Bab 7

7 Activity-Based Costing and
Management
ª Pixelfabrik/Alamy
After studying Chapter 7, you should be

able to:
1 Explain why functional (or volume)-

based costing approaches may
produce distorted costs.
2 Explain how an activity-based costing
system works for product costing.
3 Describe activity-based customer
costing and activity-based supplier
costing.
4 Explain how activity-based
management can be used for cost
reduction.
Madlen/Shutterstock.com
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
EXPERIENCE MANAGERIAL DECISIONS
with Cold Stone Creamery
Experts believe that ice cream as we know it was invented activity drivers associated with each type of ice cream order
in the 1600s and was popularized in part by Charles I and to estimate the costs of these activities.
of England, who made it a staple of the royal table. Two important drivers of costs for Cold Stone include
Ice cream remains as popular as ever today, but trips to ingredients and time, both of which vary significantly across
the local ice cream parlor have changed dramatically. different ice cream product orders. With the insights
Cold Stone Creamery, founded in 1988 in Tempe, gained from its ABC analysis, Cold Stone understands the
Arizona, has helped to lead this cost of various orders’ prepa-
change with its innovative busi- ‘‘These options are great for ration time, which is meas-
ness model focused on making ured in seconds. In addition
customers with varied tastes, but
the ice cream trip an entertain- to labor, Cold Stone’s ABC
are challenging for Cold Stone
ment experience for the entire system considers the costs
family. Cold Stone operates

to manage given the different associated with training, uni-
nearly 1,500 stores worldwide. types of activities associated with forms, and employee bene-
Cold Stone executives must different types of product orders. fits when estimating the cost
understand and control the com- Therefore, Cold Stone adopted of each second required in
pany’s complex cost structure in activity-based costing (ABC) to making each product. When
order to profitably manage its ice combined with other costs,

identify the activity drivers
cream empire. For example, its the ABC analysis provides an
associated with each type of ice
most popular product line—ice estimate of profit margin by
cream with ‘‘mix in’’ ingredients—

cream order and to estimate the product type. If a particular
boasts 16 basic ice cream flavors costs of these activities.’’ product is not making its
with 30 different ingredients and expected margin, Cold Stone

three sizes, which represent thousands of possible ice managers know to look at the activities involved in creating
cream product options! These options are great for custom- the product and to fine-tune that activity. This understand-
ers with varied tastes, but are challenging for Cold Stone to ing of Cold Stone’s complex cost structure has provided
manage given the different types of activities associated the company with a valuable competitive advantage to
with different types of product orders. Therefore, Cold become one of the most profitable and fastest-growing
Stone adopted activity-based costing (ABC) to identify the franchises in America.
281
282 Chapter 7 Activity-Based Costing and Management
OBJECTIVE 1 LIMITATIONS OF FUNCTIONAL-BASED COST

Explain why functional (or volume)-
based costing approaches may ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS
produce distorted costs. Plantwide and departmental rates based on direct labor hours, machine hours, or other
volume-based measures have been used for decades to assign overhead costs to products
and continue to be used successfully by many organizations. However, for many settings,
this approach to costing is equivalent to an averaging approach and may produce dis-
torted, or inaccurate, costs. For example, assume two friends, Lisa and Jessie, go to Cold
Stone Creamery for dessert. Lisa orders a small chocolate ice cream in a plastic cup with
no mix-ins, costing $3.00, and Jessie orders a medium strawberry banana rendezvous in a
waffle dish (which has four mix-ins: graham cracker pie crust, white chocolate chips,
strawberries, and bananas), costing $10. If the total bill is split evenly between the two,
each individual would pay $6.50, which doesn’t accurately represent the actual cost of
each dessert. Lisa’s dessert is overstated by $3.50, and Jessie’s is understated by $3.50. If
it is important to know the cost of each dessert, the averaging approach is not suitable.
In the same way, plantwide and departmental rates can produce average costs that
severely understate or overstate individual product costs. Thus, Cold Stone Creamery
would be very interested in knowing the cost of its numerous products and likely would not
be satisfied with an averaging approach. Without accurate costing, Cold Stone would not
be able to properly price its various products. Product cost distortions can be damaging,
particularly for those firms whose business environment is characterized by the following:
. intense or increasing competitive pressures (often on a worldwide level)
. small profit margins
. continuous improvement
. total quality management
. total customer satisfaction
. sophisticated technology
Firms operating in theses types of business environments in particular need accurate
cost information in order to make effective decisions.
In order for accurate cost information to be produced, it is important that the firm’s
cost system accurately reflect the firm’s underlying business, or economic, reality. Thus, it
is important that the managerial accountant continually ask the question, ‘‘How well does
the cost system’s representation of my business match the economic reality of my busi-
ness?’’ If the answer is ‘‘not very well,’’ then the cost system needs to be changed. There-
fore, in much the same way that financial statements must be transparent for external
users, the cost system must be transparent in its assignment of costs for internal users.
The need for more accurate product costs has forced many companies to take a seri-
ous look at their costing procedures. Two major factors impair the ability of unit-based
plantwide and departmental rates to assign overhead costs accurately:
. The proportion of nonunit-related overhead costs to total overhead costs is large.
. The degree of product diversity is great.
Nonunit-Related Overhead Costs

