the printer. (This part of
the learners’ enquiry had been conducted outside the lesson, as homework.
The use of investigation outside of the learning setting is one of the factors
identified as positive in the effect-size research.)
The session continues with learners reviewing and discussing their work in
groups. For this later work the model might be seen as social enquiry, located
within Joyce’s ‘social’ family of models.
Developing higher-order skills

In some sessions it was clear that teachers were actively attempting to
develop learners’ thinking and learning skills in addition to meeting the course
requirements. The teachers indicated that they thought the development of
higher-order skills was important for transition between qualification levels and
also as 21st century employability skills.
In this computing class, the learning objective is concerned with developing the
learners’ higher-order research and analytical skills. Although the task involves
developing their knowledge about computer systems and developing concepts
involving deductive reasoning and comparing systems, the teacher suggests
that it is the development of the higher order skills that is important. These are
the skills that the learners will need to be able to use in the workplace.

Phase 1. The teacher provides learners with information about user needs.
Phase 2. Learners have to carry out research on their own. They have to analyse
systems, to compare systems, to identify what components could improve the
system and the reasons why.
Phase 3. The learners report back and justify the suggestions they make for
improving the systems.
The teacher indicates that through the activity the learners are developing
research and analytical skills, the type of skills they will need in the workplace,
without really realising they’re doing it. ‘They’ll be just asked to carry out the
task but underpinning that, they’re looking at those higher order skills where
they’re researching, they’re analysing computer systems, different computer
specifications. They’re suggesting upgrades, they’re justifying the upgrades
for it, they’re not just listing them, they’re justifying why that’s a justifiable
upgrade to that particular system.’
3.2.3 Constructing knowledge/social family

The literature suggests that in vocational learning particular models
predominate – in work-based learning, those derived from the theories of
constructivism and situated learning in particular (Kerka, 1997, Rush et al 2010).
The work context provides the ‘situation’ within which communities of workers
operate together.
Almost without exception, theories of experiential, activity-based learning
(derived from Kolb, 1984) including constructivist theories and situated learning,
were prevalent in the observations. This is unsurprising, since they are firmly
embedded in initial teacher training, professional development and the common
inspection framework. The interviews with staff responsible for professional
development confirm that experiential learning is central in vocational learning.
These teaching models require learners to collaborate and learn together,
they help learners construct new knowledge and understand concepts. These
models are particularly relevant for learning objectives related to constructing
knowledge, addressing misconceptions, solving problems and reasoning
empathetically (DfES 2004b). Teaching and learning models that are effective
in meeting these types of learning objectives are often referred to as ‘social
models’. The teacher’s role in this model is that of facilitator, identifying
opportunities to create appropriate environments or contexts in which learners
can think about a particular topic. The teacher requires learners to work
collaboratively and to learn from each other.
In constructivist theory, learning is an active process where learners ‘construct’
new ideas or concepts built on their current knowledge and understanding.
DfES Joyce
Constructivism Group investigation
Group problem solving Social enquiry
Role-play Jurisprudential enquiry
Dialogic teaching Laboratory method
Using metaphor Role play
Bridging Positive interdependence
Structured social enquiry
Teachers in all vocational areas, within this research, used learning activities
that actively engaged learners and encouraged them to work together.
There are four stages in constructing for learning:
1. a planning or preparation stage, identifying the current knowledge, skills and
understanding that learners already have about a topic – what they already know
2. the teacher outlines the new concepts to be developed, exploring with learners
what knowledge, skills and understanding they will need to develop
3. both teachers and learners identify how the new knowledge relates to what they
already know and how it relates to their previous experience
4. learners’ new learning is assessed.
These following examples are what we have interpreted from observations

and interviews, as elements within the ‘constructing knowledge/social family’
of teaching models.
Constructivism, group investigation

Group investigation attempts to recreate a democratic atmosphere in the
classroom where the learners work together to solve a problem. The contribution
of each member of the group makes the outcome better than if it was done by
individuals. Group investigation puts the learners in charge of the learning and
allows them to investigate what interests them most. (Sharan and Sharan,1989).
Group investigation goes beyond cooperative learning and follows the following
six steps: learners are given a problem; they discuss ways to solve it; they
plan how to carry out the investigation in a group and assign roles; they work
together and independently; they analyse progress and report findings, and the
process is evaluated (Abordo and Gaikwad, 2005).
The example below shows some of the elements of constructivist learning and
group enquiry while not following the entire model. The learning objective is
for learners to be able to identify the country, city or resort where world-wide
tourist attractions are located. The teacher in a travel and tourism session helps
learners to construct knowledge about the world wide tourist attractions and
where in the world they are located. The teacher initially draws on learners’
current knowledge and experiences. She then introduces concepts of known
and unfamiliar attractions and location and then arranges a series of tasks to
enable learners to construct their knowledge of both attractions and location.
By asking the learners to produce displays, the teacher could assess the
learners’ new knowledge by seeing what they had found and through
questioning them.

Phase 1. To introduce the topic, the teacher provides the learners with a
sheet giving an overview of world-wide tourist attractions. She then leads a
discussion by picking out one of the destinations and asking who has been
there. The discussion is split between European and worldwide attractions
and includes famous attractions such as the Empire State Building with which
learners are familiar, even if they have not been there.
Phase 2. The teacher shows a short video of an unfamiliar attraction - Christ the
Redeemer in Rio de Janeiro and indicates where it is located.
Phase 3. The teacher gives the learners an A4 copy of the map of the world
and lots of travel brochures and magazines. The task is to find pictures in the
brochures of as many tourist attractions as possible, to indicate on the world
map where these attractions are located and to make a display on a large sheet
of paper. The learners look at the Atlas to identify the locations.
Phase 4. The learners have to research two interesting facts about each
attraction to add to their displays. They also have a tourist attraction guide
which they can use.
Constructivism using debate

In this example, the teacher used a learning activity in the form of a debate to
enable learners to develop their concepts and understanding of the differences
between two different types of boilers. There was a subsidiary learning objective
to this activity, developing the skills necessary for a debate. The functional skills
of communication and listening were thus embedded in the activity.

Phase 1. The teacher gives each group of learners specifications of different
boilers together with the advantages of each.
Phase 2. Each group has to decide how to present the advantages of the boiler.
Phase 3. The teacher explains and writes up the rules for the debate: listening,
not butting in, keeping eye contact etc.
Phase 4. Each group has 5 minutes to decide how to sell their product and
the others then have to work out what the advantages and disadvantages of
it might be.
Phase 5. The teacher chairs and opens the debate to the floor for questions.
The teacher then employs teaching skills to ensure that every learner
contributes.
Group investigation developing team working skills

For the leisure and tourism industry, the teacher explains that learners have
to be team players and has devised an activity of delivering presentations on
specialist topics to build the team work skills relevant to the industry. As the
teacher said:
There are very few job opportunities in our industry that are a solo role. It’s very
much about being part of a team and a lot of them are very embarrassed about
doing that at first; standing up presenting, just talking to other people in general.
So we do use it quite a lot to build their confidence up and get them to realise that
even though those groups are very mixed, mixed age and culture for instance,
they have to be able to communicate and work together as a team.
The learning objective is to build learners’ concepts of different types of

specialist holidays. In a previous lesson they investigated boating holidays
and in this session they are investigation skiing holidays.

Phase 1. The teacher introduces the session by recapping on the previous
week’s session on boating and the different types of questions they need
to ask customers to be able to meet their needs. The holiday type for the
session – skiing – is introduced and that this type of holiday needs some very
specialist type questions.
Phase 2. Through question and answer, the teacher introduces the market
types and points out how varied and complex they are.
Phase 3. The teacher prepares to show a video and asks the learners to start
thinking about what sort of questions they would need to ask the customer to
be able to match them up with the types of holiday shown on the video.
Phase 4. In groups, the learners talk about the sort of questions they would
need to ask the customer to be able to find the right holiday and they discuss,
share and note down their ideas.
Phase 5. The teacher takes questions from each group in turn.
At a later stage, there is a further activity to consolidate and achieve the

learning objective, the learning about the four different specialist types of
holiday – that also requires the teaching model of group investigation.
Phase 1. The learners pick one of four different specialist types of holidays
from a hat.
Phase 2. Working as a team they conduct background research on the holiday
and prepare a presentation.
Phase 3. Each group gets up to do a presentation on their particular specialist
area, working as a team and all taking a role.
The teacher points out that in this way they are working as a team. The groups
work as a team right through to the end of this particular task.
Cooperative learning using scenarios

In cooperative learning, groups of learners work in small groups to maximise
their own and each others’ learning. Derived from the work of Slavin (1995),
the elements in the cooperative learning teaching model are: clear and positive
interdependence between learners, face-to-face interaction, individual
accountability, an emphasis on interpersonal and small-group skills, and group
review to improve effectiveness.
The teaching model in this example has elements of cooperative learning
and the strategy employed is the use of a scenario. The learning objective
of the session is to use the information provided in a scenario to produce a
typical risk assessment. As part of the context for this session, the learners
are employed and the activity requires them to draw on their experience to
identify the hazards.

Phase 1. The teacher introduces the session and provides a scenario of a house
being built in which there are many hazards.
Phase 2. In groups of three the learners complete the first two columns of a
chart identifying what the hazards are, who might be harmed and how. They
draw on their own knowledge and experience to do this.
Phase 3. Each group presents their findings in turn and they are all merged
into a single composite document. By the end of the session, they have all
contributed, each group providing something different or a new slant on things
and the whole class has a detailed document.
The teacher’s role in this model is to set up the scenario and environment, then
to guide the learners, who then take responsibility for working together and for
each others’ learning.
In a further example, the teacher draws on the experience of all learners in the
workplace. Not only does this increase motivation, by helping learners to see the
relevance of what they are doing, it also helps learners to link new knowledge to
what they already know.

Phase 1. The teacher provides the situation of a good company in which there
hadn’t been any recorded accidents in the last six months to a year.
Phase 2. In groups learners are asked to identify what else the company
should be doing. The learners, who are all in work, are asked to consider the
worst case scenario and to come up with suggestions from their experience.
Phase 3. The teacher takes feedback and introduces further questions which
elicit a very wide ranging discussion and extends the topic to consider other
areas, such as cost. The discussion demonstrates the extent of the learners’
knowledge.
Role play
Role play is a model that focuses on social interaction, improving social skills
and developing a personal understanding of values and behaviour. Located
in Joyce’s social family, the role play model has its roots in both the social and
personal dimensions of learning. The purpose of role playing is to assist learners
to understand an issue from different points of view by acting it out, either taking
different roles or observing. It allows learners to look at a situation through
someone else’s eyes, to take a different perspective and empathise. Role play
offers an effective way of exploring feelings, attitudes, values and solving
problems. It actively involves learners’ and draws on their experiences.
There are nine stages in role play, as defined by Shaftel (1970): warming up the
group, selecting participants, setting the stage, preparing observers, enacting
the role play, discussing and evaluating, re-enacting, further discussion, and
sharing experiences/ generalisation. Each of these stages has a specific purpose
that contributes to the richness and focus of the learning activity. According to
Joyce et al (2000), role playing provides an opportunity for ‘acting out’ conflicts,
collecting information about social issues, learning to take on the roles of others,
and improving learners’ social skills. The teaching model of role play emphasises
both intellectual and emotional aspects. The analysis and discussion following
the role play are as important as the role playing itself.
The teaching model of role play could be found in all the occupational areas
covered in this study, however, the model did not appear to be fully implemented
in most cases.
The learning objective in this session is to find out about appraisal and the
teacher uses the teaching model of role play.

Phase 1. The teacher uses Power-point slides to introduce the topic of appraisal
and the benefits of appraisal followed by questions and answers.
Phase 2. The teacher pairs the learners and gives them a card with a scenario
on carrying out an appraisal. The scenario requires one of the learners to be
the employee and the other to be the employer. The teacher explains why the
process is important and also the importance of writing things down formally.
She defines what the roles are for the two people taking part in the role
play and gives clear instructions about who should be asking the questions
and that feedback they provide should be constructive. The teacher shows
another Power-point slide with the rules for the appraisal – that it should be
motivational, positive and so on.
Phase 3. All the learners carry out the role play in pairs.
Phase 4. The teacher gives out a handout of an appraisal role play checklist.
There are two columns to it – one column involves questions for the employee
and one for the employer. They include questions such as, ‘Did the manager
praise achievements?’ ‘Did you feel motivated?’ ‘How?’
Phase 5. The teacher asks the learners about the role play, including how they
felt about it.
Phase 6. The teacher recaps on the session.
3.2.4 Personal family

This family of models appears only in Joyce’s taxonomy. There is no specific
reference to these types of teaching models in the DfES guidance.
Joyce
Nondirective teaching
Awareness training
Classroom meeting
Self actualisation
Conceptual systems
We found that teachers indicated that they wanted to get to know their learners
as individuals – what made them tick and the personal circumstances that could
impact on their learning. Teachers also frequently mentioned that they wanted
to develop learners’ self-confidence and self-esteem. They often described,
as outcomes of learning, the increase in learners’ self-confidence and self-
esteem, yet we didn’t find any examples where the primary learning objective
was concerned with developing learners’ self-awareness. In our ‘Framework for

Developing Effective Vocational Teaching and Learning’, we have included this
particular aspect within ‘Teaching Relationships.’
3.2.5 Teaching models - comments

From the evidence available, we conclude that vocational teaching is
underpinned by learning theories. The theories most frequently mentioned
by teachers and what we could infer from the observations of practice, were
experiential learning and learning styles theories. These theories inform
vocational education teachers’ practices although teachers also draw
extensively on their own experience of teaching with their particular groups of
learners and learning contexts. Teachers also appeared to base their decisions
about how to teach on intuition, experience and pragmatism.
Teachers within this study made no reference to teaching models when they
described how they made decisions on which to base their teaching. Our
attempts to infer whether they were using teaching models in practice suggests
that they use a very wide range of teaching strategies and, in some cases,
what they do relates to some of the steps in some teaching models. We did
not find any evidence of the intention to choose a teaching model based on
the nature of the learning objective. Nor did we find that teachers used the
particular sequences, episodes or phases of learning that characterise teaching
models systematically or in full. We conclude that teaching models are not
yet established in vocational learning in either the language or as concepts.
Therefore, there is considerable scope for the development of future practice and
guidance in which teaching models could play a part.
With regard to teaching models and vocational education, there remain some
unknowns, for instance, which learning objectives, and as a consequence, which
teaching models, are likely to be the most widely used by vocational teachers?
Further research is required to provide robust evidence to establish these. This
small scale study offers some indications and it is possible to see from the
teaching strategies teachers currently use, that some teaching models might
have more immediate appeal than others. Direct interactive teaching is widely
used across different vocational areas, along with the strategy of demonstration
(also described as a model in its own right by some theorists). In the section that
follows we examine the teaching skills and strategies evident and this informs
our final conclusions.
The sample size precludes generalisation about whether any particular approach
is more applicable in some vocational areas than others. It seems likely that the
context and nature of the learning objective may have a big role to play in this
respect. For example, customer service aspects of vocational learning apply in
most vocational areas and since these are essentially about social interaction
and communication skills, they lend themselves to teaching models such as role
play. Health and safety knowledge is essential for employees in all occupational
sectors, and was included as an explicit or subsidiary objective in several
sessions, yet no clear pattern emerged, beyond activity-based learning, as to
how this was taught.
There is clearly potential for future development in this area since teachers
do not appear to be aware of the use of teaching models in the planning of
delivery or the delivery itself. We do not have any direct evidence that teaching
models theory as a distinctive topic is included in Initial Teacher Training and/or
Continuing Professional Development (CPD).
As Ji-Ping and Collis (1995) assert, it would not be enough for a teacher to know
only one or two teaching models, because education has so many different
types of approach and context. A thorough knowledge of a number of models
could lead to greater teacher flexibility and efficiency. Understanding of several
models could facilitate the ability to adapt those models or to combine them
with others, and offer valuable approaches that enrich a teacher’s repertoire. The
study of teaching models is a very powerful way to explore educational issues
related to teaching strategies, pedagogical and curricular design, instructional
materials and learning sources, and even the design of learning environments.
In developing teaching models in the vocational context, we would need to
compare teaching models to find the similarities and differences between
the models. This could then serve as a guideline to teachers when selecting
or adapting a teaching model or combination of models. The work of Ji-Ping
and Collis (1995) offers suggestions for comparing models using a set of
appropriate questions to answer against each teaching model. With adaptation,
this could provide a useful basis for further work in vocational learning. There
are four aspects: teacher aspects, learner aspects, the degree of flexibility
or adaptability of the models and aspects related to effective theoretical and
technological supports. The following are some specific questions for each
aspect that can be used in a comparison of teaching models.
Teacher Aspects
1. How easily can the model be managed by the average vocational teacher?
2. To what extent does the model save teaching time (including preparation time
for the lesson)?
3. How likely is it that the model will be accepted and used by the average teacher?
4. To what extent does the model give full play to the teacher’s professional
knowledge or skill?
Learner Aspects
1. How much initiative is given to learners within the model?
2. How adaptable is the model to individual differences in the learners?
3. How well can the model be adapted for learners of different ages?
4. How well can the model be adapted for different sorts of learning goals?
Flexibility and adaptability

1. How easily can the model be adapted to the present organisational system in
the vocational area and to the current standards for learner assessment?
2. Can the model be well adapted to a variety of vocational areas?
3. How easily can the model be combined with other models?
4. To what extent is the model adaptable to cultural expectations for learner and
teacher behaviour?
Theoretical and Technological Supports

1. Was the model developed using an appropriate theory?
2. How much research and evidence are available to show the model is
internally valid?
3. In what ways might the model be well supported by technologies and media?
4. Are the technologies and media most suitable to the model readily available?
We conclude that this structure for analysis of models could offer a good
starting point to begin to identify which teaching models are most appropriate
for vocational education and to identify the relevant aspect of each of the
teaching models.
We are aware that the use of teaching models is but one component in promoting
effective teaching and learning. It may well be a necessary component. Future
research will provide evidence to support or refute this assertion. However, a
model in itself, as we have defined it, is not likely to be sufficient. This leads us
on to consider the remaining components in our initial analysis.
3.3 Teaching skills and strategies

In offering guidance on teaching and learning, the Vocational Learning Support
Programme states that:
There are many models and theories to explain how learners learn. In practical
terms there is evidence that there are significant differences in the way that
learners approach their learning and that they can all benefit from experiencing
different approaches. An inclusive learning environment is one where the
teacher uses a range of strategies to enable all learners to succeed and fulfil
their potential.
(LSIS Excellence Gateway, 2011b)
In other places we have found what we have called ‘strategies’ described

as approaches or methods. To avoid confusion, we have used the following
definition of teaching skills and strategies.
Teaching strategies are the tools that teachers have at their disposal to engage
learners and enable learning objectives to be met via effective teaching and
learning and teaching skills are how they select and use these strategies.
Teaching strategies are differentiated from teaching models by using our
definition of a model as the sequence of steps or phases (the syntax) used
to achieve particular types of learning outcomes. Refer to the introduction to
section 3 and section 3.2 for further definitions and explanations.
We have divided our analysis of examples of skills and strategies observed in
practice into the following three broad categories that follow the teaching and
learning process. These are:
●● planning and preparation
strategies for differentiation
●● managing delivery
strategies of presentation and demonstration
strategies involving technology
strategies for group and individual learning
strategies for reinforcing learning
strategies for more effective learning
using multiple strategies
●● assessment
strategies for assessing learning.
Vocational Teaching and Learning in Practice 33
3.3.1 Planning and preparation

Duckett and Tartarkowski (2005) suggest that planning effective teaching and
learning sessions should include the following processes: specifying the aims
and objectives or outcomes for the session, how to review the previous session
and explaining the links to the current and next sessions, identifying appropriate
content, activities and strategies by which the learners will learn, identifying
strategies by which learning will be assessed, selecting the resources, materials
and media to support learning and considering how to summarise at the end of
the session.
Differentiation is central in effective planning, ensuring that all learners can
learn effectively and are sufficiently challenged. It is identified by LSIS as one of
ten approaches to effective teaching and learning (for further detail of these ten
approaches, refer to Appendix 2.)
This teacher summarises why planning is important for effective learning and
what teachers need to consider in planning.
We expect every single learner to be completely engaged and participating;

they’re enjoying their lessons, they’re excited about it and that their learning
is rigorously assessed. In very simple terms, that’s what we want to see but for
every learner to travel some distance in a lesson there needs to be very clear
learning outcomes set for them. The teacher really needs to know very well where
those learners are at and in order to really contextualise the learning, make it
relevant and interesting for them, know what they’re interested in, what their
aspirations are, and develop aspirations in them. Where do they want to work in
the future? What are their strengths, how do they prefer to learn? So all of that
background information is really important in order to plan learning.
Strategies for differentiation

There is no single definition of differentiation, but all definitions are underpinned
by a view of learners as individuals. Some approaches to differentiation suggest
that differentiation needs to be considered at the planning stage of a session.
While the learning objectives and standards should remain the same, time and
support given to learners by the teacher should be varied according to individual
learner need. There is also the aspect of differences in the way learners prefer
to learn – visual, audio or kinaesthetic – to be taken into account when using
differentiation in the learning process. Understanding the different learning
needs of individual learners, their strengths and weaknesses and how they learn
best is of paramount importance to enable effective differentiation. Examples of
differentiation utilised during the visits include:
●● advising and keeping learners on track by providing individual support, giving
the weaker learners individual instruction and taking the stronger learners that
bit further so they are not bored
●● providing the right amount of ‘stretch’ for individual learners while also
managing the group
●● e-learning activity allows for wide differentiation, with for example, board games
as an alternative approach for learners who haven’t understood
●● using group and paired work, with careful selection of those who work together
to enable different pace of learning as well as styles, ‘I wouldn’t generally pair a
weak learner with a strong one but there are occasions when this can work with
the stronger learner being a mentor and also learning more themselves through
explaining to others’
●● selection of different resources to reflect the group and individuals within the
group, taking account of the learner experiences
●● using different forms of assessment to meet the needs of the learners, for
example written, filmed or recorded.
This following example illustrates differentiation in an ICT class and seeks to

include everyone in the activity at their appropriate level of ability. It describes
how a teacher sets a task allowing learners to choose how they wish to complete
it according to their different levels of ability.
I put up on the whiteboard a little letter box that you see on a door and said that
people could do a letter box with an envelope going into it or they can put
a person putting the envelope through the letter box.
It is trying to diversify and encompass the different levels. So they will all
achieve but you do not have the strong ones twiddling their thumbs basically.
But you do not want the weaker end to feel completely alienated. You have to
make sure they are all included in the lesson.
Using differentiation within tasks is an important way of enabling learners to
succeed especially in a class with a wide range of abilities.
3.3.2 Delivery of teaching and learning