The use of either plantwide rates or departmental rates assumes that a product’s con-
sumption of overhead resources is related strictly to the units produced. For unit-level
activities—activities that are performed each time a unit is produced—this assumption
makes sense. Traditional, volume-based cost systems label the costs associated with
these activities as variable in nature, because they increase or decrease in direct propor-
tion to increases or decreases in the levels of these unit-level activities. All other costs
(i.e., ones that are not unit-level) are considered fixed by volume-based cost systems.
But what if there are nonunit-level activities—activities that are not performed each
time a unit of product is produced? The costs associated with these nonunit-level activ-
ities are unlikely to vary (i.e., increase or decrease) with units produced. These costs
Chapter 7 Activity-Based Costing and Management 283
vary with other factor(s), besides units, and identifying such factor(s) is helpful in pre-
dicting and managing these costs. Proponents of activity-based costing (ABC) refer to
the ABC cost hierarchy that categorizes costs either as unit-level (i.e., vary with output
volume), batch-level (i.e., vary with the number of groups or batches that are run), product-
sustaining (i.e., vary with the diversity of the product or service line), or facility-
sustaining (i.e., do not vary with any factor but are necessary in operating the plant).1
Exhibit 7.1 shows the activity-based costing hierarchy.
EXHIBIT 7.1
ABC Hierarchy
Type of Cost Description of Cost Driver Example
Unit-level Varies with output volume Cost of indirect materials for

(e.g., units); traditional labeling each bottle of
variable costs Victoria’s Secret perfume
Batch-level Varies with the number of Cost of setting up laser
batches produced engraving equipment for each
batch of Epilog key chains
Product-sustaining Varies with the number of Cost of inventory handling

product lines and warranty servicing of
different brands carried by
Best Buy electronics store
ª Cengage Learning 2014
Facility-sustaining Necessary to operate the Cost of General Motors

plant facility but does not plant manager salary
vary with units, batches, or
product lines
Nonunit-Level Activity Drivers Setting up equipment is one example of a non-

unit-level activity because, often, the same equipment is used to produce different prod-
ucts. Setting up equipment means preparing it for the particular type of product being
made. For example, a vat may be used to dye t-shirts. After completing a batch of
1,000 red t-shirts, the vat must be carefully cleaned before a batch of 3,000 green t-shirts
is produced. Thus, setup costs are incurred each time a batch of products is produced.
A batch may consist of 1,000 or 3,000 units, and the cost of setup is the same. Yet as
more setups are done, setup costs increase. The number of setups (a batch-level cost),
not the number of units produced (a unit-level cost), is a much better measure of the
consumption of the setup activity.
Another example of a nonunit-level activity is reengineering products. At times,
based on customer feedback, firms face the necessity of redesigning their products. This
product reengineering activity is authorized by a document called an engineering work
order. For example, Multibras S.A. Electrodomesticos, a Brazilian appliance manufac-
turer (and subsidiary of Whirlpool), may issue engineering work orders to correct design
flaws of its refrigerators, freezers, and washers. Product reengineering costs may depend
on the number of different engineering work orders (a product-sustaining cost) rather
than the units produced of any given product.
Similarly, JetBlue’s decision to add a second type of jet, the Embraer 190, to its
existing fleet of Airbus A320s, caused it to incur significant additional product-
sustaining costs that it would not have incurred had it stayed with only one type of
1
R. Cooper, Cost Classification in Unit-Based and Activity-Based Manufacturing Cost Systems, Journal of Cost
Management for the Manufacturing Industry (Fall 1990): 4–14.
plane. These additional product-sustaining costs included the costs for