This section includes examples of strategies used in the delivery of teaching and
learning. They include:
●● strategies for giving information – presentation and demonstration
●● strategies involving technology
●● strategies for group and individual learning – pairs, group, whole class and
individual
●● strategies for reinforcing learning – practice/repetition and questioning
●● using multiple strategies.
Strategies for giving information
Presentation
Presentation encompasses giving information in a number of ways including:
●● teacher explanation often at the start of a session - ‘this is what we are going to
do, these are the objectives for the session’
●● giving information/instruction and checking that learners understand by, for
instance, use of questioning
●● clearly presenting information at the start of a session and then linking to other
teaching strategies – presentation followed by immediate activity
●● guest speaker input – from the relevant vocational sector
●● providing information through different sensory modes: visual, audio, kinaesthetic
●● providing information through a variety of mediums – video, board, paper,
work-book, actual demonstration, verbal explanation, questions and answers
and practical activity
●● short PowerPoint or other computer-based presentations for information,
recapping on a previous session, setting exercises or structuring a session.
Some teachers use PowerPoint presentations as a convenient way of structuring

their sessions and as an aide memoire to ensure that they cover everything.
Slides cover the learning objectives for the session and instructions for tasks or
activities and can be printed to give to learners during or after the session.
I always use a PowerPoint, not necessarily to do everything from it but it helps

me formulate the lesson. I also like the headings in PowerPoint because when
students see them they know what they are doing.
I usually email the PowerPoint to them after the lesson, because I do not want
them to take notes all the time, I want them to think. So, I tell them to make notes
on things that are not written on the PowerPoint, anything they think is relevant.
There were examples in the observed sessions where teachers had attempted to
make the presentation of information more interesting and memorable.
Auditory presentation: by using a song playing in the background, rapping

the names of the bones of the human body during a medical secretaries
learning session.
Demonstration
Demonstration has the added dimension of an explanation by example, a
display of some sort, often accompanied by verbal explanation but not always. It
is usually important to follow the demonstration with a related activity. Use can
be made of a variety of technological aids.
Demonstration examples include:
●● the physical demonstration of a skill such as holding and using a blow torch or
how to decommission and reassemble a computer
●● a means of showing how something is done and that the tools being used are
adequate for the job
●● demonstration of an activity, showing how to develop a planning process, for
instance, with a sample of what the end result could be like
●● using technology such as Moodle and/or Storyboard to show what is required
as well as giving information to set the scene and use of Smart Board to
demonstrate tasks such as putting a joint together in construction
●● while showing the way to do something, ensuring that learners understand that
there are different ways of doing things and that if the end result is successful
then that is alright.
With demonstration, impact is an important factor – the following example

described by a senior manager shows how a simple demonstration can really
help the learning process.
I remember one really good example of a teacher who was doing hygiene with a
group of entry level students and trying to get across the idea of bugs and how
you can spread disease. She was cutting a piece of chicken which she covered
in little hundreds and thousands. As she cut the chicken, she moved around the
room and as she went you could see the hundreds and thousands everywhere
that she went. It was simple, but, to that group of students, suddenly the light
came on about this concept of why you need to wash your hands and how easy
it is to transfer bacteria from uncooked food to other places.
Demonstration is a strategy for learning but as described in the previous section,

it can also be a teaching model. When used as a teaching model, there would be
a structured sequence of activities, related to the objective of acquiring a skill or
information. Demonstration as a teaching model is located within the ‘acquiring
skills/behaviour and cybernetic’ family of models.
Strategies involving technology

Educational technology is the study and practice of facilitating learning
and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate
technological processes and resources.
Use of technology in the delivery of teaching and learning for any vocational
area is increasing all the time. It is also one of the ten approaches described
by LSIS as effective in promoting effective learning. Examples drawn from the
visits include:
●● interactive whiteboards
●● computer(s) in each learning room for various uses
●● use of web pages for storing and accessing learner work
●● multi-media learning
●● Moodle – Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment, providing
and organised interface for e-learning, or learning over the internet
●● e-learning through applied packages and on-line learning
●● m-learning – learning on the move including use of mobile phones
●● IT based packages for self-assessment
●● computer generated quizzes and games
●● internet research
●● pod-casts
●● mobile phone technology
●● computerised tracking.
Learning organisations are changing at different rates. Some have utilised state
of the art technology which has been useful in the engagement of learners and
some are lagging behind. Funding is one issue here as well as culture change.
The following examples illustrate these points.
I use YouTube now which I wouldn’t use before but there is so much out there
now that it is great.
I would like to use virtual whiteboards more but that’s down to funding
a lot of the time. I’m in contact with another college and they use virtual
whiteboards in the classroom. So when I was doing the demonstrations like
that in the classroom, it could also reaffirm it or make it stronger by showing a
demonstration, you know, with the whiteboard. So, for instance, any angles that
someone can’t see, they can say well, you know, with a virtual whiteboard you
can actually move an item round in 360 degrees on the board.
But with the learning exchange, when that opens, it’s just going to be absolutely
amazing. We’re getting i-Pads, laptops that students can use. We’re going to
have kiosks, open kiosks for students to access Facebook and social media as
well, with limited time and limited areas, but recognising that that’s how they
communicate now but it is an educational institution at the end of the day and
the learners are there for study. But as I say, that recognition of saying, ‘We know
you’re going to use Facebook.’ We have a Facebook site now as a college and
that’s been tough getting people on board with that because when we launched
Facebook, initially it was banned in the college so nobody could access it!
There are a number of examples of the power of using the Virtual Learning
Environment, Moodle to provide interesting learning experiences as well as
assessment and tracking. Learners are given the task of finding information
from Moodle and carrying out tasks. Games and cross-words are generated from
Moodle on particular content to provide stimulating ways of assessment for
learning. Results can be monitored and individual learners can be tracked. This
gives instant progress updates on individual learners for teacher use.
Because the multimedia unit is more probably a hands-on unit rather than
theory, we decided to try and get the students as involved from the start, as
much as possible. We find, especially with the level 2 learners, that if they are
practically engaged from the start, they learn a lot better. They tend to switch off
if they’re talked to a lot; if they are given a task that they can be sort of immersed
in straight away, they tend to do a lot better.
Strategies for group and individual learning

Teachers use their skills in deciding how to manage the learning process.
This section includes activity-based learning using the strategies of group
work, pairs/peer work, whole group and individual work. Many of the strategies
described could be used within teaching models that focus on group and
cooperative learning and belong to the ‘social’ group of teaching models.
Group work and cooperative learning can shift the responsibility for learning
from teacher to learner.
Pairs
Working in pairs is a valuable way of promoting good learning experiences
operating along with a set of other ways of learning. Pairings can be learner
chosen, friend orientated, random or chosen by the teacher related to abilities –
both similar and diverse.
In this first example the group have split into pairs themselves with friends
working together.
I usually let them choose themselves because they’ll naturally fall into groups
they’re comfortable with. I’ve tried in the past splitting them into groups and
found it hasn’t worked as well.
For a role playing session, the teacher picks the pairings having a good
knowledge of the learners and enables effective pairings.
Some of the pairings had to be adjusted. I’ve got to know that certain people
work better together than others, purely because they’re comfortable with
each other. I wouldn’t want to put, say, for example, Helen, who is one of the
quieter girls with someone who is quite boisterous and flamboyant because
that would’ve really intimidated her. Because it’s quite hard for her, she’s
just starting to get involved with things and I didn’t want to knock that by
putting her with somebody who might have been a bit overpowering. It was
gauged along the lines of people who would have similar interests or similar
approaches. The two boys worked together because John is quite quiet and
David’s also a nice lad. John sometimes needs a bit of help with understanding
things. He hasn’t got a learning difficulty specifically but we know that there are
issues in terms of his learning. I asked Barbara to work with Lisa because we
had an odd number – but Barbara also helps Helen and John keep up with the
learning, she’s a support.
Pairing can be used to promote the development of communication and social

skills as well as group cohesion as in this example of a plumbing session.
I think they’re individuals when they start in little groups but at the end of it
they normally talk with each other. What we normally do is we split them into
different groups and sometimes if somebody’s nervous you let them stay with
a mate. But you’ll change these groups so the first couple of times they’ll do
a job with a certain person and then move them round there so they get to
know everybody.
Sometimes pairing a more able learner with a less able learner can benefit both,
as can pairing learners with complementary skills.
For example if I had a high achieving student who was very good at a concept,
I will specifically put them with a less able student to help them out.
In IT, at certain times that would become natural, it will take no input from
me. People will do it as a second nature. Initially I will say, student X you go
and work with student A and explain and collaborate and mentor that student
through the process and explain what is happening. It also enhances the
mentors’ thinking skills as well, because they have to translate what they have
done to another student. In week five for example that would have happened
naturally. I wouldn’t have to say, you have to sit with X, it would happen, it
would evolve.
Pairing can also be used to enable the development of other aspects of learning
such as attention to appropriate detail in planning as in this next example.
Everybody produces an individual plan and then I make them swap, so that they
have to take someone else’s plan forward. This really highlights the need for
planning to be detailed and carefully thought out. Just indicating, that something
should be blue in colour, would be insufficient - is it light blue? dark blue?....
This also links with industry by, ‘replicating someone else following their plan in
the workplace’.
Peer explanation reinforces understanding of learning both for the recipient and
the person explaining. It can really help some learners as a supplement to the
teacher’s information.
If anybody’s really stuck and they still don’t understand what I’m trying to get
across, a student who does understand can say it in their words rather than
my big, technical words. I try to use technical words where needed, the correct
terminology, but then sometimes I go too far.
I feel that if a student is able to tell their peer something and their peer
understands it they’re actually learning. They are learning something still and I
might not have taught them it but I’ve actually taught somebody who it’s clicked
with and they can give an easier explanation. I think the one problem with us as
teachers is that we sometimes forget how difficult it is to learn some things. Like
CAD – I could be sat there with my mouse, one hand on the keyboard, staring
at the screen. I could draw in one lesson what these students have taken six,
seven, eight weeks to do because I’ve been doing it for years and you forget that
you’ve got to slow right down, go back to basics and sometimes the going back
to basics is the challenge.
Peer help can also be as a role model in showing that something can be done – it
provides motivation for others.
To be honest, they’ll listen to each other a lot more and if you get one of them
who’s pretty good and who works hard it tends to pull the others round. So they
can be role models and bring the rest around.
Small group work

Splitting the whole group into smaller clusters can happen in many ways and is
prevalent in vocational education. Apart from the curriculum learning aspects
of group work there is also the valuable social interaction and motivation
associated with working together. Group activities include:
●● production of a presentation with each person playing a part
●● putting together a piece of work such as a questionnaire or building something
as a group
●● discussion to formulate ideas, decisions or content for pieces of work
●● groups competing against each other via quizzes, for instance, to promote
learning during assessment
●● carousel activity where learners move from table to table
●● individuals coming together to complete a piece of work as a group
●● group work on a project followed by individuals then taking their version forward
●● at the end of a session, reinforced learning via questions and answers.
This example illustrates the use of group work to make sure that everyone has all
the information they need and interest and concentration is maintained.
I wanted them to give more input as a class. And one particular group left out
quite a lot of important facts and I wanted others to chip in. I think if you do that
(ask them to participate and add info beyond their own group), they are more on
the ball and they have to listen because they know I will ask them later what they
heard five minutes before. And I can tell when their attention is wandering.
Role play in small groups can be a useful learning tool to reinforce learning as
explained in the example below. (Role play can also be used in a larger group
with some observing and some playing the parts.)
Before the holidays we’d done a role play on motivation and that worked really,
really well. I know that they’ve said to me before that they like to be doing
activities and I thought if I could actually make it real then it would make more
sense to them. As I say, they don’t like to be just passively getting information so
it was really a way of getting them involved and making it real for them. I could
have just dished out a load of hand outs.
Whole group
Whole group activity can take many forms and includes:
●● discussion on a particular topic facilitated by the teacher, perhaps following a
presentation or demonstration
●● debate carried out in formal debate mode or more informally
●● games (such as the domino illustration below)
●● whole group activity following individual, paired or small group activity to bring a
topic/activity together, this might be individual research for instance followed by
whole group debate
●● activity where groups move around a space, for instance moving to different
corners of the room to answer questions or vote on a particular topic.
Carrying out a whole group activity can have advantages and disadvantages, as
illustrated in the following example. Since all learners are working at more or less
the same pace it is easier to keep track of them and easier to control the group
but then some of the group may be relying on others and it is harder to ensure
that all have understood. The following example involves a game of dominos
with each learner having one card carrying a word and a description of a different
word. The idea is to link the dominos so that words and their descriptions are
next to each other.
This was a full group task which meant that they were all together. It helps to
control the task a bit better because if they’re doing things more individual it’s
harder to make sure that they’re on track. It also means that if we’re doing whole
group activity we’ve got about two or three quieter students who would sit
back and let the others do it all. With this task though they each had a card and
nobody could duck out, they all had to do something and it meant that I could
review the learning easier. It tends to happen that there are maybe fifteen in the
group, nine or ten will be fine and they’ll be into it. There’s two or three that sit
in the corner and you’re not really sure whether they’ve took it in or not.
If someone was stuck on their particular card someone else would jump in and
they’ve got the peer support as well.
Peer observation can be used in a group activity where a small group are
demonstrating and the rest are looking on. Not only does the peer observation
activity increase the observer’s learning it also serves to keep each person
in the group actively participating as described in following session where a
demonstration is being given for a cabin crew group.
When we get back to the cabin because a few of them will be doing the safety
demonstrations, a lot of them will be just sitting for little while, so I get them to
peer observe instead of me, writing down all their observations. It just keeps
them a little bit more interactive. Because of the level of the group they need
to be doing something all the time, so we do give them peer observations as a
method of keeping them busy.
Another aspect of group work is being able to draw on learners’ experiences to

enrich the group learning process. In this example there is debate prompted by
employee experience.
Because some of these learners are working learners they are able to use their
own ‘employer where they work’ knowledge and may say, ‘Well we would do
it this way’ and somebody else would add, ‘well, no, actually, we would do it
this way’.
The following session provides real motivation for learners and a look at how
technologies are developing in the ‘real’ world.
We have different ways of motivating learners by taking them places and at

the end of each year, I always take my students to the Gadget Show Live in
Birmingham so they all look forward to that. It’s a chance for them as they’re
never going to go themselves. We took them down there last year in a coach,
twenty three students and they loved it because they were exposed to real
technologies rather than just seeing it on TV. They were actually using it and they
could come away and say, “Oh yeah, I remember that from last year, we’ve seen
that and this is how it works.
Individual work
Individuals carrying out learning on their own, is often a part of many other
ways of learning. In group learning, part of it will be a learner writing, carrying
out research or reading themselves. There might be individual work that is then
swapped with another for paired work. Learners might complete an audit sheet,
as they carry out an individual task such as installing software onto a computer.
Individual work can also replicate working in industry by carrying out a task
alone. Learning carried out outside the classroom/workshop at home or in the
library is often an individual task.
This example is a computer aided design (CAD) session where the learners work
on their own to become familiar and expert at using CAD for drawing diagrams
for construction. Although there would be some collaboration it is essentially a
solo task.
Every student each week has a target of what they’ve got to achieve by the end
of that lesson which makes lesson planning complex. They work individually on
a series of drawings in their assignment. The initial first four to six weeks is with
input from me at the beginning of the lesson and then they progress. Once they
get to a certain level of drawing they get started themselves and if they get stuck
they ask a question. I’ll go round to each one making sure they’re okay, ‘are they
stuck, do they need any help?’
Although links with employers can be a group activity it is also something that
learners can complete on their own. This enriches the learning and provides
experience of working outside the classroom as well as an insight into how the
industry works. In this example an employer wants a web site designed and the
teacher encourages the learner(s) to take the ‘job’ from start to finish including
the initial contact.
We get a lot of requests from employers who want websites designing or

business documentation doing so I pass that to the students and what I will do
is I’ll ask the students to make contact with the employer rather than me do it
for them. I’ll ask them to do it so they’re learning those skills, how it works and
they meet with the employer and they get the user requirements themselves so
it’s not me doing it for them, saying, ‘Here you are, design that website.’ They’re
actually learning all those skills themselves so I think the more employer
contact you get the better.
Strategies for reinforcing learning
Opportunities to practice/repetition
Practice and repetition help to ensure that the learning undertaken is
remembered. Opportunities for this can be provided in different ways and
include the examples below taken from the observations and interviews:
●● repetition of practice with regard to usage every time learners use computers
●● practice combined with questioning to memorise information about, for
instance, 49 countries for a geography unit
●● facilitating discussion to ensure that everyone understands what they are doing
and how they can go back to an example to assist them if they get stuck
●● learners writing about what they have achieved to show that they understand
what they have learnt and the importance of being thorough when, for example,
writing a plan and being able to follow instructions
●● the teacher checking on each learner as they progress and each time there is a
repetition task the learner should need less intervention
●● referencing back to objectives to reinforce learning
●● recaping sessions, at the end of lessons to see what knowledge has been
retained
●● weekly recaping to make sure of correct understanding, for example, through
Moodle with creation of crossword questions, automatic marking and
assessment grid to show individual progress.
Questioning
Effective questioning can be used to reinforce learning and includes a
combination of low level and high-order questions for deeper learning and can
be used to keep learners at work and to check their understanding (Redfield and
Rousseau, 1981). Questioning examples drawn from the fieldwork visits include:
●● use at the beginning of session and throughout to ascertain prior knowledge and
links to advance organisers
●● use to check understanding and identify who is not on task
●● use to encourage evaluation by learners of their work and learning using
appropriate questions
●● questioning in a variety of circumstances , mainly open and not just superficial

but going beyond the initial response to probe deeper
●● use to check understanding by returning to a learner who may not have fully
understood previously
●● in response to questions asked the teacher does not supply the answer but
challenges the learner to work it out, involving other learners to supply the
answer if appropriate.
For questioning, it is helpful to involve all learners, not just the keen ones who
want to answer the questions all the time. Sometimes no-one wants to have a go
at the answer. One teacher solved these issues, by using learners to nominate
someone to answer the next question, as shown in the next example.
Teacher: ‘Jodie, nominate someone from the next table to do the knee cap’.
Jodie: ‘Emma’
Teacher: ‘come on Emma show me where is the knee cap?’
Emma: ‘can I put it on this side?’
Teacher: ‘yes on that side if you like. Hold it up Emma and before you go what is
the medical term for the knee cap?’
Emma: ‘patella’
Teacher: ‘patella, well done, excellent. Emma, nominate someone from this table
please’
Emma: ‘Michelle’
Teacher: ‘Michelle, here you are, do you know where your heel is?’
Questioning can be used in an elimination strategy so that learners move

towards the right answer, as in the example below.
It’s a traffic light and you have three coloured cards, red, amber and green.
We are going to put up on the LED some questions and you have a choice of
three answers (red – incorrect answer, amber-not sure, or green – correct
answer), in your groups you are going to discuss collectively which one is the
correct answer. Ok? Then I am going to ask you to hold up the card which will
actually say which one you think is the right answer. It is a little like a voting
system, we are looking at a process of elimination.
Strategies to develop learning skills

Assisting learners to become more effective learners, to ‘learn how to learn’,
enables them to learn knowledge and skills more efficiently and is a valuable
skill in itself for life. Active control over the thinking processes involved in
learning is referred to as metacognition. Activities such as planning how to
approach a given learning task, monitoring comprehension, and evaluating
progress toward the completion of a task are metacognitive in nature. Because
metacognition plays a critical role in successful learning it is important for
both learners and teachers. Metacognition is often referred to as ‘thinking
about thinking’ and can be used to help learners ‘learn how to learn’. In some
interviews teachers explicitly described their intention to develop higher order
thinking skills.
If the culture of the organisation in which learning takes place systematically

cultivates habits and attitudes that help learners to be confident of their own
learning ability and to be creative, then learners are likely to learn faster,
concentrate more, be resourceful, imaginative, collaborative and find learning
more enjoyable. Activities that encourage effective learning and higher order
thinking include:
●● questioning that encourages the development of imagination
●● evaluation activities
●● research in preparation for an assignment, particularly with peers
●● tasks in which learners need to reason and apply learning in a way that requires
higher-order thinking
●● considering new information and making sense of it
●● investigative and experimental tasks
●● role playing sessions – looking at it from another person’s point of view
●● simulations to give experience of work situations
●● step by step approaches – building one step at a time cumulatively.
In order for learners to become more effective and develop higher-order thinking
they need to be exposed to activities such as research and analysis as in the
following example.
They’re given end user needs and they have to work on their own; carry out
research, analyse systems, compare systems and they have to justify where
they’re suggesting improvements to the systems and explain what components
could improve the system. So they’re the type of skills they’ll be using/gaining
without really realising they’re doing it. They’ll be just asked to carry out the
task but underpinning that, they’re using those higher-order skills when they’re
researching, they’re analysing computer systems and looking at different
computer specifications. They’re suggesting upgrades, they’re justifying the
upgrades for it, they’re not just listing them, they’re justifying why that’s a
justifiable upgrade for that particular system. Just thinking and pushing them
that little bit further rather than just providing the bare evidence, can we make
it really, really sound, they then understand the process behind it.
Using multiple strategies

In practice teachers define their learning objectives and utilise multiplicity of
teaching and learning strategies in their sessions. This enables the objectives
to be achieved, the best learning process to take place for each learner and to
appeal to different sorts of learners. Delivery was also found to be tailored to the
particular group. One teacher puts their view on the use of different strategies to
help the learning process in the following example.
I think we should be using as many different methods as possible. If you walk

away at the end of the lesson and think, if I was a student in that lesson, how
would I have assessed that, would I have enjoyed it? So I always look and think,
if you vary it as much as you can, even if it’s little snapshots of different methods,
it’ll keep them interested, they’ll enjoy it. If they come in and just sit in front of a
computer for a two hour session, to me, that’s not ok.
It’s trying to get the best activity, best fit and best match for the students. What
works for one group of students may not necessarily work for another group and
that’s key, so it’s not being repetitive, it’s being adaptive.
It’s knowing that your learners are exposed to a wide range of teaching methods
rather than just doing the same thing week in, week out. I think if we do that, we
just stagnate and the methods are not particularly stimulating. It’s our duty to
get them into the class and to do things a little bit more exciting, expose them to
new technologies where we can, let them have experience of it.
Another organisation was making efforts to increase the effectiveness of their

teaching and learning and encourages the use of a variety of teaching and
learning strategies.
We want to make sure that the teaching and learning looks interesting - industry
standard, state of the art teaching which encourages active learning. Assessment
strategies are built into the lessons and so teachers have good knowledge of
what it means to be checking learning but also using assessment for learning,
and the mixture of formative and summative. I suppose really making it a
seamless blend because if the teachers do not know where their students are up
to, they cannot fill in the gaps, they don’t know what they need to re-enforce. In
practical areas, it is the link between the theory and the practical. The students
come here from school and they want to get out of the classroom, so I think the
really important thing for our teachers is that they constantly link theory to what
is going on in a practical situation. So we have done a lot of work trying to make
the theory lessons as exciting as the practical lessons.
3.3.3 Assessing learning

Assessment can be either ‘for’ or ‘of’ learning and we found both types of
assessment evident in the observations.
Assessment ‘of’ learning can take a number of forms and may depend on
the curriculum design and/or delivery methods. It includes self-assessment,
peer assessment and teacher assessment using questioning, paper based
or computer generated tests, demonstration and using games. Assessment
methods are not always under the control of the teacher as they might be
specified by the awarding organisation.
Assessment ‘for’ learning is recognised as an effective way of assessing that
also has a contribution to learning and is ‘about assessing progress and
analysing and feeding back the outcomes of that assessment positively and
constructively to agree actions to help the learner improve and adapt teaching
methods to meet the learner’s identified needs.’ (QIA 2008).
Ten principles of assessment for learning have been identified as: part of
effective planning, focussing on how learners learn, central to classroom
practice, a key professional skill, sensitive and constructive, fostering
motivation, promoting understanding of goals and criteria, helping learners
know how to improve, developing the capacity for self-assessment (and peer
assessment), and recognising all educational achievement (DfES 2002). It is
about the teacher and the learner working together to assess progress and
contribute to effective learning.
In practice, teachers tend to use a variety of methods of assessment including:
●● using assessment as a learning tool – assessment for learning
●● self-assessment and teacher evaluation/feedback with assignments written
on Moodle avoiding too much paperwork and automatically generating an
achievement grid for learner/teacher assessment of progress and hence
feedback
●● self-assessment of understanding through the traffic lights method
●● use of checklists to self-assess
●● use of peer feedback to provide assessment
●● use of workbooks
●● mock tests
●● making assessment and learning fun by the use of quizzes, crosswords and
games
●● allowing learners to choose their assessment format.
The following example shows effective use of assessment to reinforce learning,

track progress and to do assessment for learning. Different modes of testing
keep the learners interested as well as the use of incentives.
Many of the teachers do some form of ‘recap’ at the beginning of a session and
some employ a ‘test’ for this.
First of all we are going to be doing your recap test.
Some teachers like to ensure that some of the assessments are individual
and at the learner’s own speed.
We do tests to see if they have the knowledge. Through questions and
answers I might direct a question to a student but someone else will answer
it, so I’ll never get a true answer from that individual. With smart response
units we set up the test with questions aimed at their level. There are 60
questions in the units and students work at their own pace, there is no rush
and they type the answer in to the computer, a, b or c. I get a sheet with their
answers, showing who has passed what and the grade they got. When I have
tutorials I pull that sheet out and I go through the questions they got wrong
and the percentage they got. We do that on an on-going basis with at least
10 assessments per year. It is using direct questioning to re-enforce their
learning. Some of them will ask questions to further re-enforce their learning.
I have developed theoretical questions with self-marking.
Making assessment fun can help both the assessment and the learning
process.
It’s enjoyable.
They have to put definitions with words. I also use bingo games and … I do
blockbuster with them.
We also do group assessment just like a pub quiz. We have four in a group, they
have questions to answer and they answer them as a team. They discuss what
the right answers might be in their teams. They do not realise but with the quiz
they are still learning. They think that the A team is beating the B team and that
they are competing with each other but they are actually learning. Whichever
team gets the most answers right, gets a prize.
3.3.4 Teaching skills and strategies - comments

We found that teachers use a very wide range of strategies in their practice. The
examples shown in this section illustrate a number of strategies and skills that
were in evidence. This finding refutes the assertion that vocational teachers use
only a limited number of strategies, at least in the examples in this study. There
are clearly some overlaps between what we have described as strategies and
skills and the other components of the Framework.
Based on the evidence available to us, teachers use a very wide repertoire of
strategies skilfully in their teaching. However, while increasing the range of
strategies available to teachers and developing their skills in using them is
helpful, it is only likely to lead to more effective learning when considered in
relation to the other components of the ‘Framework for the Development of
Effective Vocational Teaching and Learning’. Knowing which strategies to deploy
in which circumstances will be informed by knowledge about how each learner
learns best, the nature of the learning objective, the appropriate teaching model
to use and the context in which the learning takes place.
3.4 Teacher reflection

Effective teachers are reflective; they constantly review their practice, discuss
it with their colleagues, consider their learners’ responses and seek to develop
new and better ways of teaching. The concept of reflective practice was
introduced by Donald Schon (1983) and given currency by Kolb (1984) in his
experiential learning theory. It involves thoughtfully considering your own
experiences as you make the connection between knowledge and practice,
under the guidance of an experienced professional within your discipline
(Schon, 1996). Moon (1999) defined reflective practice as ‘a set of abilities
and skills, to indicate the taking of a critical stance, an orientation to problem
solving or state of mind.’ In essence, it is a readiness to constantly evaluate and
review your practice in the light of new learning (which may arise from within
the context of your professional practice). After its introduction, many colleges
started to incorporate reflective practice into their education and professional
development programmes. It was evident from practitioners in this study that
reflection was an important and well established part of their professional
practice.
In this section examples are provided of reflective practice in terms of
responding to learner feedback, improving practice through personal reflection
and sharing with colleagues to improve practice. Teachers used a number of
different ways of developing their repertoire of skills. These included: learning
from experience, observation of teaching and learning and support from
colleagues.
3.4.1 Reflective practice

There was considerable evidence from the observations and interviews that
good teachers are always learning, building their own skills and teaching
themselves. They undertake lots of research to inform their planning and
delivery. They are self-critical, recognising when things do not go well, trying to
understanding why and formulating ideas about how to improve.
Teachers evaluate their practice and reflect on how they might improve aspects
of their sessions. One commentated that:
[we are] reflecting on the way that we teach something so that we don’t
necessarily just teach it the way we were taught but think about how it might
be improved.
In the first of these two examples below, the teacher identifies how in future
sessions she would change the way in which feedback was collected after a
task. The second example also shows how the teacher, having reflected on how
one part of the session has gone, suggests how she would improve it in future.
In a small group activity on risk assessment, learners had to work through a

scenario and identify in two columns what the hazards were and who might be
harmed and how.
When asked to present their work, a couple of groups came up to the front and
then they got all embarrassed and just sat at the tables and spoke from there.
In the class it still worked fairly well because everybody ended up contributing
information to each aspect of the task. What I could’ve done in hindsight is say
one group does the first paragraph, one group does the second paragraph, one
group does the third and one group does the fourth. That might have worked
better but I’ll try that next year, because it did take quite a while for them to go
through everything.
By the end of the feedback, the whole class had made a contribution and it was
valuable because different groups had a different slant on things.
Everything was brought together at the end and the teacher considered that it
had worked quite well.
In a cabin crew session on sales, the teacher wanted learners to be aware of

the features and benefits of the products they were selling. She handed out
products to the learners and asked them all to list the features and benefits.
If I do it again, I was thinking about it as I was doing it, if I do it again I will
secretly give them an object, ask them to list the features and benefits and ask
the others in the class to guess what object it is, and see if they can guess it.
That is because some of them listed the features and benefits but didn’t put the
most obvious things down. For example they didn’t say that the perfume is in
a glass bottle or the brand of it, and I am sure if you didn’t put the products in
the front of the class, the rest of the class wouldn’t have a clue what they were
describing.
During the study of the observations and interviews it was evident that there was
clearly awareness of the need to review practice in response to the differences
between groups of learners. This example illustrates this.
Because I’ve done this module for a number of years, each week I can look and
say, ‘Right, that’s what we’re going to do next week,’ but every year, what I’ll do
is I’ll revisit it. I’ll look at it and think right, this year the group is different; the
dynamics of the group are different so I’m going to change the emphasis slightly.
I might bring things up to date; make it more current for the learners.
3.4.2 Responding to learner feedback

The importance of learner feedback was evident from the interviews and below
is an example of a teacher sharing practice with colleagues and collecting and
using learner feedback.
It is experience really and assistance from my colleagues. You need to exchange

practices so you do not stagnate to the same routine. I also give feedback sheets
to students. I want to see through their eyes because sometimes as teachers we
think of how we want to learn or what we would like but that doesn’t mean that
this is what the students like. Some approaches might suit me but that doesn’t
mean that they suit them.
Another teacher used learners’ reactions during a session to gain instant

feedback and to respond to it.
It’s reaction from students that is important. You can walk out of a class and
think to yourself, that was brilliant but the students didn’t think it was brilliant,
so it’s not brilliant. The students are your judge so if students are enjoying it
and they’re taking part, they’re keen, they’re answering questions, then you
can say it’s reasonably successful, you’ve achieved what you need to achieve.
If they’re not, then there’s an issue and you’ve got to think of other ways.
The teacher also reflected on the session from a learner’s perspective, asking
questions such as, ‘If I was a learner in that lesson, how would I have assessed
it? Would I have enjoyed it? Would I have been interested throughout?’
3.4.3 Improving practice through personal reflection

Teachers’ personal reflections included observations about their own
performance and their use of resources:
I tend to talk too much, and I know that. It is one of my weaknesses. I need to
be asking them more questions.
It would be good to have more visual aids and to have a whiteboard to use in
the workshop.
They also mentioned that through reading and research, they came across ideas
to try, although they were aware that not everything would work.
If it doesn’t work, it doesn’t work. In other areas it might work, so it’s trying to
get the best activity, the best fit, the best match for the students. What works for
one group of students may not necessarily work for another group and that’s
key. It’s not being repetitive, it’s being adaptive. So it might be the same sort of
process but you’ve adapted it to suit. I think it’s just constantly trying to change
and adapt and modify. I don’t think you’re going to ever get the perfect session
because it can always be better. But you can strive towards getting that.
3.4.4 Sharing with colleagues to improve practice

As well as personal reflection, sharing with colleagues was a consistent theme.
This could be informal, simply sharing experiences in the staff room, or as
structured, formal professional development activity. In this study, there was
considerable evidence that staff were encouraged to talk about their teaching,
to share good practice and to identify areas needing improvement, however,
it was clear that even in outstanding organisations, not every member of staff
would participate.
There are key members of the team that will take this on board, definitely. There
are people who are always interested and I’m interested in their techniques as
well – taking it and trying it and adapting it. There are members of the team that
won’t share, it’s traditional teaching or nothing but that’s up to them. That’s the
style that if they’re interested in that then that’s fine but someone will say, “Okay,
I like that idea, I’ll take that and try this. Have you tried this technique?” There is
a certain team element.
In this example there is a well-established mechanism within the college and

departments for sharing practice.
There is a lot of shared practice around the college. They often have training
days together and share practices. Teachers from different departments who
are all delivering work skills units come together and share a much wider range
of practice and look at the different ways to deliver the units.
They use a system within the department where they share their resources and
practices. If staff have found any resources they think are particularly good and
could be used in other areas, they put them on the ‘staff share’. Then anybody
can go in and pick up the resources if they thought they would be useful. This
approach works quite well.
3.4.5 Developing a repertoire of skills and strategies

Teachers identified a number of ways in which they had developed their skills
and improved their practice. These are summarised in the table below.
Table 2 Methods used to develop a repertoire of skills and strategies
Examples of developing skills and improving practice

Learning from experience their own experience of learning and their preferred methods –
I’m a visual learner, I hated taking notes
experience of delivering particular programmes and learning from experience
which strategies are most effective
gained from working in different colleges
through trial and error
Observations of teaching peer observation
and learning
observation by quality manager
external and internal verification – this provided the opportunity to observe
others’ practice
Support from colleagues sharing with colleagues – from conversations and questions in staffrooms
through team teaching
mentoring – not just for initial teacher training but at Masters level
Subject Learning Coaches – who attended network meetings and brought back
new activities and new ideas
Advanced Practitioners and Teaching and Learning Coaches to assist in the
improvement of practice
Professional development individual research - internet searching to identify new ideas to try
training and qualifications such as PGCE
conferences and workshops on teaching and learning and a ‘marketplace’ to
share and disseminate ideas and best practice
action research projects
From learners feedback from the learners themselves. They always say they want different
ways of doing things rather than a regimented way all the time.
3.4.6 Learning from experience

Learning from experience was most frequently mentioned by teachers as the
way in which they had developed and improved their practice. In one example,
a teacher who had delivered sessions in health and safety for a number of years,
had learned from experience. She found that the best way to deliver statistics
was as a research task. This gained learners’ interest and attention, and
developed real understanding.
3.4.7 Observation of teaching and learning

The observation of teaching and learning has also been widely used as a means
of improving practice. In this case, there is evidence that the observation
process had led to an improvement in practice. One quality manager described
the observation and feedback process used in preparing for an internal
inspection:
The week before the internal inspection, there was a series of learning talks
where staff went and spent time with different teams. They looked at their
practice and fed back to them at the end of the day what they thought was
strong and what they could work on. So teachers had received feedback
before there was a formal inspection of the provision. What they found really
interesting was that some of the brickwork teachers had introduced the use
of a flip camera into their classes. It was a very simple device but it really
improved what they were doing because they were just capturing there and
then the hand skills or different things. The teachers were able to reflect what
they had seen back to learners in theory classes and make links within theory.
It was a very useful tool to promote self-assessment and reflection and peer
assessment as well.
In this example, a process of peer observation was developed. A teacher

described how it might work in practice:
It might be that another teacher will say to me, ‘I’m really struggling with my
level 1 group of hairdressers’, and I teach Construction at level 2, but I would
say, why don’t you come and watch because my group are really switched on,
and there might be something that you can pick up from me.
In this college, observations are organised around themes.
Particular themes such as: differentiation, questioning techniques, functional

skills, using technology or how to end a lesson, were the focus of observations.
Staff were then organised into peer groups of three to five, depending on the
model that they were going to work on. They would all get together and just talk
about teaching and learning - what had been good and what had not been so
good during the term.
3.4.8 Support from colleagues

Support was provided through both informal means such as casual
conversations in the staff room and through structured mechanisms. Support
from mentoring, Advanced Practitioners and Subject Learning Coaches were also
recognised as important. Coaching was identified as one of the most effective
and widely used means of delivering professional development.
In one example a teacher described how the Advanced Practitioner in her

organisation had attended a local network meeting and come back with ideas
that were shared across the department.
3.4.9 Developing learning organisations

There was considerable evidence that the organisations, within which the
effective practice was observed, were ‘learning organisations’, where the culture
was established across the organisation. In the example below, the learning to
learn model was being used and the challenge was summarised by a manager.
One of the challenges for us as an organisation is how to engage our teachers

in effective practice, it’s getting them to constantly work on and develop their
practice and to take risks, to really engage in new ways of delivering and to try
things out. It’s often the more confident teachers that will be experimental with
their practice because it takes a lot to try something different with a group of
learners. The concept of resilience, which is part of the campaign for learning,
learning to learn model, there’s five Rs: readiness, resourcefulness, resilience,
responsibility and reflectiveness and we’ve been playing around with those
concepts in our teacher development ideas. The first thing’s about getting the
teacher to take responsibility for developing their practice and that in itself can
be a challenge because they are accustomed to their own way of doing things,
so it’s moving them out of their comfort zones.
3.4.10 Teacher reflection – comments

Teacher reflection is an important component of the framework for vocational
teaching and learning and crucial for improving practice. There is evidence of
reflective practice of varying kinds by teachers in vocational learning. Some
reflection is individual with teachers considering what they have done in a
session and how it might be improved. Other reflection is much more team
based which might be informal (as in the staffroom where people chat in breaks)
or it might be more organised as part of training days and continued professional
development.
Reflection is an intrinsic part of the improvement process – self-assessment,
evaluation including reflection and planning for improvement leading to action –
within an organisation and individually. We conclude that although there is
evidence of reflective practice in the sessions observed, it is likely that it is
an area for improvement for vocational teachers, since Ofsted has identified
that there is room to improve overall. It is also likely that reflective practice
needs to be highlighted within vocational learning as an area for activity. Since
‘teacher reflection’ is a component of the ‘Framework for Developing Effective
Vocational Teaching and Learning’, then this could be a vehicle for highlighting
its importance.
54
4 Towards a Framework for

Developing Effective Vocational
Teaching and Learning
The sessions observed confirmed the findings of research in the literature

review; teaching and learning is a highly complex process. Effective practice
results from a complex interaction of factors and while we attempted to
deconstruct the component parts, it was their interactivity, the ‘gestalt’, or
whole that was important.
We found little evidence that vocational teaching and learning was
fundamentally different from any other type of teaching and learning except
in one respect – that of context. An office, a construction site or an aircraft are
fundamentally different environments and much vocational learning takes place
in simulated or actual work settings. The setting or learning environment and
the facilities or resources within it, have a major impact on decisions about how
the subject will be taught. This in turn affects the selection of teaching models
and strategies that would be used. Given the importance of context, the Hopkins
(2007) framework was developed to provide a new Framework which includes
‘context’ as a separate, specific component. The rationale and our definition of
context are explained below.
Figure 2 A Framework for Developing Effective Vocational Teaching and Learning
eacher Reflection
Teaching Teaching Skills

Models and Strategies
Teaching Teaching
Relationships Context
Teacher
Reflection
Towards a Framework for Developing Effective Vocational Teaching And Learning 55
The Framework contains five interrelated and overlapping components:

teaching relationships, teaching models, teaching strategies and skills, teaching
context and teacher reflection. All components must work in synergy to provide
effective teaching and learning that meets the required learning objectives.
All components of the Framework are equally important in achieving effective
vocational teaching and learning and the central area where teaching models,
teaching skills and strategies, teaching relationships and teaching context all
overlap (the central diamond) is the point at which the teacher makes choices
and decisions about a particular session. The area which represents teacher
reflection surrounds all four of the other components since a teacher should
reflect on all of these aspects when reflecting on their teaching planning
and practice. This Framework could provide a clear basis for thinking about
vocational teaching and learning as well as a vehicle for sharing and promoting
effective practice.
Teaching Context
Arising from our analysis, we have identified that context is such an important
factor in vocational learning that it warrants separate consideration. It became
clear that the vocational context is largely responsible for defining the nature
of the learning that will take place. Consequently this new, fifth component
emerged to add to the Framework.
In a further review of literature, we found references to context and its
importance in vocational learning. In a recent publication, the Institute
for learning (IfL) stated that brilliant teaching and training comes from the
combination of a deep understanding of learning and the use of ‘learning
to learn’ strategies applied within the context of a vocational subject and
workplace setting (IfL, 2010). Kerka also commented on the importance of
context on the effectiveness of learning, ‘other key features of knowledge
construction are functional context, social context and usefulness. The process
works most effectively when it is embedded in a context in which knowledge
and skills will be used.’ (Kerka 1997). Other research findings support the value
of contextualised learning that provides opportunities for knowledge acquisition
and construction, practice and reinforcement, in ‘natural settings’ such as the
workplace (Billett, 1993). The concept of situated learning, developed by Lave
and Wenger (1991), that ‘knowledge is created and made meaningful by the
context in which it is acquired’ (Farmer, Buckmaster, and Legrand Brandt, 1992),
is clearly deeply embedded in work-based vocational learning and in teaching
models derived from constructivism. Two basic principles underlie situated
learning: firstly that knowledge needs to be presented in an authentic context,
that is, in the setting where knowledge would usually be applied and secondly,
that learning requires social interaction and collaboration.
We also consider that the context is a broader concept. In addition to the setting
or location where the learning takes place, we include within the context: the
learning objectives and desired outcomes for a session or part of a session;
the nature of the learning such as the vocational subject area, and whether
is it theoretical or practical; the level of the learning; the specification and
requirements of the qualification or course; the nature of the learners, how they
learn best including their learning styles for instance (see Appendix 8 for further
details) or any particular difficulties they might have in learning; the composition
and size of the group of learners and the learning environment including the
resources and facilities available.
Thus, we can see that ‘teaching context’ is not a new concept within education
and training although the addition of it to Hopkins’s (2007) ‘four ways of
thinking’ namely teaching relationships, teaching models, teaching strategies/
skills and teacher reflection, in order to ‘think’ about vocational learning, is new.
A teacher’s choice of teaching strategy or teaching model to enable effective

teaching and learning is affected by context in that, for example, it would be
difficult to do ‘role play’ or whole class ‘questioning’ in a noisy workshop with
confined space.
4.1 Using the Framework for Developing Effective Vocational

Teaching and Learning
To show how the use of this Framework might work in practice, we provide a
worked example of a sequence taken from a session. The example starts from
the perspective of the teaching model and demonstrates how the concepts at
the heart of the Framework might be used to describe and analyse practice.
1. Teaching model – objectives and sequence of activities (syntax)
2. Teaching relationships – teacher and learner roles, relationships and responses
3. Context – including support systems
4. Teaching skills and strategies
5. Reflection.
The example is taken from the observations and interviews although the
analysis is our interpretation of the session. It is provided for illustrative
purposes only and does not claim to be comprehensive.
The Framework seeks to provide clear definitions of the components and a
shared language for professional dialogue and sharing practice. Using the
Framework, practitioners would be able to analyse and review their practice
by considering each component and to identify areas for improvement and/or
personal development.
4.2 Analysis of travel and tourism session