doubling the spare parts inventory, maintenance programs, and separate
pilot-training tracks.2
At Fitzgerald Inc., Department C inspects each Therefore, nonunit-level activity drivers (i.e., batch, product-sustaining,
product produced and Department A inspects and facility-sustaining) are factors that measure the consumption of non-
a small sample of each batch of products pro- unit-level activities by products and other cost objects, whereas unit-level
duced. Which inspection activity is unit-level, activity drivers measure the consumption of unit-level activities. Activity
and which is nonunit-level? drivers, then, are factors that measure the consumption of activities by
products and other cost objects and can be classified as either unit-level or
Answer: nonunit-level.
Using only unit-based activity drivers to assign nonunit-related over-
A unit-level activity is performed each time a head costs can create distorted product costs. The severity of this distortion
unit is produced, whereas a nonunit-level activ-
depends on what proportion of total overhead costs these nonunit-based
ity is performed at times that do not corre-
costs represent. For many companies, this percentage can be significant, so
spond to individual unit production. Thus,
inspection is unit-level for Department C and care should be exercised in assigning nonunit-based overhead costs. If non-
nonunit-level for the Department A. unit-based overhead costs are only a small percentage of total overhead
costs, then the distortion of product costs will be quite small. In such a case,
using unit-based activity drivers to assign overhead costs is acceptable.
Product Diversity
The presence of significant nonunit overhead costs is a necessary but not sufficient con-
dition for plantwide and departmental rate failure (i.e., distorted costs). For example, if
products consume the nonunit-level overhead activities in the same proportion as the
unit-level overhead activities, then no product-costing distortion will occur (with the use
of traditional overhead assignment methods). The presence of product diversity is also
necessary for product cost distortion to occur. Product diversity means that products
consume overhead activities in systematically different proportions. This may occur for
several reasons, including differences in:
. product size
. product complexity
. setup time
. size of batches
Illustrating the Failure of Unit-Based Overhead Rates

To illustrate how traditional unit-based overhead rates can distort product costs, refer to
the data for Rio Novo’s Porto Behlo plant in Exhibit 7.2 (assume that the measures are
expected and actual outcomes). The Porto Behlo plant produces two models of washers:
a deluxe and a regular model. Because the quantity of regular models produced is 10
times greater than that of the deluxe, the regular model is a high-volume product and the
deluxe model is a low-volume product. The models are produced in batches.
Remember that prime costs represent direct materials and direct labor. Given that
these costs are direct in nature, they can be traced to each individual unit produced. It is
the indirect, or overhead, costs that typically are treated differently by different types of
cost systems. Usually, activity-based cost systems generate more accurate cost data than
unit-based cost systems because of their more appropriate treatment of overhead costs.
For simplicity, only four types of overhead activities, performed by four distinct support
departments, are assumed:
. setting up the equipment for each batch (different configurations are needed for the
electronic components associated with each model)
. moving a batch
. machining
. assembly (performed after each department’s operations)
2
S. Carey, ‘‘Balancing Act: Amid JetBlue’s Rapid Ascent, CEO Adopts Big Rivals’ Traits,’’ The Wall Street Journal
(August 25, 2005).
EXHIBIT 7.2
Product-Costing Data for Rio Novo’s Porto Behlo Plant
Activity Cost Data

Activity Usage Measures (Overhead Activities)
Deluxe Regular Total Activity Activity Cost
Units produced 10 100 110 Setting up equipment $1,000