Learning objective – to be able to perform the safety evacuation procedure
and to understand why the demonstration of the procedure is important. The
learning objective is concerned with learning a skill.
The teaching models that are effective in meeting this type of learning objective
are: mastery learning; programmed learning; simulation and direct teaching.
These models are within the acquiring skills/behaviour and cybernetic family
of models described in the teaching models section. The types of models DfES
(2004a) and Joyce et al (2008) identify as particularly effective for this type of
learning are: direct interactive teaching; modelling; demonstration; reading and
writing sequences; mastery learning and simulation.
This is an example of a simulation used in practice. The simulation is constructed
from a description of a real-life situation. A nearly-real-life environment is created
for the instruction. In this case, the rendition is quite elaborate (an aircraft
simulator). The learner engages in activity to achieve the goal of the simulation
(to perform the safety evacuation procedure), and has to deal with realistic
factors in achieving the goal.
The table below presents an analysis and commentary on the five components
from the Framework for developing effective vocational teaching and learning.
1. Teaching model – describes the sequence (phases) of activities designed
to elicit a particular type of thinking or response, to achieve specific learning
objectives and outcomes
2. Teaching relationships – teacher and learner roles, relationships and reactions
3. Teaching context – including support systems, facilities/resources, learners’
individual needs, requirements of the learning programme/ qualification
specifications
4. Teaching skills and strategies – (shown in the right hand column and relates to
the teaching model phases). Teaching strategies’ are the repertoire of ‘tools for
teaching and learning’ that teachers have available to them and ‘teaching skills’
are the ways in which teachers select and use the ‘tools’ at their disposal to
achieve effective learning
5. Teacher reflection – what the teacher might consider when reviewing and
reflecting on how the session might be improved.
Sequence of activities (syntax) – the model Teaching skills and strategies

in action
Before this session learners have had a session
detailing the safety demonstration and giving the
demonstration themselves.
Phase 1 The teacher sets clear learning objectives and
The learners enter the cabin and an audio recording articulates these at the beginning of the session.
is played of the plane’s safety demonstration. The
teacher then asks each learner to put on a blindfold
and to follow the instructions.
Phase 2 Firstly, a strategy for providing information via an
There is an audio recording of a distressed audio recording is used.
conversation between the pilot and airport tower,
mayday signal, the plane is going down.
Phase 3 A simulation model provides a strategy for more
The teacher then tells the learners to get all effective learning and this example shows how it is
their emergency equipment ready (they have used as an alternative to simply providing information
previously seen this in the demonstration about why the aircraft safety demonstration is
on how to put their life jackets on and to find important. The teacher chooses simulation to ensure
everything). The recording then plays the that learners have direct experience through the
countdown to crash landing. simulation, from which to learn.
Phase 4 Teaching skills used throughout the session
At the end of the recording the teacher tells the include: behaviour management and orchestrating
learners to remove their blind folds and to stand opportunities to work outside the formal setting.
if they have all their equipment on correctly.
Phase 5 In Phase 4, the strategy used for more effective
They return to the classroom and the teacher learning involves evaluation, feedback and
explores with the learners how they felt (scared) corrective action. The strategy for reinforcing the
and points out why they need to follow instruction, learning used in Phase 5 is immediate exercise
why the cabin crew do the demonstrations and after presentation (or in this case, after simulation).
should this happen while they are flying - they The exploration of what has been ‘learnt’ is used
could be in complete darkness. to check understanding and clarify issues and
the teacher uses her skills to guide and monitor
throughout this phase.
Phase 6 In Phases 5 and 6, the strategy to reinforce learning
The teacher facilitates through discussion how is by use of questioning and the learning is made
learners would do their demonstrations differently, more effective by use of evaluation, feedback and
having had the experience. They identify the corrective learning. The teaching skill involved in
importance of gaining the passengers’ attention questioning includes the use of a combination of
and checking that they are listening. Also the low level and high level order questions for deeper
importance of checking that safety equipment is learning. There is also the skill of making the
actually in the right place and not missing. questions relevant and appropriate for the learner
group. Teaching skills for evaluative activity include
management of the teacher and learner input to the
evaluation resulting in an effective evaluation and
feedback process.
The impact of this model is increased when there is
questioning and discussion that requires learners
to reflect on how well they have acquired their new
learning and what more they need to do to improve.
Teacher and learner roles, relationships Teaching skills and strategies

and reactions
Throughout the session the teacher is the organiser The teachers skills are evident in the planning of
(high structure) and takes the lead. The learners the session and the selection of strategies used
are required to respond to the stimuli and learn within it.
through this experience. In Phases 5 and 6,
through questioning and discussion, the teacher’s
role is that of group facilitator in encouraging
learners to learn from each other (medium
structure).
The teacher adopts different responses to the
learners in different parts of the session. In Phase
4, feedback was immediate with the teacher
asking the learners to stand up if they had correctly
carried out the procedure.
In contrast, in phases 5 and 6, the teacher’s Questioning is an important strategy that might
questioning and discussion focuses on how be used for a variety of purposes, in this case to
learners felt and reinforces why their feelings reinforce learning.
are important. She then encourages learners’
responses as to suggest how they might change
their own practice in future.
Context including support systems Teaching skills and strategies

The availability of an appropriate environment with The skill of the teacher is important in orchestrating
safety equipment and audio technology the session and eliciting, through questioning,
was a necessary condition for the session. learners’ reflections on how they might improve
The simulation was completely dependent on their performance.
this environment.
The nature of the learners including how they
learned best, their learning styles and any learning
difficulties.
Although the learners are responding in the
simulation, their learning is enhanced by
the power of the experience and the emotion
it generates. There is also an element of
‘something different’ from the norm which
generates motivation and interest.
Reflection
Following the session the teacher might reflect on how this particular simulation worked with this particular
group of learners. It might be that the teacher would consider, for example, a further session where peer
assessment of the demonstration cemented their learning and tracked improvements.
60
5 Conclusions
This section identifies our conclusions drawn from the full range of interviews
and observations completed and the literature review which set the overall
context and framework for the research.
There were many examples of effective practice in teaching and learning evident
in the sessions observed. Although this study selected organisations known
to have effective practice, and thus may not be entirely typical of vocational
education as a whole, it is clear that exciting, engaging and effective teaching
and learning exists. These findings provide some evidence to challenge the
assertion that the repertoire and flexibility of vocational pedagogy is too narrow
and that the methods used are too passive and uninspiring, at least, in a good
proportion of the sessions observed. While there is evidence from inspection
that the quality of teaching and learning in vocational education has improved,
there is still scope for further improvement. There is also, clearly, potential
to develop useful guidance based on the rich material gathered through the
observations and interviews to support improvement.
Effective practice results from a complex interaction of factors. These factors
include not only the teaching strategies and skills employed by teachers in
planning and delivering sessions, but also the context, teachers’ relationships
with their learners and their continuous reflection to improve their practice.
Teachers were genuinely concerned for their learners; they wanted them to do
well. Their enthusiasm was evident and in some cases this enthusiasm had a
positive impact on their learners. In providing guidance it would be necessary to
stress the importance and inter-relatedness of all these factors.
There were consistent patterns evident in the sessions observed, that
transcended different vocational areas i.e. ‘good practice is good practice’.
Teachers believed that in many cases, practice is directly transferable from
one vocational area to another. Teachers indicated that they also varied their
practice, for example, in response to the different levels of the programmes and
ability of learners.
From the evidence available, we conclude that vocational teaching is
underpinned by some learning theories. The theories most frequently mentioned
by teachers and what we could infer from the observations of practice, were
experiential learning and learning styles theories. These theories inform
teachers’ practices although they also draw extensively on their own experience
of teaching with their particular groups of learners and learning contexts.
Teachers also appeared to base their decisions about how to teach on intuition,
experience and pragmatism.
Teachers within this study, made no reference to teaching models when they
described how they made decisions on which to base their teaching. Our
attempts to infer whether they were using teaching models in practice suggests
that they use a very wide range of teaching strategies and in some cases,
what they do relates to some of the steps in some teaching models. We did
not find any evidence of the intention to choose a teaching model based on
Conclusions 61
the nature of the learning objective. Nor did we find that teachers used the
particular sequences, episodes or phases of learning that characterise teaching
models, systematically or in full. We conclude that teaching models are not yet
established in vocational learning in either the language or as concepts.
Therefore, there is considerable scope for the development of future practice and
guidance indicating which teaching models could be most appropriate to play a
part in improving the delivery of vocational education. Teachers do not appear
to be aware of the use of teaching models in the planning of delivery or the
delivery itself. We do not have any direct evidence that teaching models theory
as a distinctive topic is included in Initial Teacher Training and/or Continuing
Professional Development (CPD).
We agree with Ji-Ping and Collis (1995) that a thorough knowledge of a number
of teaching models could lead to greater teacher flexibility and efficiency.
Understanding different models could help teachers to adapt to those teaching
models or to combine them with others, and so enrich a teacher’s repertoire. The
study of teaching models could be a powerful way to explore issues in vocational
education including teaching strategies, pedagogical and curricula design,
instructional materials and learning sources, and even the design of learning
environments.
At present there is insufficient evidence to suggest that particular teaching
models might be more effective than others in a particular vocational context.
However, we can infer from the observations that some types of learning
objectives occur frequently, for example, objectives concerned with acquiring
skills, and this might lead us to teaching models such as direct interactive
teaching, demonstration, modelling and simulation. Group work and
cooperative learning was also widely in evidence and this would lead us toward
constructivist approaches such as group learning, social enquiry and role play.
Some of these were also widely used strategies for teaching and learning. As
we saw, what distinguished a teaching model from, for example, a teaching
strategy, was the relationship between the type of learning objective and the
particular tightly defined sequence of stages provided to achieve the objective
within a teaching model.
Taking this further in vocational learning is where there is considerable potential
for future development. We have offered a potential structure for developing,
testing and comparing teaching models in the vocational learning context.
These areas for comparison are: teacher aspects, learner aspects, flexibility and
adaptability and theoretical and technological aspects and these were described
fully in the teaching models section. We conclude that the Framework for
Developing Effective Vocational Teaching and Learning offers a useful starting
point for practitioners and teacher educators to begin to apply teaching models
and to analyse their use in practice.
With regard to the other components in the Framework, it was possible to
identify the common characteristics of the teaching skills employed by effective
teachers, which were very similar. These related to: planning, differentiation,
setting clear objectives, access to and appropriate selection from a wide variety
of teaching and learning strategies, making good use of resources including ICT,
managing the learning environment, providing feedback and reinforcing learning,
continuously reviewing understanding and assessing progress. It was equally
evident that teachers had access to a very wide range of teaching strategies,
often developed over time, including ways of imparting information (e.g.
presentation and demonstration, group and individual learning, reinforcement
of learning, use of technology to enable and enhance learning, assessment and
differentiation). It was evident that a range of strategies were used by teachers
within sessions to enable the most effective learning to take place.
Teaching relationships were identified as crucially important in both the

literature review and by teachers involved in this study. Effective teachers
actively fostered good relationships with their learners; a good rapport was
evident in sessions. They knew their learners as individuals and understood the
differences between learners, whether in terms of level of learning programme,
their lives and experience, the differences between young people and adults,
learners’ learning difficulties, disabilities or language differences, or differences
in aspiration, motivation, confidence and lifestyle. Teachers recognised the
impact that these factors could have on learning and took account of them. Good
teachers sought to build self-confidence and self-esteem in their learners, and
these factors were to be found in the personal family of teaching models. The full
range of teacher and learner roles and responsibilities was also evident, from
teacher directed, through guided learning, to cooperative learning and ultimately
independent learning. Providing guidance to vocational teachers on these
aspects of learning could enhance the effectiveness of their practice.
In the very best sessions, teachers had high aspirations and sought to stretch
their learners, although this was not always evident in the observations. In these
sessions, teachers actively and explicitly encouraged learners to develop deep
understanding (Entwistle, 2000), not just ‘how’ to do something (mastery), but
understanding ‘why.’ They planned to develop a range of learners’ skills beyond
just mastering a particular skill or acquiring information to meet a course or
qualification specification. These skills included:
●● higher-order learning and thinking skills – using techniques such as ‘advance
organisers’ and learning to learn, which leads to learners becoming more
independent in their learning
●● social and interpersonal skills to communicate effectively, to respect and work
with others
●● employability skills such as punctuality and attendance.
These are consistent with the skills for the 21st century, as described in the
literature review. However, perhaps surprisingly, functional skills were not
often mentioned as skills that vocational teachers explicitly sought to promote.
Sometimes they were delivering aspects of functional skills but perhaps not
recognising them as such. This suggests that guidance might have an important
role in addressing this omission, by indicating how functional skills have been or
could be embedded in vocational teaching and learning.
Effective teachers were reflective; they constantly reviewed their practice,
discussed it with their colleagues and sought to develop new and better ways
of teaching. The provision of guidance on practical and effective teaching and
learning models has the potential to provide a framework to structure their
reflection and to enhance individuals’ professional development, to develop
communities of practice and organisational cultures that promote learning.
In summary, we conclude that:
●● while there is evidence of very good practice within vocational education, it is
clearly not universal, as evidenced from inspection, so there is a considerable
scope for identifying, disseminating and sharing good practice and for further
development as a means of improvement
●● the whole concept of teaching models in vocational learning could provide a
powerful new element in the vocational teachers repertoire. We believe there
is a need for substantial further research to be undertaken to further develop
teaching models. Teaching models need to be developed further and tested
in the vocational context. The Framework we have developed for Developing
Effective Vocational Teaching and Learning, as well as the teaching model
comparison framework, could provide mechanisms for taking this forward
Conclusions 63
●● there is also scope for using the Framework for the Developing Effective
Vocational Teaching and Learning to provide a structure within which to offer
guidance - initial guidance should use this Framework to illustrate the inter-
relationship between the five components of teaching relationships, teaching
models, teaching strategies and skills, teaching context, and teacher reflection
●● the implications of the outcomes of this research could potentially be wide
ranging. There could be an impact on initial teacher training for vocational
teachers and their continuing professional development. This is turn could
have consequences for teaching qualification specifications and course design
and delivery.
64
6 Bibliography
Abordo I. and Gaikwad S. (2005). ‘Group Investigation: How Does It Work?’ in

InFo. Vol. 8, Nos. 1 & 2, pp. 79-98. http://internationalforum.aiias.edu/images/
vol08no01/iabordo_sgaikwad.pdf
Allen F. and Davies B. (2009). ‘Vocational Options: The Impact of a Vocational
Context on Teaching and Learning Modern Foreign Languages at Key Stage 4’,
Language Learning Journal. Vol. 37, Iss. 1, pp. 51–70.
Armstrong E. (1991). ‘A Hybrid Model of Problem-based Learning,’ in Boud D. and
Feletti G. (eds.). The Challenge of Problem-based Learning. London, Kogan Page,
pp.137–149.
Ballantine J. and McCourt Larres P. (2007). ‘Cooperative Learning: A Pedagogy
to Improve Students’ Generic Skills?’, Education and Training. Vol. 49, Iss. 2,
pp.126–137.
Barber M. and Mourshed M. (2008). How the World’s Best Performing School
Systems Come out on Top. http://www.mckinsey.com/App_Media/Reports/SSO/
Worlds_School_Systems_Final.pdf
Barnes R. W., Lang N. P. and Whiteside M. F. (1988). Haistedian Technique
Revisited: Innovations in Teaching Surgical Skills. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1357775/pdf/annsurg00173-0124.pdf
Barr R. D. and Tagg J. (1995). ‘From Teaching to Learning – A New Paradigm for
Undergraduate Education’, Change: The Magazine of Higher Education. Vol. 27
Iss. 3, pp.13–25.
Berk R. A. and Trieber R. H. (2009). ‘Whose classroom is it anyway? Improvisation
as a teaching tool’, Journal on Excellence on College Teaching. Vol. 20 Iss. 3, pp.
29–60.
Billett S. (2003). ‘Vocational Curriculum and Pedagogy: An Activity Theory
Perspective’, European Educational Research Journal. Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 6–21.
Billett S. (1993). ‘What’s in a Setting? Learning in the Workplace’, Australian
Journal of Adult and Community Education. No. 1 (April 1993) pp 4–14.
(EJ 464 971).
Brockmann M. (2007). Qualifications, Learning Outcomes and Competencies:
A Review of European Divergences in Vocational Education and Training (VET).
Draft Working Paper. http://www.kcl.ac.uk/content/1/c6/01/57/15/
literaturereview.pdf
Brookfield S. (forthcoming). ‘Adult Cognition as a Dimension of Lifelong
Learning’, to be published in Field J. and Leicester M. (eds.). Lifelong Learning:
Education Across the Lifespan. Philadelphia: Falmer Press.
Brophy J. and Good T. (1986). ‘Teacher Behaviour and Student Achievement’
in M. Wittrock (ed.). Handbook of Research on Teaching (3rd edn.). New York:
Macmillan.
Bibliography 65
Brown H. and Ciuffetelli D.C. (eds.) (2009). Foundational Methods:

Understanding Teaching and Learning. Toronto: Pearson Education.
Bruner J., Goodnow J. and Austin G. A. (1967). A Study of Thinking. New York:
Science Editions.
Business and Enterprise Committee (2009). Risk and Reward: Sustaining a
Higher Value-Added Economy. http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/
cm200809/cmselect/cmberr/746/74607.htm
Campbell Collaboration Systematic Review Group (2003). A Pilot Systematic
Review and Meta-analysis on the Effectiveness of Problem Based Learning.
http://www.medev.ac.uk/static/uploads/resources/pbl_report.pdf
Carin A. A., Bass J. E. and Contant T. L. (2005). Methods for Teaching Science as
Inquiry. (9th edn.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Carney R. N. and Levin J. R. (2000). ‘Mnemonic Teaching and Learning
with a Focus on Transfer’, Journal of Educational Psychology. Vol. 92, Iss.
4, pp. 783–790.
Chappell C. (2004). Contemporary Vocational Learning – Changing Pedagogy,
Australian Vocational Education and Training Research Association Conference:
7th, 2004, Canberra. http://www.avetra.org.au/Conference_Archives/2004/
documents/PA013Chappell.pdf
Chappell C., Solomon N., Tennant M. and Yates L. (2002). Researching the
Pedagogies of the New Vocationalism. Sydney: University of Technology Sydney
(UTS).
Claxton G., Lucas B. and Webster R. (2010). Bodies of Knowledge: How the
Learning Sciences could Transform Practical and Vocational Education. http://
www.edge.co.uk/media/uploads/Downloadable/730664ba-8861-4dae-b076-
346f70a462ff.pdf
Coe R. (2002). It’s the Effect-size, Stupid: What Effect-Size is and Why it is
Important. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the British Educational
Research Association, University of Exeter, England, 12–14 September 2002.
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00002182.htm
Coffield F., Moseley D., Hall E. and Ecclestone K. (2004). Learning Styles and
Pedagogy in Post-16 Learning: A Systematic and Critical Review. London:
Learning and Skills Research Centre.
Cohen J. (1969). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. New York:
Academic Press.
Colley H., James D., Tedder M. and Diment K. (2003). ‘Learning as Becoming in
Vocational Education and Training: Class, Gender and the Role of Vocational
Habitus’, Journal of Vocational Education and Training. Vol. 55, Part 4, pp.
471–498.
Colley H., Wahlberg M. and Gleeson D. (2005). Improving Teaching and Learning
in Further Education: Towards a Genealogy. British Educational Research
Association Annual Conference, University of Glamorgan, 15–17 September
2005. http://www.e-space.mmu.ac.uk/e-space/bitstream/2173/14163/2/
Genealogy%20of%20improving%20T&L%20in%20FE,%20BERA.pdf
Cordingley P. and Bell M. (CUREE) (2007). Transferring Learning and Taking
Innovation to Scale. London: Innovation Unit.
Cornelius-White J. (2007). Learner-Centred Teacher Student Relationships are
Effective: a Meta-Analysis.
Creemers B. P. M. (1994). The Effective Classroom. London: Cassell.
Cullen J., Hadjivassiliou K., Hamilton E., Kelleher J., Sommerlad E. and Stern,
E. (2002). Review of Current Pedagogical Research and Practice in the Fields of
Post-Compulsory Education and Lifelong Learning. www.tlrp.org/pub/acadpub/
Tavistockreport.pdf
Darwin S. (2007). ‘The Changing Contexts of Vocational Education: Implications
for Institutional Vocational Learning’, International Journal of Training Research.
Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 55–71.
Dewey J. (1897). My Pedagogic Creed.
Dewey J. (1902). The Child and the Curriculum.
DfE (2011). Wolf Review of Vocational Education Government Response. https://
www.education.gov.uk/publications/standard/publicationDetail/Page1/DFE-
00038–2011
DfE (2010). Participation in Education and Training of 16–18 year olds by Highest
Qualification Aim and Institution Type, and Work-based Learning, England, 1985
Onwards. http://www.education.gov.uk/rsgateway/DB/SFR/s000938/sfr18-
2010ratesv2.xls
DfES (2006). Further Education: Raising Skills, Improving Life Chances White
Paper. http://www.official-documents.gov.uk/document/cm67/6768/6768.pdf
DfES (2004a). Pedagogy and Practice: Teaching and Learning in Secondary
Schools Unit 1: Structuring Learning. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.
gov.uk/20100612050234/http://nationalstrategies.standards.dcsf.gov.uk/
node/95764?uc=force_uj (accessed 23.07.11)
DfES (2004b). Pedagogy and Practice: Teaching and Learning in Secondary
Schools Unit 2; Teaching Models. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.
uk/20100612050234/http://nationalstrategies.standards.dcsf.gov.uk/
node/95448?uc=force_uj (accessed 23.07.11)
DfES (2002). Assessment for Learning: 10 Principles. National Strategies
Assessment Reform Group.
Dochy F., Segers M., Bossche P.V. and Gijbels D. (2003). ‘Effects of Problem-
based Learning: A Meta Analysis’, Learning and Instruction. Vol. 13, pp. 533–568.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959475202000257
Duckett I. and Moore S. (2005). Just like Real Work: A Work-related Curriculum
for 16–19 Year Olds. Vocational Learning Support Programme 16–19. London:
Learning and Skills Development Agency.
Duckett I. and Tatarkowski M. (2005). Practical Strategies for Learning and
Teaching on Vocational Programmes. Vocational Learning Support Programme
16–19. London: Learning and Skills Development Agency.
Educational International (2009). Literature Review: Vocational Education and
Training. http://download.ei-ie.org/Docs/WebDepot/091213_VET_Literature_
EDITED%20AA.pdf
Entwistle N. (2000). Promoting Deep Learning Through Teaching and
Assessment: Conceptual Frameworks and Educational Contexts. Paper presented
at the TLRP Conference, Leicester, November 2000. http://www.etl.tla.ed.ac.uk//
docs/entwistle2000.pdf
Evans K., Hodkinson P., Rainbird H., Unwin L., Fuller A., Hodkinson H., Kersh
N., Munro A. and Senker P. (2006). Improving Workplace Learning. London:
Routledge.
Evans K., Hodkinson P. and Unwin L. (2002). Working to Learn: Transforming
Learning in the Workplace. London: Kogan Page.
Bibliography 67
Farmer J., Buckmaster A. and Legrand Brandt. (1992). ‘Cognitive Apprenticeship.’

New Direction in Adult and Continuing Education. No. 55 (Fall 1992) pp. 41–49.
(EJ 456 732).
Field J. (2009). Well-being and Happiness. IFLL Thematic Paper 4. Leicester:
National Institute of Adult Continuing Education (NIACE).
Field S., Hoeckel K,. Kis V. and Małgorzata K. (2009). Learning for Jobs: OECD
Reviews of Vocational Education and Training Initial Report. www.oecd.org/
dataoecd/36/24/43926141.pdf
Feltz D. L. and Landers D. M. (1983). The Effects of Mental Practice on Motor
Skill Learning and Performance: A Meta-analysis. http://books.google.
co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=IE6IMsD-FhwC&oi=fnd&pg=PA219&dq=teac
hing+motor+skills+effect+size&ots=dreKTjtPTf&sig=2eHSU2l88q8oxtzC8
ae_Luh7MQ4#v=onepage&q=teaching%20motor%20skills%20effect%20
size&f=false
Fisher D. (2008). Effective Use of the Gradual Release of Responsibility Model.
Macmillan McGraw-Hill.
Foster A. (2005). Realising the Potential. Review of the Future Role of Further
Education Colleges. Nottinghamshire: DfES.
Fleming N.D. (2001). Teaching and Learning Styles: VARK Strategies. Honolulu
Community College.
Flowers J. and Abu R. (1997). ‘The Effects of Cooperative Learning Methods on
Achievement, Retention, and Attitudes on Home Economics Students in North
Carolina’, The Journal of Vocational Education and Training. Vol. 13, Iss. 2. http://
scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JVTE/v13n2/Abu.html
Fuller A. and Unwin L. (2003). ‘Learning as Apprentices in the Contemporary UK
Workplace: Creating and Managing Expansive and Restrictive Participation’,
Journal of Education and Work. Vol. 16, Part 4, pp. 407–426.
Fuller A. and Unwin L. (1998). ‘Reconceptualising Apprenticeship: Exploring the
Relationship between Work and Learning’, Journal of Vocational Education and
Training. Vol. 50, No. 2, pp.153–172.
Ginns P. (2005). ‘Imagining Instructions: Mental Practice in Highly Cognitive
Domains’, Australian Journal of Education. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/
mi_hb6475/is_2_49/ai_n29206620/pg_2/?tag=content;col1
Glass G.V., McGaw B. and Smith M.L. (1981). Meta-Analysis in Social Research.
London: Sage.
Grollmann P. and Rauner F. (2007). International Perspectives on Lecturers and
Lecturers in Technical and Vocational Education. Dordrecht: Springer.
Guthrie H., Harris R., Simons M. and Karmel T. (2009). ‘Teaching for Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (TVET)’. International Handbook of Research
on Lecturers and Teaching. Vol. 21, Iss.10, pp. 851–863.
Hattie J. A. C. (2002). Teachers Make a Difference: What is the Research Evidence?
Wellington: New Zealand Council for Educational Research.
Hattie J. A. C. (2009). Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses
Relating to Achievement. London: Routledge.
Hayward G. (2006). Participation, Progression and Success in Vocational
learning: A Qualitative System Performance. London: Learning and Skills
Research Centre.
Hayward G., Hodgson A., Johnson J., Keep E., Oancea A., Pring R., Spours K. and
Wright S. (2005). The Nuffield Review of 14–19 Education and Training – Annual
Report 2004–5. Oxford: University of Oxford Department of Educational Studies.
Howieson C., Raffe D., Spours K. and Young M. (1997). ‘Unifying Academic and
Vocational Learning: The State of the Debate in England and Scotland’, Journal of
Education and Work. Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 5–36.
Hmelo-Silver C. E. and Barrows H. S. (2006). ‘Goals and Strategies of a Problem-
based Learning Facilitator’, Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning.
Vol. 1, Iss. 1, pp. 21–39.
Hmelo-Silver C.E. and Duncan & Chinn (2007). ‘Scaffolding and Achievement
in Problem-Based and Inquiry Learning: A Response to Kirschner, Sweller, and
Clark’, Educational Psychologist. Vol. 42, Iss. 2, pp. 99–107.
HM Government (2010). The Coalition: Our Programme for Government. http://
www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/sites/default/files/resources/coalition_programme_
for_government.pdf
Honey P. and Mumford A. (1992). The Manual of Learning Styles. Maidenhead:
Peter Honey Publications.
Hopkins D. (2007). Every School a Great School. Maidenhead: McGraw Hill/Open
University Press.
House of Commons Public Accounts Committee (2010). Skills for Life: Progress
in Improving Adult Literacy and Numeracy. Third Report of Session 2008–09.
London: The Stationery Office.
Huddleston P. and Unwin L. (2007). Teaching and Learning in Further Education:
Diversity and Change (3rd edn.). London: Routledge.
Ince M. (2005). ‘Vocational Education still Needs Reforming’, The Edge. Iss. 19,
pp. 14–23.
Institute for Learning (2010). Brilliant Teaching and Training in FE and Skills:
A Guide to Effective CPD for Teachers, Trainers and Leaders. http://www.ifl.
ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/16400/IfL2010-BrilliantTeachingAndTraining
Guide.pdf (accessed 18.06.11)
Ji-Ping Z. and Collis B. (1995). A Comparison of Teaching Models in the West and
in China Journal of Instructional Science and Technology. Vol. 1, No. 1, Article
3. http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/e-jist/docs/vol1no1/article3.htm (accessed
19.06.11)
Johnson D., Johnson R. and Smith K. (1998). ‘Cooperative Learning Returns To
College: What Evidence Is There That It Works?’ Change: The Magazine of Higher
Education. Vol. 30, Iss. 4, pp. 26–35.
Johnson D.W., Johnson R.T. and Stanne M.B. (2000). Cooperative Learning
Methods: A Meta-Analysis. http://www.tablelearning.com/uploads/File/
EXHIBIT-B.pdf
Jones C. A. (2009). Moving your 14–19 Curriculum Forward. Vocational
Learning Support Programme LSN, LSIS Excellence Gateway. http://www.
excellencegateway.org.uk/page.aspx?o=226225
Jones K. and Jones J. (2008). ‘Making Cooperative Learning Work in the College
Classroom: An Application of the ‘Five Pillars’ of Cooperative Learning to Post-
Secondary Instruction’, The Journal of Effective Teaching. Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 61–76.
Joyce B., Calhoun E. and Hopkins D. (2008). Models of Learning, Tools for
Teaching. (3rd edn.). Berkshire: Open University Press.
Bibliography 69
Joyce B., Weil M. and Calhoun E. (2000). Models of Teaching (6th edn.). Needham
Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Kehoe D. (ed.) (2007). Practice Makes Perfect: The Importance of Practical
Learning. http://www.smf.co.uk/assets/files/publications/Practical_Learning.
pdf
Kerka S. (1997). Constructivism, Workplace Learning and Vocational Education.
ERIC Digest No. 181.
Koh G.C., Khoo H.E., Wong M.L. and Koh D. J. (2008). ‘The Effects of Problem-
based Learning during Medical School on Physician Competency: A Systematic
Review’, CMJA. Vol. 178, Iss.1, pp. 34–41.
Kolb D. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and
Development. London: Kogan Page.
Kolb D. (1999). The Kolb Learning Style Inventory. Version 3. Boston: Hay Group.
Krajcik J., Blumenfeld P.C., Marx R.W., Bass K.M., Fredricks J. and Soloway E.
(1998). ‘Inquiry in Project-based Science Classrooms: Initial Attempts by Middle
School Students’, The Journal of the Learning Sciences. Vol. 7, Iss. 3/4, pp.
313–350. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10508406.1998.9672057
Lave J. and Wenger E. (1991). Situated Learning. Legitimate peripheral
Participation. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.
Leitch S. (2006). Leitch Review of Skills. Prosperity for all in the Global Economy –
World Class Skills, Final Report. London: HM Treasury.
Lloyd C. and Steedman H. (2000). Intermediate Level Skills – How are They
Changing? www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/recordDetail?accno=ED450272
Loyens S., Magda J. and Rikers R. (2008). ‘Self-Directed Learning in Problem-
Based Learning and its Relationships with Self-Regulated Learning’, Educational
Psychology Review. Vol. 20, Iss.4, pp. 411–427.
Lockitt B. (1997). Learning Styles in the Future. FEDA: London.
LSC/QCDA (2009). Foundation Learning Tier: 14–19 Delivery Guidance for
2009/10. London: DfE. http://readingroom.lsc.gov.uk/lsc/National/provider_
delivery_guidance_august_2009_final_version.pdf
LSIS Excellence Gateway (2011a). ‘Effective Teaching and Learning: Introducing
Ten Pedagogy Approaches’, Teaching and Learning Programme. http://tlp.
excellencegateway.org.uk/tlp/pedagogy/introducingthe1/introducingthe1/
index.html http://tlp.excellencegateway.org.uk/tlp/pedagogy/assets/
documents/tttl_cards.pdf (accessed 16.6.11)
LSIS Excellence Gateway (2011b). ‘Teaching and Learning: How Learners Learn’,
Vocational Learning Support Programme. http://www.excellencegateway.org.
uk/page.aspx?o=131200 (accessed 17.06.11)
LSN (2006). Learning Styles for Vocational Teaching and Learning. LSIS
Excellence Gateway. http://www.excellencegateway.org.uk/VLSP-13112
Lucas B., Claxton G. and Webster R. (2010). Mind the Gap: Research and Reality
in Practical and Vocational Education. University of Winchester and Edge
Foundation.
Lucas B., Claxton G. and Webster R. (2009). Practical and Vocational Education in
the UK: A Health Check. London: Edge and Centre for Real-World Learning.
Manz C.C. and Neck C.P. (1999). Mastering Self-Leadership: Empowering Yourself
for Personal Excellence. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Martinez P. (2001). Effectiveness and Improvement: School and College Research

Compared. http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00001835.htm
Marzano R. J. (1998). A Theory-based Meta-analysis of Research on Instruction.
Aurora, CO: Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning. www.mcrel.org/
pdf/instruction/5982rr_instructionmeta_analysis.pdf
Marzano R. J., Marzano J. S. and Pickering D. J. (2003). Classroom Management
that Works: Research-Based Strategies for Every Teacher. Alexandria: ASCD.
http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/103027.aspx
Marzano R. J., Pickering D. J. and Pollock J. E. (2001). Classroom Instruction
that Works: Research-based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Mayer R.E. (2003). Learning and Instruction. Pearson Education: Upper Saddle
River.
Merriam S. B. and Caffarella R. S. (1991). Learning in Adulthood. Oxford:
Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Moon J. (1999). Learning Journals: A Handbook for Academics, Students and
Professional Development. London: Kogan Page.
Moore S. (2001). Get Real: Work-Related Teaching and Learning. London:
Learning & Skills Development Agency.
Mortimore P. (ed.) (1999). Understanding Pedagogy and its Impact on Learning.
London: Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd.
Murgatroyd S. (2010). ‘Wicked Problems’ and the Work of the School’, European
Journal of Education. Vol. 45, Iss. 2, pp. 259–279.
Nash I., Jones S., Ecclestone K. and Brown A. (eds.) (2008). Challenge and
Change in Further Education. A commentary by the Teaching and Learning
Research Programme. http://www.tlrp.org/pub/documents/FEcommentary.pdf
Nilson L. (2003). Teaching at its Best: A Research-Based and Inquiry for College
Instructors. Bolton: Jossey-Bass.
OECD (2005). The Definition and Selection of Key Competencies, Executive
Summary. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/47/61/35070367.pdf
OECD (2010). United Kingdom Policies for a Sustainable Recovery. www.oecd.
org/dataoecd/57/11/45642018.pdf
Ofqual (2009). Annual Qualifications Market Report. www.ofqual.gov.uk/
files/2010-03-19-Annual-Market-Report.pdf
Ofsted (2009). Common Inspection Framework for Further Education and Skills
2009. Manchester: Ofsted.
Ofsted (2005). Increased Flexibility Programme at Key Stage 4: The First Two
Years. http://www.ofsted.gov.uk/Ofsted-home/Publications-and-research/
Browse-all-by/Education/Key-stages-and-transition/Key-Stage-4/Increased-
Flexibility-Programme-at-Key-Stage-4-the-first-two-years
Ofsted (2007). Initial Teacher Training in Vocational Subjects. http://www.ofsted.
gov.uk/Ofsted-home/Publications-and-research/Browse-all-by/Education/
Leadership/Management/Initial-teacher-training-in-vocational-subjects
Ofsted (2010). The Annual Report of Her Majesty’s Chief Inspector of Education,
Children’s Services and Skills 2009/10. http://www.ofsted.gov.uk/Ofsted-home/
Publications-and-research/Browse-all-by/Annual-Report/2009-10/The-Annual-
Report-of-Her-Majesty-s-Chief-Inspector-of-Education-Children-s-Services-and-
Skills-2009-10
Bibliography 71
Ofsted (2003). The Initial Training of Further Education Teachers. http://www.

ofsted.gov.uk/resources/initial-training-of-further-education-teachers-2003
Ofsted (2009). The Initial Training of Further Education Teachers. http://
www.ofsted.gov.uk/Ofsted-home/Publications-and-research/Browse-all-by/
Documents-by-type/Thematic-reports/The-initial-training-of-further-education-
teachers2
Ofsted (2010). Twelve Outstanding Providers of Work-based Learning. http://
www.ofsted.gov.uk/Ofsted-home/Publications-and-research/Browse-all-by/
Documents-by-type/Thematic-reports/Twelve-outstanding-providers-of-work-
based-learning
Ofsted/ALI (2005). Further Education Matters – The First Four Years of Ofsted/
ALI College Inspections. http://www.ofsted.gov.uk/Ofsted-home/Publications-
and-research/Browse-all-by/Post-16-learning-and-skills/Read-about-this-new-
section/Colleges/Further-education-matters
Petty G. (2009). Evidence-Based Teaching: A Practical Approach. (2nd edn.).
Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd.
Petty G. (2009). Teaching Today (4th edn.). Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd.
Petty G. (undated) What has the greatest influence on student learning? http://
www.aberdeen-education.org.uk/files/Research/3%20What%20has%20
the%20greatest%20influence%20Geoff_Pettie_on_Hattie.pdf (accessed
9.06.11)
Polya G. (2009). Mathematical Discovery: On Understanding, Learning, and
Teaching Problem Solving. Vol. I, and II, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
QIA (2008). Guidance for Assessment and Learning. http://sflip.
excellencegateway.org.uk/pdf/4.2sflguidance_5.pdf
Rainbird H., Fuller A. and Munro A. (2006). Workplace Learning in Context.
London: Routledge.
Rauner F. and Maclean R. (2008). Handbook of Technical and Vocational
Education and Training Research. Dordrecht: Springer.
Redfield D. L. and Rousseau E. W. (1981). A Meta-analysis of Experimental
Research on Teacher Questioning Behavior. Review of Educational Research.
51(2), 237–245.
Rush S., Acton L., Tolley K., Marks-Maran Di and Burke L. (2010). ‘Using
Simulation in a Vocational Programme: Does the method support the theory?’,
Journal of Vocational Education & Training. 62:4, pp. 467–479.
Sahlberg P. and Oldroyd D. (2010). ‘Pedagogy for Economic Competitiveness and
Sustainable Development’, European Journal of Education. Vol. 45, No. 2 Part I,
pp. 280–299.
Savoy C., Hodgson A. and Spours K. (2003). The Advanced Vocational Certificate
of Education (AVCE): A General or Vocational Qualification? IOE/Nuffield Series
No.7. London: Institute of Education, University of London.
Schon D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action.
Boston: Arena Publishing.
Schon D. A. (1996). Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Towards a New Design
for Teaching and Learning in the Professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc.
Sennett R. (2008). The Craftsman. London: Penguin Books.
Shaftel F. (1970). ‘Role Playing: An Approach to Meaningful Social Learning’,
Social Education. 34(5), 556–559.
Sharan Y. and Sharan S. (1989). ‘Group Investigation Expands Cooperative

Learning’, Education Leadership. December 1989/January 1990.
Shury J., Winterbotham M., Davies B. and Oldfield K. (2010). National Employer
Skills Survey for England for 2009, Evidence Report 23. August 2010. UKCES.
http://www.ukces.org.uk/assets/bispartners/ukces/docs/publications/
evidence-report-23-ness-main-report-2009.pdf
Skills Commission (2009). Teacher Training in Vocational Education.
http://www.policyconnect.org.uk/sc/research
http://www.policyconnect.org.uk/fckimages/skills_report.PDF
Slavin R. E. (1995). Cooperative Learning: Theory, Research and Practice.
(2nd edn.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Smith R. M. (1982). Learning How to Learn: Applied Theory for Adults.
Chicago: Follet.
Statz C., Hayward G., Oh S. and Wright S. (2004). Outcomes and Processes of
Vocational Learning: A Review of the Literature. London: Learning and Skills
Development Agency.
Stevenson J. (2003). ‘Vocational Teaching and Learning in Context’ in J.
Stevenson (eds.). Developing Vocational Expertise: Principles and Issues in
Vocational Education. NSW: Allen & Unwin, pp. 26–47
Stevenson J. (2005). ‘The Centrality of Vocational Learning’, Journal of Vocational
Education and Training. Vol. 57, No. 3, pp. 335–354.
Teaching and Learning Research Programme and Economic and Social Research
Council (2006). Improving Teaching and Learning in Schools. London: Institute of
Education.
Teaching and Learning Research Programme and Economic and Social Research
Council (2008). Challenges and Change in Further Education. London: Institute of
Education.
Unwin L. (2009). Sensuality, Sustainability and Social Justice: Vocational
Education in Changing Times. Based on an Inaugural Professorial Lecture
delivered at the Institute of Education, University of London, 4th February 2009.
London: Institute of Education, University of London.
Unwin L., Fuller A., Turbin J. and Young M. (2004). What Determines the Impact of
Vocational Qualifications? A Literature Review. http://publications.education.gov.
uk/eOrderingDownload/RR522.pdf
UKCES (2010a). Ambition 2020: World Class Skills and Jobs for the UK. http://
www.ukces.org.uk/upload/pdf/UKCES_FullReport_USB_A2020.pdf
UKCES (2010b). Skills for Jobs: Today and Tomorrow – The National Strategic
Audit for England 2010 Volume 1: Key Findings. http://www.ukces.org.uk/
upload/pdf/NSSA_Volume%201_FINAL_BOOKMARKED_110310.pdf
UNESCO (2001). Revised Recommendation Concerning Technical and Vocational
Education and Training. PARIS: UNESCO.
Walker A. and Leary H. (2009). ‘Problem Based Learning Meta Analysis:
Differences Across Problem Types, Implementation Types, Disciplines, and
Assessment Levels’, The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning.
Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 12–43
Weeden P., Winter J. and Broadfoot P. (2002). Assessment: What’s in it for
Schools? London: Routledge.
Bibliography 73
Whitton D., Sinclair C., Barker K., Nanlohy P. and Nosworthy M. (2004). Learning
for Teaching: Teaching for Learning. Victoria: Thomson Learning.
Wolf A. (2011). Review of Vocational Education – The Wolf Report. DfE. https://
www.education.gov.uk/publications/standard/publicationDetail/Page1/DFE-
000312011
Young M. (2004). The Importance of Vocational Pedagogy. Paper for a research
seminar on Vocational Pedagogy, 22nd September 2004.
Young M., Spours K., Howieson C. and Raffe D. (1997). ‘Unifying Academic and
Vocational Learning and the Idea of a Learning Society’, Journal of Education
Policy. Vol. 12, No. 6, pp. 527–538.
74
Appendix 1 Methodology and approach
Phase 1 Exploration of literature

The literature review aimed to provide the contextual background for the
research and to understand issues around vocational teaching and learning. It
also aimed to identify the key elements of teaching and learning that have been
found to be effective in improving learner outcomes in vocational education and
training and beyond.
The literature review drew from a range of sources including policy documents,
books, journal articles and reports (sources can be found in the bibliography),
using access to online academic search facilities, academic libraries, and
publically available reports and documents.
A review of these sources took place using key criteria such as: vocational skills,
21st Century skills and skills needs, vocational learning and education, teacher
training, quality in teaching and learning, impact of vocational learning, learning
approaches, learning strategies and styles, teacher skills, teacher relationships,
teacher reflection, teaching and learning models, pedagogy and pedagogic
strategies and effect-size research in education.
Effect – size research

Educational research has increasingly employed effect-size to describe the
magnitude of gains from any given change in educational practice (Glass in Joyce
et al, 2008, p.130). Effect-size research,
allows us to move beyond the simplistic, ‘Does it work or not?’ to the far more
sophisticated, ‘How well does it work in a range of contexts?’ Moreover, by
placing the emphasis on the most important aspect of an intervention - the size of
the effect - rather than its statistical significance ..., it promotes a more scientific
approach to the accumulation of knowledge. For these reasons, effect-size is an
important tool in reporting and interpreting effectiveness
(Coe, 2002, p.1).
The literature review draws from effect-size work plus a range of other well
established authorities on teaching and learning skills, strategies and theory
to explore effective teaching and learning models for vocational teaching and
learning. The process of effect-size research is described in Appendix 3 for
further clarification.
Phase 2 Visits to colleges

The sample and arranging visits
In order to ensure that best practice in vocational teaching and learning was
captured, a review of Ofsted reports was conducted, selecting institutions
which were judged to be outstanding. These were selected since they
represented the most efficient method of identifying and observing effective
practice. A total of 25 institutions were initially approached to take part in the
research, as identified below.
Appendix 1: Methodology and approach 75
Table 3 Sample of colleges contacted initially across regions
Region Number of FECs contacted

East Midlands 2
East Of England 5
London 4
North East 3
North West 7
South West 2
West Midlands 1
Yorkshire & Humberside 1
Total 25
An invitation was sent by email to principals of each of the institutions, outlining

the research and asking if they would be willing to support the study by allowing
one of our researchers to visit and observe teaching and learning in vocational
education in practice, followed by interviews with the teachers of the vocational
subject areas observed. The invitation also reassured the institutions that the
burden of participating in the research would be minimal as we were very much
aware of their busy work commitments.
The majority of providers who accepted the invitation to participate in the
research were in the North West and North East regions. Final acceptance was
received from 8 providers as outlined below:
●● 1 in London
●● 2 in the North East
●● 5 in the North West
Telephone calls were made to those who responded and a telephone discussion
arranged with the research project manager and Vice/Assistant Principals of
Quality, Teaching, Learning and/or Curriculum. The preliminary discussion was
to introduce LSN, clarify the project and aims and to confirm which vocational
subject areas would be suitable to observe.
Dates and times for the visits were arranged with each institution sending a visit
schedule for the day showing which classes, subjects and qualifications would
be covered in the observations, along with times for the interviews with the
subject teachers and other teachers of the selected subject areas.
As time was an issue for some of the visits, second visits were arranged and
telephone interviews with Quality/Curriculum managers, in some cases, were
carried out by telephone at a mutually convenient time.
Conducting observations and interviews

To ensure best practice was captured, a total of 20 sessions were observed
and 39 informal interviews with key staff, including one focus group, took place
to support the sampling. The interviews included: teachers of the observed
lessons, Quality and Curriculum managers, and other teachers/heads of
department from the observed curriculum areas and members of the Senior
Leadership Team. The table below shows the number of visits and interviews by
vocational subject area.
Table 4 Sample of observations and interviews completed
Case Studies Number Totals

Observations
Business Administration 5 20
Construction 6
Travel & Tourism 4
Information Technology 5
Interviews – teachers of observed sessions, other teachers, curriculum leads

Business Administration 5 39
Construction 9
Travel & Tourism 6
Information Technology 6
Quality Managers and SLT and 13
Teacher Training Heads
A consent form to obtain the consent of all teachers participating in the research
was sent to all institutions prior to the visit, which provided a brief description
of the project and our ethical approach to conducting the research. It also
asked permission to record the observations and discussions to help with the
analysis of the data. Also highlighted was that all data collected would be kept
confidential and all participants would remain anonymous. The signed forms
were either emailed back to LSN or collected on the day of the visit by
the researcher.
To record the data a number of different interview templates, appropriate for
the research participants, were used. Data collected was also tape recorded
with permission granted. The transcriptions complemented researchers’ hand
written notes.
Scrutiny of schemes of work and lesson plans, where they were made available,
helped inform the researcher about the teaching and learning planned to be
observed in advance of the interviews.
On average, observations and interviews lasted one to two hours and telephone
interviews 45 minutes. Four different vocational education subjects and different
qualifications at level 2 were chosen to gain a view of the pedagogy used across
the spectrum (selected through research conducted for the literature review):
●● Business Administration
●● Construction
●● Information Technology
●● Travel and Tourism
Observations were non-participatory in nature. The teacher introduced the

researcher to the class and gave a brief explanation of why the researcher was
present, to put the class at ease; pointing out to the learners that it was not
an inspection by an outside agency but that the researcher was there purely
to observe the session and record the activity they were performing that day,
by taking notes. The researcher also briefed the teacher prior to the session to
ensure that the teacher was at ease with their presence.
Appendix 1: Methodology and approach 77
During the session the researcher recorded, for example, the nature of activities,
the learning environment, the relationship and interactions between the teacher
and learners and the dialogue throughout the sessions.
Any concerns around ethical issues were avoided by making sure the researcher
was discreet, did not disrupt the normal activity of the class and that the
researcher’s presence didn’t compromise their privacy.
A potential weakness of all observations is that it is susceptible to observer
bias – subjective bias on the part of the observer, thus undermining the
reliability and hence the validity of the data gathered. This can be because the
observer records not what actually happened, but what they either wanted to
see, expected to see, or merely thought they saw. Recording the observations
during or immediately after the event minimised selective memory issues.
Another potential weakness of observation is reactivity effects, when the
presence/behaviour of the researcher may influence the participants’ observed
behaviours, quite often unintentionally, and a recording of the session may be
unreliable. By explaining the purpose of the observation and the overarching
aims of the project, the researcher was able to reduce the risk of this happening.
However, as with all observation work of this nature, we cannot be fully
confident that no teachers or learners (no matter how natural their behaviour
seemed) were not adapting their behaviour due to the presence of the
researcher.
Interviews with teachers of the observed lessons were undertaken to gain a
deeper understanding of the purpose of the lesson observed, the aims and
outcomes, how the activities included in the lesson achieved these aims and to
gain a detailed step by step explanation of planning of the lesson. The questions
also allowed us to gain a better understanding of what main influences had
helped them to develop a repertoire of teaching strategies or models and how
the institution had supported them in developing their practice.
Interviews with quality managers, senior leadership teams and teacher training
heads were used to examine the teaching strategies or model(s) promoted in
vocational teaching and learning practice in the college and how teachers are
supported in developing a wide repertoire of teaching strategies or models.
Also explored was the use of strategies or models to develop different skills and
to gain an understanding of how teachers are supported to choose from their
teaching repertoire the appropriate teaching strategy or model so as to achieve
a desired outcome.
All of the interviews were semi-structured to allow a certain degree of
comparability across all interviews, to ensure that important criteria were
addressed and importantly, to allow the respondents the freedom to express
their views and experiences without being overly restricted. The interviews
complimented the observations, providing detailed background as to teachers’
planning and delivery and thought processes around this in relation to
vocational pedagogy.
Phases 3 and 4 of the research are not covered by this report. They involved
a formative seminar with some of those involved in the observations and
interviews to provide feedback on the findings and suggestions for resulting
guidance (phase 4).
78
Appendix 2 Effective vocational teaching and

learning – a brief review
Introduction
The value of vocational education was explicitly recognised by the Department
for Education (DfE) in its recent response to the Wolf Review. It stated that
‘vocational education is a vital underpinning for our economy ‘(DfE, 2011) and
recognised that the future of the UK’s economy relies on high-level technical
skills and its ability to remain at the forefront of technological change. The DfE
called for education system to address the long term weakness in practical
The purpose of the Wolf Review (2011), published during the course of this
research, was to consider how to improve vocational education for 14–19 year
olds and thereby promote successful progression into the labour market and
into higher level education and training routes. The report’s recommendations
have been accepted by the Government and thus set the context for the future
of vocational teaching and learning. It is therefore important to consider the
implications of the findings and recommendations for systemic change in
relation to effective vocational teaching and learning. As Wolf states, the removal
of micro-management and bureaucracy in vocational education will ‘free up
resources for teaching and learning’, which is an essential part of the vocational
education improvement plan (Wolf, 2011).
The Wolf Review has enabled vocational teaching and learning to be brought
to the forefront of education policy and debate. It has highlighted the need to
consider how the vocational system can be improved and within this, the need to
explore the quality of vocational teaching and learning. Extensive research has
concluded that quality in teachers and teaching and learning practice is crucial
to improving learner outcomes (Barber and Mourshed, 2008). With this in mind,
we explore the quality of vocational teaching and learning and what effective
teaching and learning is for vocational education in the following section. This
literature review sets out:
●● the overall context for vocational education – an overview of the sector, the
policy focus on vocational education and its role in fulfilling the skills demands
of the UK economy
●● current vocational provision – the quality of current provision, the need to
improve teaching and learning and vocational pedagogy
●● effective teaching and learning – drawn mainly from evidence based research
and exploring a range of elements of effective teaching and learning.
Vocational education in England is diverse and complex with numerous types

of providers offering a wide range of qualifications in different specialist subject
areas. The scope of this literature review, and overall report, is the application of
vocational teaching and learning in Further Education Colleges (FECs) and work-
based learning (WBL) providers, because FECs and WBL providers are the main
deliverers of vocational education in state-funded education.
Appendix 2: Effective vocational teaching and learning – a brief review 79
Overall context for vocational education

An important starting point is to define the terms ‘vocational education’ and
‘vocational pedagogy’ as these underpin the foundations of this research.
UNESCO for its recommendations on Technical and Vocational Training define
vocational education as:
those aspects of educational process involving, in addition to general education,
the studies of technologies and related sciences, and the acquisition of practical
skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupations in various
sectors of economic and social life.
(UNESCO, 2001)
Educational International (2009) recognises that vocational education is

often distinguished from ‘general or academic education’. It defines academic
education as that which enables the learner to build analytical and critical
thinking skills and knowledge and vocational education – that which develops
craftsmanship, practical experience and practical problem solving. As
Educational International asserts however, this understanding ‘does not
hold up to scrutiny’ and in fact it is now contested that analytical and critical
thinking skills are no less needed by vocational learners than their academic
counterparts and that vocational learning is no less intelligent (see Lucas B et
al., 2010).
In research and education policy, vocational education is usually distinguished
as education that leads to various occupations. It prepares people to function
at a specified level in specific roles in the context of usually paid employment
(Lucas, et al. 2010). The importance of which, was recognised by the Wolf Review
(2011), in its urge for English vocational qualifications to properly prepare young
people for the labour market.
This literature review thus accepts this definition and uses the term ‘vocational
education’ in two ways: (a) as the route that enables individuals to gain
vocational qualifications; and (b) as work related education that can occur
across the curriculum and in a variety of settings, including the workplace.
Pedagogy
The LSIS Excellence Gateway (2011b) suggests that the term pedagogy ‘denotes
more than just a set of teaching techniques. Pedagogy encompasses:
●● what is taught/learned – the content
●● how it is taught or learned – approaches to teaching and learning
●● why it is taught or learned – the underpinning values, philosophy or rationale.’
These three elements work in synergy and so, for example, the ‘why’ will have
a strong influence on what is taught or learned and how. Cullen et al (2002)
suggested that pedagogy is synonymous with ‘teaching methods’ and ‘teaching
styles’. In short, it is suggested that pedagogy can be taken to mean what
teachers do to ensure effective teaching and learning takes place.
Providers, learners and teachers

There are a wide range of providers of vocational education in England.
Historically, in state funded education, Further Education Colleges (FECs) had
a monopoly on delivery. Today, they remain the main provider, but notably, as
vocational education policies have become cross-sectoral and more market-
oriented, colleges now compete with other public sector providers such as
schools, WBL providers, adult and community education and universities.
Vocational education is also delivered through private training providers
including employers and consortia of employers and third sector providers.
The learner body is exceptionally diverse in terms of age, previous learning
experience and aspirations. In addition, attendance is not mandatory and the
life circumstances of many can mean that it is often difficult for them to pursue a
course to its conclusion. This presents particular challenges for teachers in terms
of motivating, sustaining and supporting the learner body.
The teaching workforce is as varied as the learners. Many teachers have had
valuable previous experience in industry which needs to be combined with an
up-to-date vocational pedagogy in order that the learners’ experience is of a
high quality, whilst others might have pedagogical knowledge but may lack up-
to-date industrial knowledge. Furthermore, vocational teachers seem to enter
the profession at different stages in their career and many hold a degree whilst
others do not. The right kind of involvement with employers is also an important
issue that influences the effective delivery of vocational education.
Vocational teaching and learning in FECs and in WBL, therefore, has a number
of challenges that are particular to the sector and which influence teaching
and learning in practice. In addition, vocational education has a wider social
economic purpose that it must fulfil. This is discussed below.
Skills needs of the UK and Government Policy

The skills needs of the UK workforce are rapidly changing, and this need has
become particularly apparent in the context of the current economic crisis.
Workers must move beyond low level skills previously required by industry and
be able to employ a wide repertoire of skills. Appendix 5 shows the wide range
of skills frameworks that have been developed across the world to define the
skills needed for the 21st Century. To accommodate the skills needs of the UK,
the government has shifted attention to the quality of its vocational education
system to ensure the learners of today’s world will be the appropriate workers of
the future.
Historically, low level skills were mainly required in the UK, reflecting the large
numbers of firms that were pursuing relatively low skilled, low quality product
market strategies (Lloyd and Steedman, 2000). Examples of such skills include
learning how to control machines and processes, documenting/recording
information, handling and moving objects, monitoring processes, materials, or
surroundings, monitoring and controlling resources and performing physical
activities.
In the 21st Century, however, in order for individuals to play an active role in the
UK’s future economic competitiveness, they have to be able to employ a wide
repertoire of skills in order to respond effectively to rapid world changes and
demands. This requires individuals to understand the knowledge they acquire,
play with new ideas, communicate effectively, collaborate and relate well to
others. They also need to be adaptive to change, be able to form plans, assess
their progress and set new goals, use technology and solve problems creatively
to find solutions to ‘wicked problems’ (Murgatroyd, 2010).
Achieving the development of these kinds of skills has been part of the public
policy agenda for some time. Although progress has been made towards these
objectives, further improvements are required. For this reason, the development
of skills is still in the forefront of government policy. In 2010, the UK Commission
for Employment and Skills (UKCES) confirmed that this is the case by stating:
Skills are vitally important to individuals, employers, communities and the
country as a whole. Rightly, England has ambitious objectives to be one of
the best skilled countries in the world… If such skills development is to have
maximum impact on employment and productivity, as well as business and
individual success, we need to seek to ensure that the skills we develop are those
that we really need: the skills required to meet the needs of the economy and
labour market.
(UKCES, 2010b, p5)
Good vocational education practice is fundamental to the development of the

21st Century skills and, in turn, sustainable economic growth and prosperity.
The issue of quality in vocational education has been fully recognised by
David Willetts, who in his first speech as the Minister for Universities and
Science stated:
In the current economic climate it has become crucial to provide a high quality
and appropriate vocational education system to help the country through the
recession and improve the competitive position of the UK within the modern
global economy.
The Government has already started to address the quality of vocational

education in line with the Wolf Review’s (2011) recommendations, which focus
on systemic change. Wolf examined a number of issues including the relevance
of courses and the need to ensure that they truly prepare young people for
the labour market, the transparency of the system and the ease in which
informed decisions can be made regarding course choice and place of study.
The recommendations therefore concern organisation, oversight and funding
mechanisms (Wolf, 2011). The Government has thus pledged to deliver on three
key themes:
●● ensure that all young people study and achieve in English and mathematics,
ideally to GCSE A*–C, by the age of 19
●● reform performance tables and funding rules to remove the perverse incentives
which have served only to devalue vocational education, while pushing young
people into qualification routes that do not allow them to move into work or
further learning
●● look at the experience of other countries to simplify Apprenticeships, remove
bureaucracy and make them easier for employers to offer.
(DfE, 2011).
The Government is therefore making plans to support improvement in vocational

education across the sector and thus address issues in quality. In more detail
below, is a discussion of the quality of current provision, including steps taken
already to improve teaching and learning in vocational education, and areas
where there remains room for improvement.
Current provision
The various qualifications available in vocational education (exampled in
Appendix 4) are subject to change and development dependent on government
policy. Furthermore, the recommendations by the Wolf Review (2011) and DfE
response (2011) indicate that such changes are certainly possible in the near
future. As stated previously, it is the quality of teaching and learning which
remains the consistently importantly factor in determining learner outcomes.
In considering the state of current vocational provision in the UK therefore, there
are two key considerations. Firstly, the quality of provision and secondly, the
pedagogy used by vocational teachers to deliver this provision.
Evidence on the quality of vocational provision has been mainly drawn from
Ofsted inspection reports. In previous years other public bodies would have
been appropriate such as the Adult Learning Inspectorate (ALI), but in 2007 ALI
merged with Ofsted. In this review, where inspection reports from 2004/05 are
referred to, data was taken from a joint Ofsted/ALI report. The focus on Ofsted
has been taken because of the gravitas it holds in the sector and its importance
to practitioners. Ofsted’s judgements on the quality of provision, influences
directly what practitioners do in the classroom.
The quality of provision

Evidence shows that there is still room for improvements to be made in the
quality of teaching and learning, despite significant improvements already made
in the sector. The quality of vocational provision has been emphasised on the
government agenda recently because of the UK’s economic circumstances. Of
course, seeking to improve quality has a continual presence and an instrumental
role to play in education – as it ultimately serves the learner, by striving to
improve their learning experience and outcomes.
It is worth noting that already there has been a considerable focus on improving
the quality of teaching and learning at system level. Innovations have included
a reform of teacher training in FE in 2006 to support improvements in teaching
and learning, new pedagogies and curriculum development. The reform also
included the requirement for all those teaching in FE to acquire a teaching
qualification - previously not a prerequisite - and to complete at least 30 hours
of Continuing Professional Development (CPD) per year. Another major initiative
introduced was the establishment of regional Centres for Excellence in Teacher
Training (CETTs), which aim to support the quality of Initial Teacher Training (ITT)
provision in their region and provide CPD that responds to the needs of the
practitioners it serves.
These policies and initiatives have brought some positive results in both initial
teacher training in FE and vocational education providers’ teaching and learning.
For example, in 2009, after a four year inspection-cycle, Ofsted reported that
the overall quality of teacher training in the providers visited was mostly judged
satisfactory or better, with much of the taught element judged to be good. The
Ofsted report also suggested that:
●● trainees’ understanding of the relevance and importance of the minimum core
subjects of literacy, numeracy and information and communication technology
was better than that seen in previous years
●● the overall quality of the assessment of trainees was good or better in just under
half of the partnerships inspected
●● providers gave greater attention to the development of trainees’ subject
specialist knowledge and skills
●● the quality of mentoring was still too variable.
However, much still remains to be done. According to the 2010 Ofsted report,
in FECs, too much teaching and learning is still mediocre; more emphasis is
required on learning and progress and on meeting individual needs through
suitable teaching methods.2 Ofsted suggested that colleges with inadequate and
unsatisfactory teaching and learning:
●● exhibit insufficient focus on the effectiveness of teaching and its impact on
learning
●● focus on checking that tasks have been completed rather than assess learners’
understanding
●● have low expectations and insufficient challenges particularly for the most
academically able
●● show a lack of clear learning objectives
●● design action plans to help learners reach their target grade which are not
sufficiently specific to support them to improve and learners’ progress is not
monitored closely enough
●● often involve routine work such as gathering information and note-taking, rather
than more challenging activities in their lessons.
In WBL, the annual Ofsted report of 2010 identified much uninspiring teaching
and training especially in class-based lessons and inadequate feedback on
learner progress in the work place. (Field in 2009, has also suggested that there
is poor quality teaching in WBL settings, that they are not always geared up for
learners and that course materials can be boring, repetitive and undemanding.)
Well-taught subject areas in the 2010 annual Ofsted report of the quality of
FECs’ provision included: Health, Public Service and Care, Arts, Media and
Publishing, Engineering and Manufacturing Technologies. Subject areas
where improvements were identified as being needed in teaching and learning
included: Business, Administration and Law, Science and Mathematics,
Construction, Planning and the Built Environment. Subject areas ‘well’ taught’
in work-based learning included Engineering and Manufacturing Technologies.
In contrast, Preparation for Life and Work, Construction, Planning and the Built
Environment and Retail and Commercial Enterprise were identified as needing
further improvements. In addition, inspection evidence suggests that teaching
and learning at Levels 1 and 2 is more problematic than teaching and learning at
Levels 3 and 4.
From inspection data available, from 2004/05 to 2009/10, the table in Appendix
6 provides a summary of the subjects ‘well taught’ and those that need ‘further
improvement’ in FECs and WBL providers. In short, subjects which were
consistently reported as needing further improvements include Construction,
Business Administration, Leisure, Travel and Tourism and Preparation for Life
and Work.
Although Ofsted has identified specific subject areas that need improvements
there is also evidence that across vocational education, the development of low
level skills as opposed to higher level skills is prevalent. For example, in 2002,
a review of pedagogical research and practice in the fields of post-compulsory
education and life-long learning suggested that, in WBL contexts, there is a
dominant teaching and learning approach for delivering low level/technical skills
(Cullen et al, 2002).
2
In 2008/09, inspections were carried out in 59 of 234 general further education or tertiary colleges, 27 of 93
sixth form colleges and three of 20 specialist further education colleges in England. In 2008/09, Ofsted has
carried out 16 short inspections of colleges judged to be good or outstanding at their previous inspections;
in 2007/08, the corresponding figure was 32.
Furthermore, there has been considerable debate over whether the nature of
some qualifications and their specifications can lead to a narrow approach
to delivery of vocational learning. For example, some researchers, when
discussing the outcome–based National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) system,
highlight the typically very narrow, task-specific approach and the limited use
of underpinning theory around delivery of skills in England (see for example
Brockmann, 2007).
Effective teaching and learning from evidence based research

An improvement in the effectiveness of teaching and learning is likely to result
in an improvement in learner outcomes. As indicated in the Introduction section
of this report, research tells us that the quality of teaching is the main factor
affecting learner achievement (Barber and Mourshed, 2008). Providers are
judged on a number of factors during Ofsted Inspections, but the quality of the
teaching and learning is considered to be a major consideration both for that
area of inspection and the overall inspection grade. The Common Inspection
Framework for further education and skills, (relevant for FECs and WBL
providers) includes four key factors used to evaluate a provider’s effectiveness
and efficiency in meeting the needs of learners and other users (Ofsted, 2009):
●● outcomes for learners
●● the provider’s capacity to make and sustain improvements
●● the quality of provision
●● leadership and management.
These four factors have their own subsets of criteria and for the ‘quality of
provision’, the quality of teaching and learning is evident within the subset
(Ofsted, 2009):
●● learning and assessment are linked to initial and current assessment and related
activities are adapted to make sure they build on and extend learning for all
learners
●● interesting and appropriate teaching and learning methods and resources inspire
and challenge all learners and enable them to extend their knowledge, skills and
understanding
●● technology is used effectively to promote and support learning, where
appropriate
●● staff have appropriate skills and expertise to provide good quality teaching,
learning, assessment and information and support services for each learner
●● assessment of learners’ performance and progress is timely, fair, consistent
and reliable
●● learning, teaching, training and assessment promote equality and recognise
diversity.
From such criteria, it is evident that effective teaching and learning is a result
of a number of features including how the curriculum is delivered and how
assessment takes place.
The Teaching and Learning Research Programme’s (TLRP, 2006) ten principles of
effective teaching and learning can be applied to both academic and vocational
education. The ten principles (shown below) originally constructed in TLRP’s
school-focused portfolio, were found to also resonate with their other projects in
pre-school, FE, HE, workplace learning, adult learning sectors (TLRP, 2006 and
TLRP, 2008). Equally however, vocational pedagogy must cater for the teaching
and learning issues that are specific to the vocational context, for example:
●● the need to balance formal knowledge and knowledge of workplace procedures
and practices
●● the need to develop generic pedagogic skills that are common across different
vocational areas and how they can be translated into the curriculum
●● co-ordination of learning that takes place in a number of contexts
●● the development of skills, and application in different contexts (Young, 2004).
These ten principles of effective teaching and learning, however, are relevant
across schools and further education (TLRP 2006):
1. equips learners for life in the broadest sense
2. engages with valued forms of knowledge
3. recognises the importance of prior existence and learning
4. requires the teacher to scaffold learning
5. needs assessment to be congruent with learning
6. promotes the active engagement of the learner
7. fosters both individual and social processes and outcomes
8. recognises the significance of informal learning
9. depends on teacher learning
10. demands consistent policy frameworks with support for teaching and learning as
their primary focus.
Recent guidance provided by the Excellence Gateway on effective teaching

and learning identifies ten approaches to effective pedagogy which have
been shown through evidence based research to support improvement in
professional practice:
1. experiential learning
2. multi-sensory learning
3. cooperative learning
4. differentiation
5. embedding literacy, language and numeracy
6. assessment for learning
7. learning conversations
8. relating theory to practice
9. e-learning and technology
10. modelling.
Such principles as those highlighted above provide the broad aims for teachers
to guide their practice and again highlights the importance of how teaching and
learning is delivered and how assessment takes place with synergy between a
range of interconnecting features.
This review aims to support teachers in the improvement of teaching and
learning and takes consideration of the criteria and frameworks set out above.
All of those features discussed above can however, be incorporated into a wider
and higher level framework for thinking about effective teaching and learning.
We therefore present here a higher level framework to explore what effective
teaching and learning is. Creemers’ definition of effective teaching and learning
which is, directed to ‘find’ the factors and variables in the teaching and learning
process that can explain the differences in the intended outcomes of comparable
groups of learners (Creemers, 1994, p 12). Creemers’ framework is described
below.
A framework to think about effective teaching and learning

To discuss effective teaching and learning, it is helpful to use a framework
and the one illustrated in Figure 3 below was developed from the Improving
the Quality of Education for All (IQEA) research project. This framework
encompasses four different elements of effective teaching - Teaching Skills,
Teaching Relationships, Teacher Reflection and Teaching Models. Importantly,
it is only when these four elements are in synergy that they are able to support
effective teaching as Creemers informs us, ‘isolated components or effective
elements of individual components do not result in strong effects on student
achievement’ (Creemers, 1994, p93).
Figure 3 Four ways of thinking about teaching, (Hopkins, 2007, p 76)
Teaching Skills Teaching Models
Teaching
Reflection
Teaching Relationships
Each of these components will be explored in turn drawing primarily from

effect-size research, and where appropriate, findings from the TLRP and others.
Effect-size research is often used in education studies to quantify the size of
difference between two control groups. Effect-sizes are given as a decimal figure
(e.g. 0.78) and are calculated by comparing the mean score of the two control
groups and dividing by the standard deviation (please see Appendix 3 for a more
detailed explanation).
The effect-size scores quoted in the below analysis are taken from meta-analyses.
A meta-analysis is a synthesis of all relevant research findings and therefore
provides a summary on a particular area of research; it is literally an analysis of all
analyses. John Hattie’s (2009) meta-analyses, referred to below, is a synthesis of
800 meta-analyses of 50,000 quantitative studies, which examine variables that
affect learner achievement. Importantly, Hattie plotted along a continuum from
very low effect-size to high effect-size; and calculated average effect-size scores.
Hattie considers ‘effect-sizes’ are the best way of answering the question, what
is the greatest influence on student learning? Interpreting the actual value of the
decimal figure is slightly problematic. Scores of 0.2 may be described as ‘small’,
0.5 ‘medium’ and 0.8 as ‘grossly perceptible and therefore large’ (Cohen, 1969).
In more detail an effect-size of 1.0 is typically associated with:
●● advancing learner’s achievement by one year or improving the rate of learning by
50 per cent
●● a correlation between some variable (e.g. amount of homework) and
achievement of approximately 0.5
●● average learners receiving that treatment exceeding 84 per cent of learners not
receiving that treatment
●● a two grade leap in GCSE, e.g. from C to an A grade. (Petty, undated).
To put in context, most innovations that are introduced in schools have an effect-
size of 0.4 or higher (Petty, undated). effect-sizes of 0.4 or higher are evidenced
below for Teaching Skills, Teaching Relationships, Teacher Reflection and
Teaching Models.
Teaching skills
Teaching skills refer to the everyday competences of teachers. Research on
teacher effects has consistently identified a set of teaching skills used which
support learner achievement and their improvement over time.
However, throughout the process of this literature review, it has become clear
that within current literature, definitions of teaching skills can often be used
interchangeably with teaching strategies and sometimes teaching models. This
results in terminological and conceptual confusion which we have attempted to
unravel in Chapter 3. As a starting point, we have summarised teaching skills,
as identified in literature, in the table below and further explained their use in
practice with evidence of their positive- effect-size following this table.
Table 5 Consistently high correlations are achieved between student achievement

scores and classroom processes (Brophy and Good in Wittrock, 1986).
Summary of Teaching Skills associated with Learner Achievement Gains

Behaviour management – creates a situation where learning can take place,
implying an orderly and quiet atmosphere. Moreover, effective teaching itself
contributes to behaviour management.
Opportunities to work outside the formal learning setting – if properly
organised, homework contributes to effectiveness. This implies a clear structure
of assignments and provision and evaluation of homework.
Pace – time and support should be varied according to individual learner need.
Clear goal setting – includes a restricted set of goals and an emphasis on basic
skills and on cognitive learning and transfer. The content should be chosen in
line with these goals.
Structuring the content – includes ordering of the content according to the
hierarchy of ordered goals. The use of advanced organisers can also structure
the content for learners. The use of prior knowledge can increase learners’ own
contributions and responsiveness for learning.
Clarity of presentation – implies the elements mentioned above but also refers
to the transfer process itself (avoiding vagueness and incomplete sentences).
Questioning (by means of low – and higher-order questions) – keeps learners at
work and can be used to check their understanding.
Immediate exercise after presentation – like questioning, exercises provide a
check for understanding and can be used to clarify problems.
Evaluating – suggests the evaluation of whether the goals are obtained, by
means of testing, providing feedback and corrective instruction.
Hattie (2009) and Marzano (1998) conducted meta-analysis on the teaching

skills summarised in the table above and produced interesting results with
regard to effect-size of some of these teaching skills. A description of the
teaching skills with their positive effect-size is outlined below.
●● Behaviour management 3 – in Hattie’s meta-analyses (2009), well managed
classes are found to have a high mean effect-size of 0.71. Whilst, Marzano’s
studies (1998) give effect-sizes of 0.52.and 0.62 on engagement. Well managed
classes are typified by an orderly and quiet atmosphere, where teachers guide
learner behaviour verbally or non-verbally; abrupt transition of learner activities
do not occur and pacing is maintained (Kounin, 1970 in Creemers). To achieve
this however, a combination of management and characteristics of effective
teaching and learning have to occur in order for effective classroom management
to take place (Creemers, 1994).
●● Opportunities to learn and practice outside the formal learning setting 4 –
studies have shown that ‘homework’ has higher effects for older learners
(effect-size for high-school learners is 0.64) (Hattie, 2009). In a vocational
setting ‘homework’ could mean for example the independent practice that
learners have to complete in order to master a particular technique or style.
Adapted from the original – from classroom management to behaviour management.

3
4
Adapted from the original – from homework to opportunities to learn and practice outside the formal
learning environment.
●● Clear goal setting – refers to the set of goals to be identified at the beginning of
the lesson. This involves a restricted set of goals that are hierarchically ordered,
with emphasis on basic skills, cognitive learning and transfer in practice. The
content is chosen in line with these goals (Creemers, 1994). Merzano has
identified an average effect-size of 0.97 when teachers specified goals, with the
most effective being the less specific goals, some of which were set by learners
(Merzano, 1998).
●● Pace – given the right time and support, almost all learners can become
proficient. While the standards should remain the same, time and support
should be varied according to individual learner need.
●● Structuring the content – structuring the content includes the ordering of the
content according to the hierarchically ordered goals. It is here that teachers
present the content of what it is to be learnt, provide explanations and concrete
examples, and demonstrate the practical and intellectual skills to be learnt. The
use of advance organisers can support the ordering of the content (effect-size of
0.42 Hattie; and 0.78 Merzano).
●● Clarity of presentation – clarity of presentation implies the elements mentioned
above but also refers to the transfer process itself (avoiding vagueness, clarity of
speech and incomplete sentences) (Creemers, 1994).
●● Questioning – effective questioning includes a combination of low level and
high-order questions for deeper learning (Redfield and Rousseau, 1981) and can
be used to keep learners at work and to check their understanding (Creemers,
1994). The ratio between low – high level questions, the quality of the questions
in terms of relevance, timing and appropriateness, the post-question timing
allowed before calling on one of the learners to respond and analysing learner
questions (Hattie, 2009), are also important factors of effective questioning.
●● Immediate exercise after presentation – involves the immediate application/
exercise of what has been ‘learnt.’ It is used to check understanding and clarify
issues and is guided and monitored by the teacher. Tasks are challenging and
suit learners’ needs. Teachers allow sufficient time for application to take place
and practice is directly linked to the new content or skill to be learnt. Practice is
best when it takes place in realistic settings and with the appropriate resources
available. Practice also needs to be repeated in order for knowledge to be gained
and technical skills to be perfected. Trial and error is crucial in this process
(Sennett, 2008).
●● Evaluation, feedback and corrective teaching and learning – refers to judgments
on whether goals have been obtained by means of ‘testing.’ Evaluation involves
feedback (or formative assessment, or assessment for learning) and corrective
instruction. Both Hattie (2009) and Merzano (1998) found high effect-sizes in
relation to feedback. Hattie found an effect-size of 0.81 when learners received
feedback, and Merzano, 0.74 when feedback was given to learners on the
process and strategies they were using to complete specific tasks.
Feedback in the above studies was defined in a number of ways and included
a number of different approaches (amongst others, teacher, peer and self
assessment, praise, and physical rewards). Importantly, formative assessment
which involves processes by which teachers, peers and learners themselves
identify where they are in their learning, where they are going and what needs
to be done to get them there (Weeden et al, 2002) is one of the most effective
approaches for delivering feedback, as is feedback from peers and self-
assessment. The TLRP (2006) also outlined, as one of their ten principles to
support effective further education, the need for assessment to be ‘congruent
with learning’; meaning that assessment should support the advancement of
learning and determine the direction of learning.
Teaching relationships
Teaching relationships include the relationships that teachers develop with
their learners and the relationships that learners develop with each other. In FE
teacher-learner relationships are listed as ‘the most important link in the process’
by the TLRP (2006) and it was described as particularly important that support
be given to learners from disadvantaged backgrounds or with a precedent of
under-achievement in education (TLRP and ESRC, 2008). Cornelius-White (2007)
conducted a meta-analysis of learner-centred teacher-learner relationships and
confirmed the importance of teaching relationships. He went on further to report
that positive teacher–learner relationships give rise to optimal, holistic learning
with above average mean correlations when compared with other educational
innovations for cognitive and behavioural outcomes.
Teacher reflection
Reflection is the process by which practice is evaluated and improved. Reflective
practice in education, introduced first by Donald Schon (1983) and taken
further by Kolb (1984) in his experiential learning theory, comprises: teacher
consideration of their own experiences and the connection of knowledge with
practice with reference to experienced teachers within the same curriculum area
(Schon 1996). Moon (1999) went on to discuss how reflection was the ability
in teachers to continuously evaluate and review their practice so that reflective
practice was defined as ‘a set of abilities and skills, to indicate the taking of a
critical stance, an orientation to problem solving or state of mind.’
So, effective teachers are reflective; they constantly assess and re-evaluate their
practice, discuss it with their colleagues, consider their learners’ responses and
seek to develop new and better ways of teaching.
Teaching models
Exploring learning theories will help us to understand where teaching models are
derived from as it is learning theory that underpins the teaching models that are
conceptualised in literature.
Learning theories hold different assumptions about knowledge, learners and
learning and importantly underpin pedagogical practices. Learning theories
which are commonly discussed include:
●● Behaviourist – learning is behavioural change and focuses on the changes
which can be brought about and observed in learners’ behaviours. In
addition, it is believed, learning can be enhanced through the manipulation of
environmental stimuli. For example, asking learners to leave the classroom after
speaking at inappropriate times to their peers will inhibit them to do it again,
whilst praising learners for submitting their work on time will encourage them
to continue to do so. Thus, teachers plan and implement pedagogical strategies
such as behavioural objectives, positive feedback mechanisms, re-enforcement
and demonstrations of approval.
●● Cognitive – learning is a mental process in which information is processed
and understood by the development and use of cognitive strategies. These
strategies allow learners to link previous and new knowledge in a meaningful
way and include concept mapping, advanced organisers, framing and outlining.
●● Social/Situational – learning is embedded within activity, context and culture –
it is situated (Lave and Wenger, 1991). Situated learning is learning that takes
place in the same context in which it is applied and involves social interaction
and collaboration in a particular physical environment. Learners become
involved in a ‘community of practice’ which embodies certain beliefs and
behaviours to be acquired.
●● Humanistic – learning should also be understood in terms of the personality

of the learner as well as behavioural change and the extent of information
processing. This approach views learning as a personal act to fulfil the potential
and development of the whole person. The aim of this learning is for learners to
become autonomous.
●● Constructivist – learning involves the active construction of meaning, knowledge
and skills by learners which is dependent on context. It is socially mediated and
is situated in the ‘real-world’ of the learner. (Merriam and Caffarella, 1991)
In practice, behaviourist and cognitive theories have acted as the theoretical

cornerstones of vocational pedagogy. The kinds of pedagogical strategies that
are based on behaviourist theories include instructional cues, demonstration,
practice, reinforcement, behavioural objectives and positive feedback
mechanisms. Strategies based on cognitive learning theories include framing,
outlining, concept mapping and advance organisers to help learners connect
new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
Both cognitive and behaviourist learning theories however are criticised for
assuming that learning is essentially an individual activity. They also assume the
transition model of learning in which the teacher or trainer selects pedagogical
strategies that enable the effective transmission and accumulation of knowledge
and skills by the learner.
The ‘new’ dominant theory in the literature is the constructivist theory.
Pedagogical strategies include discussions, group work, theoretical and
practical problem solving, the sharing of information, reflection, presentation of
alternative perspectives, modelling, coaching and mentoring. Importantly, adult
learning theories, experiential, problem-solving and project-based approaches
base their learning and teaching practices in constructivist theory. Indeed, the
interest in ‘communities of practice’, work-based learning and situated learning
theories demonstrate the influence of constructivist theory (Chappell, 2004).
However as Cullen et al (2002) highlights, most of these debates on the
supremacy of different learning theories are ‘value-laden; arguing for the
primacy of one approach over another rather than the appropriateness of
different practices for different settings and purposes’. In Australia, vocational
education pedagogy draws on a mix of educational assumptions and theories
about teaching and learning. Thus good vocational pedagogy has taken a more
pragmatic position in the constructivist camp or arguably draws from many
learning theory traditions where appropriate (Chappell, 2004).
There are many different learning styles theories and tools derived initially from
Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theories. Critics of learning styles theories
have argued that the underpinning research was highly contestable and that
labelling or pigeonholing learners with their preferred learning style is unhelpful.
Other writers assert that knowledge of the learning process and learners
‘preferred learning styles’ is an important part of delivering good teaching and
learning. Examples of learning styles include: Kolb’s (1984) four basic learning
styles of: diverging, assimilating, convergent and accommodating learners;
Honey and Mumford’s (1992) activists, reflectors, theorists, and pragmatists and
Dunn and Dunn’s model of visual, audio and kinaesthetic (VAK) learning styles.
Entwistle (2000) has argued that learners need to adopt both deep and surface
approaches for effective learning. Appendix 8 provides further detail references
and commentary on learning styles. The importance of learning styles theory is
in showing that learners learn in different ways and therefore teachers need to
consider this when planning their teaching and when selecting teaching models.
In the section below, it will become clear that that different learning theories
underlie different teaching models and that different teaching models are used
in teaching and learning with different types of learning objectives. We therefore
explore a range of teaching and learning models below.
The Department for Education (DfE) website states that research and practice
suggest that learners’ attainments can be enhanced by the consistent use of
specific teaching and learning models. These models have been developed
directly from theories about learning and may be defined as:
a tightly structured sequence that is designed to elicit and develop a specific type
of thinking or response.
The use of teaching models has the potential to be valuable in vocational

education as a means of improving practice. Some models bring together
strategies for learning that have been grouped according to the outcomes
learners need to achieve, relating to the knowledge and skills to be achieved as
well as the level of knowledge and skills to be achieved. The models can indicate
a way forward and can contribute to the improvement of practice in teaching and
learning.
For the purposes of this discussion, we present here the work undertaken by
Joyce et al (2008) who have produced a taxonomy of teaching models. They
have grouped these models based on the type of learning they promote and on
the orientation towards people and how they learn. All four families of models
are relevant to vocational education. The models grouped under each family
were selected according to how practical they were in a variety of teaching and
learning settings (Joyce et al, 2008, p. 124). These families are (see Appendix 7
for more details):
●● the information processing family of models – relevant to vocational education
in that they enhance learners’ ability to make sense of new information and
construct knowledge. The models in this family include, inductive thinking,
concept attainment, inquiry training and advance organisers.
Each model in this family is developed to support different types of thinking.

Information processing models support the individual in forming concepts
(inductive teaching), understanding them (concept attainment), memorising
information (e.g. mnemonics and link word approaches), thinking metaphorically
(synectics – a model developed from industry) and absorbing information
easier (advance organisers). Inquiry-based models are an important part of the
information processing family.
●● the social family of models – uses group inquiry and problem-solving strategies;
they encourage assimilation and understanding and rely on learners’ personal
and social values. These models include group investigation, social inquiry and
role playing. Overall, they facilitate, cooperative learning and the study of values.
In cooperative learning, learners work together in groups; they are positively

interdependent; tasks are structured so that learners need each other
to accomplish their common goals or activities and they take individual
responsibility for their work and learning. Furthermore, the overall effect of
peer tutoring and peers as co-teachers is also powerful. Peer tutoring has
many academic and social effects for those tutoring and those being tutored.
Peer tutoring is most effective when it is cross-age, is used as a supplement
rather than substitute for the teachers’ roles and is more learner controlled with
learners involved in the setting of goals, monitoring and evaluating performance
and selecting awards (Hattie, 2009).
In addition, the TLRP (2006) argues that effective teaching and learning
encourages social process and outcomes. Learners should be encouraged to
work together, share ideas and build knowledge together. TLRP argues that this
principle is essential in supporting effective FE.
●● the personal family of models – supports learners’ mental and emotional
health by developing self-confidence, forming a realistic sense of self and
building empathetic reactions to others. Examples of personal models include,
nondirective learning, awareness training, classroom meeting, self-actualisation
and conceptual systems.
Using these models, teachers’ help learners feel good about themselves, ‘own’
their own development and have a sense of self-worth. If self-efficacy, as we saw
earlier has such an impact in learner achievement, the incorporation of personal
models into teaching becomes crucial.
●● the behaviour family of models – seeks specific behavioural changes in
learners. Examples from this family include mastery learning, directed teaching,
simulations-based learning and feedback-centred models.
This family of models supports learners in mastering subject matter and

acquiring technical skills. Behaviourism believes that human beings are self-
correcting and modify their behaviour according to the success of their actions.
The models therefore assume that learners will adjust their behaviour or
approach to an action, according to the feedback they receive.
Each teaching model has the potential to deliver different outcomes. The models
are highly structured and involve a series of steps of teaching and learning
practice. All the different steps of the models are crucial and in order to achieve
successful outcomes all have to be used systematically (Joyce et al, 2008).
Research and meta-analyses undertaken by a range of researchers, including
Hattie (2009) and Merzano (1998) on effective teaching and learning, suggests
that of the teaching models mentioned above, a number can be identified as
having a positive effect on learner outcomes and skills:
●● Cooperative learning models have been developed which enable learners
to work together, using a variety of learning activities to improve their
understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for
learning what is taught but also for helping team mates learn, thus creating an
atmosphere of achievement. Learners work through the activity until all group
members successfully understand and complete it.
●● Opportunities (including ‘compare and contrast’ tasks) for learners to identify
similarities and differences between two or more concepts - with the best
strategy involving learners developing analogies that link new content with old.
●● Deductive strategies are where a teacher typically provides information and
examples of the concept or skill being taught, then, allows learners to practice
the skill being taught. This involves the learners in reasoning and applying
learning in a way that requires higher order thinking (e.g. evaluating a case
study)
●● Experimental enquiry enables learners to experience the processes of
knowledge creation. In essence the learning is stimulated by enquiry, it can
therefore be driven by questions or problems, based on a process of seeking
knowledge and new understanding; a learner-centred approach to teaching in
which the role of the teacher is to act as a facilitator. It is a move to self-directed
learning with learners taking increasing responsibility for their learning and the
development of skills in self-reflection and an active approach to learning. In
particular the learning outcomes could include: critical thinking, the ability for
independent inquiry, responsibility for own learning and intellectual growth and
maturity.
●● Whole class teaching offers a learning-centred approach to maximise whole
class instruction by creating energising, engaging teaching that all learners will
find useful. Much whole-class teaching is pitched at the middle of the ability
range, leaving the able learners unchallenged and the less confident struggling.
Participation is often confined to the regular volunteers and learners can
become passive and totally dependent on the teacher.
●● Peer explanations to other peers or to the whole class which can be either
whole class teaching or with every learner in the class paired with another. The
teacher writes lessons that one learner uses to teach or tutor another. During
the tutoring, one learner explains the work to another learner and asks them to
answer questions, and tells the learner whether his or her answers are correct.
Peer tutoring has been shown to work for learners at all levels.
●● Problem solving models involve the teacher in presenting the learners with
a problem. Learning becomes active in the sense that the learners have to
discover and work something out themselves, which provides the learners
with opportunities to examine and try out what they know and discover
what they need to learn. It presents learners with challenges about their own
resourcefulness, personal organisation, critical abilities and capacity to think.
●● Advance organisers aims to help learners integrate new information with
their existing knowledge, leading to ‘meaningful learning’ as opposed to rote
memorisation. It therefore, should develop cognitive structures and systems
for dealing with information and enable learners to arrange their knowledge
in order. This model is particularly useful to structure extended curriculum
sequences or courses and to guide learners systematically in the key ideas.
95
Appendix 3 Effect-size research
Effect-size is a simple way of quantifying the size of the difference between

two control groups. It is often applied to any measured outcome in education
or social science. To understand why we use it, we can see below an example
presented by Coe (2002).
A group of 38 children listened to a story and tested on their comprehension

skills by answering 20 questions. Half (19 children) listed to the story at 9am,
the other half at 3am.The purpose of the experiment was to explore how the
time of day effects learning. The average score was 15.2 for the morning group
and 17.9 for the afternoon group: a difference of 2.7.
To understand the effect, we need to understand how important the
difference of 2.7 is. effect-size research allows us to do this by taking into
account and comparing the variation in the scores of the two groups, thereby
putting the difference of 2.7 into context. If there were no overlap at all in
the scores (therefore everyone in the afternoon group scored higher than
the morning group) then this would seem like a substantial difference and
produce a large effect.
In statistical language therefore, the effect-size is the standardised mean

difference between the two groups, in other words:
Effect [Mean of group 1 (experimental group)] – [Mean group 2 (control group)]

=
Size
Standard Deviation
(The standard deviation is a measure, of the spread of a set of values.)
An effect-size of 0.8 means that the score of the average person in the
experimental group is 0.8 standard deviations above the average person in the
control group. Therefore the greater the decimal number, the greater the effect.
Cohen (1969) suggests a familiar way of understanding the numerical value
of effect-sizes. Scores of 0.2 are described as ‘small’, 0.5 ‘medium’ and 0.8 as
‘grossly perceptible and therefore large’. However, Cohen acknowledges the
danger of using ‘small’, ‘medium’ and ‘large’ out of context and Glass et al (1981)
argue that the effectiveness of any particular intervention can only be interpreted
in relation to other interventions that seek to produce the same effect. It should
also be considered that the importance of effect depends on and is relative to its
costs and benefits. In education, for example, if it could be shown that making a
small and inexpensive change would raise the academic achievement of even as
little as 0.1, then this could arguably be a significant improvement (Coe, 2002).
Please see Coe’s paper on effect-size for more information, details can be found
in the bibliography.
96
Appendix 4 Vocational qualifications in the UK
Table 6 Vocational qualifications across the UK and ‘academic’ equivalents according to

the National Qualifications Framework (NQF). Adapted slightly from Lucas et al
(2009) and DirectGov (2010).
Level Examples of qualifications Equivalent FE/HE What they offer

qualifications
8 BTEC Level 8 Advanced Doctorates Appropriate for leading experts or
Professional City & Guilds practitioners in a particular field:
Fellowship l highly developed and complex Levels
of knowledge, opportunity to develop
new and creative approaches that
extend or
l redefine existing knowledge or
professional practice
7 BTEC Advanced Professional Master’s Degree PGCE Appropriate for senior professionals and
BTEC Level 7 Advanced managers:
Professional Diplomas, l develop original responses to
Certificates and Awards complicated and unpredictable
City & Guilds Membership problems and situations
SVQ Level 5 (SCQF Level 11)
6 BTEC Advanced Professional Bachelor’s Degree Appropriate for people working as
BTEC Level 6 Professional Graduate Diploma knowledge-based professionals or in
Diplomas, Certificates professional management positions:
and Awards l a specialist, high-level knowledge of
City & Guilds Graduateship an area of work or study, to enable you
to use your own ideas and research in
response to complex problems and
situations
5 BTEC Professional Diplomas, Foundation Degree Appropriate for people working as higher
Certificates and Awards Diploma of Higher grade technicians, professionals or
BTEC Higher National Diploma Education managers:
BTEC Level 5 Professional l ability to increase the depth of
City and Guilds Full knowledge and understanding of an
Technological Certificate area of work or study, so you can
SVQ Level 4 (SCQF Level 8) respond to complex problems and
situations
l involves high-level of work expertise
and competence in managing and
training others
Appendix 4: Vocational qualifications in the UK 97
Level Examples of qualifications Equivalent FE/HE What they offer

qualifications
4 BTEC Professional Diplomas, Certificate of Higher Appropriate for people working in
Certificates and Awards Education technical and professional jobs and/or
BTEC Level 4 Professional managing and developing others’
specialist learning, involving:
l detailed analysis of a high-level of
information and knowledge in an area
of work or study
3 A Level BTEC Appropriate if you plan to go to university,
AS Level National work independently, or (in some cases)
Advanced Level 3 NVQ supervise and train others in their field
14–19 Diploma City & Guilds, of work:
Advanced Level 3 l ability to gain or apply a range of
Diploma knowledge, skills and understanding,
at a detailed level
2 GCSE at City & Guilds, Appropriate for many job roles:
grades A*–C Level 2 l good knowledge and understanding of
Higher 14–19 Level 2 NVQ a subject
Diploma l ability to perform variety of tasks with
Intermediate some guidance or supervision
Diploma
BTEC First
Diploma
1 GCSE at grades D–G Basic knowledge and skills:
Foundation 14–19 Diploma l ability to apply learning with guidance
Foundation Diploma or supervision
BTEC Introductory l may be linked to job competence
BTEC Level 2
Level 1 NVQ
Entry Entry Level Certificate Not geared towards specific occupations:
Foundation Diploma l basic knowledge and skills
BTEC Level 1 Certificate l basic knowledge and skills ability to
apply learning in everyday situations
98
Appendix 5 Wider skills frameworks from across

the world
Table 7 Re-created from Lucas, B., Claxton, G. and Webster, R. (2010) Mind the Gap.
Research and Reality in Practical and Vocational Education, London: Edge
Foundation, p 39
Framework Description of key elements
Queensland New Basics A focus on 4 broad skill areas grounded in ‘risk tasks’ (substantial real world
problems)
Victorian Essential Based on 4 components – interpersonal development, personal learning, ICT
Learnings and thinking processes
South Australia (SA) The SA Compass Two sections – Learning for Teaching and Teaching for
Learning to Learn learning. Includes understanding how self and others learn, developing deep
pedagogical and content knowledge and participating in professional learning
communities and networks
Tasmanian Curriculum Strong focus and the teaching of thinking skills, including reasoning, asking
questions, making decisions, solving problems along with responsible
community participation
New Zealand Key 5 Key competences rooted in principles of effective teaching. The 5
Competencies competencies are:- thinking; using language, symbols and texts; managing self;
relating to others; participating and contributing
Singapore Desired A long list of outcomes implicitly derived from the teaching of wider skills
Outcomes of Education including moral integrity, teamwork, self-belief, resilience, entrepreneurial spirit
and aesthetic appreciation
Finland Learning to Learn A complex framework with a strong emphasis both on the process of learning
Competencies and on its assessment. A set of context-related beliefs; self-related beliefs and
learning competencies
EU Framework for Key 8 key competencies for successful like in knowledge society. The 8 are:-
Competencies Communication in the mother tongue; Communication in a foreign language;
Mathematical literacy; Basic Competence in science technology; Digital
competence; Learning to learn; Interpersonal, intercultural, social and civic
competencies; Sense of innovation and entrepreneurship, and Cultural
awareness and expression
OECD DeSeCo OECD’s 3 broad clusters of competencies
Framework
Project Zero A range of approaches such as Visible Thinking, and Multiple Intelligences,
along with a set of 7 key principles for ‘smart schools’
Habits of Mind 16 wider habits of mind for effective learning, developed by Arther Costa
and Bena Kallick in the USA. The 16 include:- Persisting; Thinking and
communicating with clarity and precision; Managing impulsivity; Gathering
data through all senses; Thinking flexibility; Striving for accuracy and Finding
humour
99
Appendix 6 An overview of subjects ‘well taught’

and needing ‘improvement’
Table 8 An overview of ‘well taught’ and subjects needing ‘further improvement’

in teaching and learning derived from inspection data
Year ‘Well’ Taught Subjects Subjects needing ‘further improvements’
FECs WBL providers FECs WBL providers
2004/05 No data available Retail Engineering Construction

Customer Service Construction (ALI inspection and
(IFP report) IFP report)
Transportation
Foundation Levels Manufacturing
Information and
(Foster Review) (IFP report)
Communications
Technology (ICT) Manufacturing
(ALI report)
2007/08 No data available Engineering No data available Preparation for Life

Business and Work
Administration Health and Social
Construction Care
2008/09 Health and Social Engineering Leisure, Travel Leisure, Travel and
Care Construction and Tourism Tourism
Public Services Construction Business
Languages, Preparation for Administration
Literature and Life and Work
Culture Information and
Retail and Communication
Commercial Technology
Enterprise
2009/10 Health, Public Engineering and Business, Preparation for Life

Service and Care Manufacturing Administration and and Work
Arts, Media and Technologies Law Construction,
Publishing Science and Planning and the
Engineering and Mathematics Built Environment
Manufacturing Construction, Retail and
Technologies Planning and the Commercial
Built Environment Enterprise
100
Appendix 7 Examples of teaching models
Sources: Joyce et al (2008) and DfES (2004)

Behaviour and cybernetic family (Joyce et al, 2008)
Model Developer Purpose

Social learning Albert Bandura; Management of behaviour. Learning new patterns of
Carl Thoresen; behaviour, reducing phobic and other dysfunctional
Wes Becker patterns, learning self-control
Mastery learning Benjamin Bloom; Mastery of academic skills and content of all types
James Block;
B.F. Skinner
Programmed learning Many developers – Mastery of skills, concepts factual information
Carl Smith and
Mary Foltz
Simulation Thomas Good; Mastery of complex skills and concepts in a wide
Jere Brophy; range of areas of study
Wes Becker
and others
Direct teaching David Rinn Mastery of academic study and skills in a wide
range of areas of study
Anxiety reduction David Johnson; Control over aversive reactions. Application in
Roger Johnson treatment and self-treatment of avoidance and
dysfunctional patterns of response
Appendix 7: Examples of teaching models 101
Informational processing family (Joyce et al, 2008)

Inductive thinking Hilda Taba (Bruce Joyce) Development of classification skills, hypothesis
(classification) building and testing and understanding of how to
build conceptual understanding of content areas
Concept attainment Jerome Bruner; Learning concepts and studying strategies for
Fred Lighthall attaining and applying them. Building and testing
hypotheses
Inquiry training Richard Suchman Causal reasoning and understanding of how to
collect information, build concepts and build and
test hypothesis
Cognitive growth Jean Piaget and many Increase general intellectual development and
others adjust teaching and learning to facilitate intellectual
growth
Advance organisers David Ausubel and Designed to increase ability to absorb information
many others and organise it, especially in learning from lecturers
and readings
Mnemonics Michael Pressley; Increase ability to acquire information, concepts,
Joel Levin (and conceptual systems and meta-cognitive control of
associated scholars) information processing capability
Social family (Joyce et al, 2008)

Group investigation John Dewey; Development of skills for participation in democratic
Herbert Thelen; processes. Also emphasises social development,
Shlomo Sharan; academic skills and personal understanding
Rachel Hertz-Lazarowitz
Social inquiry Byron Massialas; Social problems solving through collective academic
Benjamin Cox study and logical reasoning
Jurisprudential inquiry James Shaver; Analysis of policy issues through a jurisprudential
Donald Oliver framework. Collection of data, analysis of value
questions and positions, study of personal beliefs
Laboratory method National Training Understanding of group dynamics, leadership,
Laboratory understanding of personal styles
Role playing Fannie Shaftel Study of values and their role in social interaction.
Personal understanding of values and behaviour
Positive interdependence David Johnson; Development of interdependent strategies of social
Roger Johnson interaction. Understanding of self-other
relationships and emotions
Structured social inquiry Robert Slavin and Academic inquiry and social and personal
colleagues development. Cooperative strategies for
approaching academic study
Personal family (Joyce et al, 2008)

Nondirective learning Carl Rogers Building capacity for personal development,
self-understanding, autonomy and esteem of self
Awareness training Fritrz Perls Increasing self understanding, self-esteem and
capacity for exploration. Development of
interpersonal sensitivity and empathy
Classroom meeting William Glasser Development of self-understanding and
responsibility to self and others
Self-actualisation Abraham Maslow Development of personal understanding and
capacity for development
Conceptual systems David Hunt Increasing personal complexity and flexibility in
processing information and interacting with others
Further useful descriptions

Inductive teaching also referred to as classifying, is a means of helping learners
to solve problems. Learners are presented with an array of data and asked to
sort and classify it, so generating a hypothesis or rule.
Deductive teaching focuses on subject concepts and, specifically, on the
learners’ understanding of ‘the concept rule’: a definition or rule which is stated
about the topic of the session.
Direct teaching is whole-class teaching characterised by a stimulus-response
approach. The teacher draws learners in, actively engaging them through a
variety of techniques such as questioning, explaining and organising group
work. There will often be a starter then plenaries at appropriate points to
clarify learning.
Modelling is effective in teaching new skills or procedures, for example how to
construct a paragraph, evaluate a painting or draw a conclusion from evidence.
Not only will the teacher demonstrate the procedure, but will also talk through
their thinking, so making explicit the decisions that have to be made at each stage.
Demonstration is an approach used to illustrate an event or procedure. It is often
used to stimulate thinking.
A constructivist approach can challenge and address misconceptions. Learners
are asked to make explicit their thinking about a particular notion or idea. This
will often reveal a range of ideas. Learners are then challenged to consider what
would happen in a particular circumstance for each of the ideas. Following this
learners are asked to rethink their ideas in light of what actually happens.
Concept attainment – this model is built around the studies of thinking
conducted by Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin (1967). It is designed to help learners
learn concepts for organising information and to help them become more
effective at learning concepts.
Simulations are constructed from descriptions of real-life situations. A less-than-
real- life environment is created for the instructional station. Sometimes the
renditions are quite elaborate (for example, flight and space flight simulators).
The learner engages in activity to achieve the goal of the simulation (to get the
aircraft off the ground, or to redevelop an urban area), and has to deal with
realistic factors until the goal is mastered.
Appendix 7: Examples of teaching models 103
In role playing, learners explore human-relations problems by enacting problem

situations and then discussing the enactments. Together, learners can explore
feelings, attitudes, values, and problem-solving strategies.
Jurisprudential inquiry In a replica of the judicial process, jurisprudential inquiry
lets learners explore controversial issues in much the same way as participants
in a trial are introduced to and must evaluate or weigh evidence.
1 04
Appendix 8 Learning styles
Learning styles form an important part of the context of teaching and

learning in which teachers practice. Learning styles may be defined as one’s
way of processing information, feeling and behaving in learning situations
(Smith, 1982).
There is a vast amount of literature and diagnostic tools that have arisen due
to the emphasis on learning styles and associated terms such as learning
strategies and learning approaches. There are now questions over the value
of this area of learning research and in particular the value of diagnostic tools.
There is a body of research which indicates that the process of diagnosing
learners with a learning style can risk labelling them and pigeonholing learners
in their most preferred learning style. Instead it is argued that teachers need
to expand their learners’ repertoires by scaffolding learning activities beyond
their preferred learning styles (Cordingley and Bell, 2007). TLRP (2006) also
states that the tutor’s role is to scaffold learning 5 and provide learners with the
activities to move forward intellectually. Knowledge of the learning process and
learners ‘preferred learning styles’ is thus an important part of delivering good
teaching and learning which is appropriate to context.
Various styles of learning and tools for assessing learning styles, sometimes
known as Learning Style Inventories (LSI) have been identified by theorists.
Kolb’s set of learning styles is a commonly referenced example. It was developed
from his theory of the learning process, known as experiential learning.
Experiential learning defines learning as the process whereby knowledge is
created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from
the combination of grasping knowledge and transforming it (Kolb 1984). Kolb
expressed this process in what he called the learning cycle, shown below:
Figure 4 Kolb’s Learning Cycle, from Kolb (1984).
crete Experien
Con ce

n
tio
Re
Experimenta
flect
ive Observa
tive
tio
Ac
Ab
str
act C ion
onceptualisat
Scaffolding is based on the idea that individual learner’s have a limited margin in which what they can learn
5
in a particular timeframe. Scaffolding refers to the supports the teacher provides to help the learners carry
out a task. It may for instance require a teacher to carry out parts of the overall task that the learner cannot
yet manage. It involves a kind of cooperative problem-solving effort by teacher and learner in which the
express intention is for the learner to assume as much of the task on his/her own (see Cullen, 2002).
Appendix 8: Learning Styles 105
The cycle shows different stages in the learning process; concrete experience
and abstract conceptualisation being when knowledge is grasped and active
experimentation and reflective observation when knowledge is transformed.
Kolb proposed that this cycle can be started from any of the stages and that
it should be approached as a continuous cycle. However, in practice it is
suggested that often the learning cycle begins with concrete experiences,
the learner carrying out a particular action and realising the effects of this
action. The second step involves the reviewing and reflecting on the task just
completed, asking questions and understanding what happened. This leads to
the third stage, in which learners understand the general principle behind the
event/task in order to complete the last stage, of applying what has been learnt
to other circumstances. Kolb argues that effective learning requires the use of
all four stages in the cycle and therefore different abilities to fulfil each stage
(Kolb, 1984). Few learners can approach learning situations so ideally, and thus
Kolb recognised that learners tend to show orientation to certain stages of the
cycle. He therefore developed a learning style inventory to identify four basic
learning styles:
●● Diverging (feeling and watching) – learners who like to look at things from
different perspectives, preferring to watch and use imagination to solve
problems
●● Assimilating (watching and listening) – learners prefer a concise, logical
approach, these people require good clear explanation rather than practical
opportunity
●● Converging (doing and thinking) – learners solve problems and use their
learning to find solutions to practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, and
find practical uses for ideas and theories
●● Accommodating (doing and feeling) – learners prefer a ‘hands on’ approach to
learning, relying on human intuition rather than logic (see Kolb, 1984).
Other examples of learning styles include visual, audio and kinaesthetic

(VAK). A visual learning style refers to learning by seeing or reading, audio by
listening and talking and kinaesthetic by feeling and doing (Flemming, 2001).
There are also variations of this, including VAKT (visual, audio, kinaesthetic
and tactile). These learning style categories have been adopted by various
learning style theorists and inventories. The Dunn and Dunn model determines
that the diagnosis of visual, audio or kinaesthetic learners is dependent on
learner preference to various stimuli which can be grouped in environmental,
emotional, sociological, psychological and physiological elements. The VAK
learning style in particular has led to the development of many commercially
developed diagnostic tools, and as stated the value of these diagnoses has
been questioned. As Coffield et al (2004) asserted, it has led to ‘clear, simple,
but unfounded messages for practitioners and managers that have too often
been distilled from a highly contested field of research.’
Furthermore, Noel Entwistle (2000) asserts that learners hold conceptions
of learning that tend to develop and become more sophisticated over time.
Entwistle argues that if learners hold a sophisticated conception of learning they
adopt a deep approach to learning to reach their own understanding of materials
and ideas.
●● Deep learning – the intention of the learner is to extract meaning and produces
active learning processes that involve relating ideas and looking for patterns
and principles. This approach also involves monitoring the development of one’s
own understanding and adapting learning accordingly.
Conversely, if learners conceptualise learning in terms of memorisation of facts

and their intention is to just meet course requirements they are likely to adopt a
surface approach (Coffield et al, 2004).
●● Surface learning – the intention of the learner is to cope with the task, the
learning process is restricted because the course is viewed as unrelated bits of
information. At best it leads to routine memorisation.
Important to the theory is the proposal that learners can adopt both deep and
surface approaches when needs be, to achieve the best possible marks, this is
known as a strategic approach.
In terms of pedagogical relevance, teachers can facilitate a deep learning
approach through pedagogical choices. Entwistle briefly examples teachers
who use more varied methods of assessment to purposefully ensure learners
have deep understanding and reflect on what they have learnt (Entwistle, 2002).
Further, Ramsden and Entwistle, show that the deep approach to learning is
encouraged by learners being given freedom in learning and experiencing
good teaching with good pace, pitch, real-life illustrations, empathy with
learner difficulties, tutors being enthusiastic and offering lively and striking
explanations (Ramsden and Entwistle, 1981, cited in Coffield, et al, 2004). The
learning approaches that learners are oriented to, thus form part of the context
and can give direction to the pedagogical decisions teachers make.
Although the issues around learning styles must be acknowledged, knowledge
of the learning process and styles can help teachers expand their learners’
repertoire of skills through scaffolding learning. It importantly, can help deliver
personalised and effective teaching and learning appropriate to context.
LSN is a not-for-profit organisation focused on
making learning work across the public and private
sectors, in the UK and internationally.
We’re experts in learning and development –
at individual and organisational levels. We apply
this expertise to provide consulting, outsourcing,
research, technology and training services, all
underpinned by a powerful body of research and
25 years’ experience.
Our people work at the very forefront of their field,
and we take pride in placing innovative policy and
practice at the heart of everything we do.
LSN
Fifth Floor, Holborn Centre
120 Holborn
London, EC1N 2AD, UK
Tel +44 (0)20 7492 5000
Email [email protected]
www.lsnlearning.org.uk
110052RP/10/2011/web upload only

© LSN 2011
Learning and Skills Network trading as LSN. A company limited by guarantee.

Registered in England no 5728105. Registered as a charity no 1113456.

Effective Teaching and Learning en PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Effective Teaching and Learning en PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Effective Teaching and Learning en PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Effective teaching

Consulting | Outsourcing | Research | Technology | Training

Consulting | Outsourcing | Research | Technology | Training

Designer: Joel Quartey

2 Research design and approach 7

3 Vocational teaching and learning in practice 9

3.1 Teaching relationships 11

3.2 Teaching models 15

3.3 Teaching skills and strategies 32

3.4 Teacher reflection 48

4 Towards a Framework for Developing Effective Vocational Teaching 54

4.1 Using the Framework for Developing Effective Vocational Teaching 56

4.2 Analysis of travel and tourism session 56

Appendix 1 Methodology and approach 74

Appendix 2 Effective vocational teaching and learning – a brief review 78

Appendix 3 Effect-size research 95

Appendix 4 Vocational qualifications in the UK 96

Appendix 5 Wider skills frameworks from across the world 98

Appendix 6 An overview of subjects ‘well taught’ and needing ‘improvement’ 99

Appendix 7 Examples of teaching models 100

Appendix 8 Learning styles 104

Background and introduction

Teacher reflection – is a threefold process comprising direct experience, analysis

Summary of main findings

A Framework for Developing Effective Vocational Teaching and Learning

Teaching Teaching Skills

These five interrelated and overlapping components in the Framework must

3. There were many examples of effective practice in vocational teaching and

2 Research design and approach

2.1 Research aims and objectives

Phase 4 involved development of guidance to support vocational lecturers

3 Vocational teaching and learning

Figure 1 Four ways of thinking about teaching, (Hopkins, 2007)

Teaching Skills Teaching Models

These four components: teaching relationships, teaching models, teaching skills

3.1 Teaching relationships

●● high expectations (see Hattie and Merzano’s meta-analyses of effect-size)

Active learning, while carrying out assignments or projects for instance,

Use humour, yes, well we class it in the building trade as banter. So if a

3.1.1 Teaching relationships – comments

3.2 Teaching models

What is a teaching model?

The second distinctive feature is the structured sequence of steps or phases

In our analysis of the observations and interviews we found no evidence of

Table 1 Teaching models compared

Processing Acquiring l Inductive (classifying) Information l Inductive

Constructing Constructing l Constructivism Social l Group investigation

The examples (drawn from observations and interviews) are provided to

3.2.1 Acquiring skills/ behaviour and cybernetic family of models

Direct teaching/programmed learning

Sequence of activities (syntax)

Direct teaching using physical guidance

Sequence of activities (syntax)

Direct teaching using demonstration

Sequence of activities (syntax)

3.2.2 Acquiring concepts/information processing family

Sequence of activities (syntax)

This teacher, in a computing session, devises an activity that requires the

Sequence of activities (syntax)