Prime costs $800 $8,000 $8,800 Moving goods 1,000

Direct labor hours 20 80 100 Machining 1,500
Machine hours 10 40 50 Assembly 500
Setup hours 3 1 4 Total $4,000
Number of moves 6 4 10
Problems with Costing Accuracy The activity usage data in Exhibit 7.2 reveal
some serious problems with either plantwide or departmental rates for assigning over-
head costs. The main problem with either procedure is the assumption that unit-level
drivers such as machine hours or direct labor hours drive or cause all overhead costs.
From Exhibit 7.2, it can be seen that regular models, the high-volume product, use
four times as many direct labor hours as deluxe models, the low-volume product (80
hours vs. 20 hours). Thus, if a plantwide rate is used, the regular models will be assigned
four times more overhead cost than the deluxe models. But is this reasonable? Do unit-
based drivers explain the consumption of all overhead activities? In particular, is it
reasonable to assume that each product’s consumption of overhead increases in direct
proportion to the direct labor hours used? Now consider the four overhead activities to
see if the unit-level drivers accurately reflect the demands of regular and deluxe model
production.
Examination of the data in Exhibit 7.2 suggests that a significant portion of over-
head costs is not driven or caused by direct labor hours. Each product’s demands for
setup and material-moving activities are more logically related to the setup hours and
the number of moves, respectively. These nonunit activities represent 50% ($2,000/
$4,000) of the total overhead costs—a significant percentage. Notice that the low-
volume product, deluxe models, uses three times more setup hours than the regular
models (3/1) and one and a half as many moves (6/4). However, using a plantwide rate
based on direct labor hours, a unit-based activity driver assigns four times more setup
and material moving costs to the regular models than to the deluxe. Thus, product
diversity exists, and we should expect product cost distortion because the quantity of
unit-based overhead that each product consumes does not vary in direct proportion to
the quantity consumed of nonunit-based overhead.
Regardless of the nature of the product diversity, product cost will be distorted
whenever the quantity of unit-based overhead that a product consumes does not vary in
direct proportion to the quantity consumed of nonunit-based overhead. The proportion
of each activity consumed by a product is defined as the consumption ratio and is calcu-
lated as:
Amount of Activity Driver per Product

Consumption Ratio ¼
Total Driver Quantity
Cornerstone 7.1 (p. 286) illustrates how to calculate the consumption ratios for the
two products.
Calculating Consumption Ratios

Why:
Logically, the cost of shared resources should be assigned in proportion to the amount of
the resources consumed. Since activities represent bundles of resources consumed by prod-
ucts, it is reasonable to assign activity costs in proportion to the amount of activity con-
sumed. Activity drivers measure activity output and thus can be used as measures of
7.1 activity consumption. Consumption ratios, then, represent the proportion of an activity
consumed by individual products, calculated using activity drivers.
Information:
Refer to the activity usage information for Rio Novo’s Porto Behlo plant in Exhibit 7.2
(p. 285).
Required:
Calculate the consumption ratios for each product.
Solution:
Step 1: Identify the activity driver for each activity.
Step 2: Divide the amount of driver used for each product by the total driver quantity.
Consumption Ratios
Overhead Activity Deluxe Model Regular Model Activity Driver
Setting up equipment 0.75a 0.25a Setup hours
Moving goods 0.60b 0.40b Number of moves
Machining 0.20c 0.80c Machine hours
Assembly 0.20d 0.80d Direct labor hours
a
3/4 (deluxe) and 1/4 (regular).
b
c
d
The consumption ratios in Cornerstone 7.1 suggest that a plantwide rate based on
direct labor hours will overcost the regular models and undercost the deluxe models.
Solving the Problem of Cost Distortion This cost distortion can be solved using
activity rates. Instead of assigning the overhead costs using a single, plantwide rate, a
rate for each overhead activity can be calculated and used to assign overhead costs.
Cornerstone 7.2 shows how to calculate these rates.
Calculating Activity Rates

Why:
An activity rate is the means by which activity costs are assigned to products. A rate for
each activity is calculated by dividing the activity cost by an activity driver. A cause-and-
effect relationship is the basis for choosing the activity driver used in the rate calculation.
7.2 (Continued)
Information: CORNERSTONE
Rio Novo’s Porto Behlo plant activity cost and driver data follow:
7.2
Activity Activity Cost ($) Driver Driver Quantity
Setting up equipment 1,000 Setup hours 4 (Continued)
Moving goods 1,000 Number of moves 10
Machining 1,500 Machine hours 50
Assembly 500 Direct labor hours 100
Required:
Calculate the activity rates.
Solution:
Divide the activity cost by the total driver quantity:
Setup rate: $1,000/4 setup hours ¼ $250 per setup hour

Materials handling rate: $1,000/10 moves ¼ $100 per move
Machining rate: $1,500/50 machine hours ¼ $30 per machine hour
Assembly rate: $500/100 direct labor hours ¼ $5 per direct labor hour
To assign overhead costs, the amount of activity consumed by each product is

needed along with the activity rates. Cornerstone 7.3 shows how to calculate the unit
cost for each product by using activity rates.
Calculating Activity-Based Unit Costs

Why:
To increase the accuracy of overhead cost assignments, causal factors, called activity driv-
ers, are chosen that measure the amount of activity consumed by a product. The activity
rate multiplied by the amount used of each activity determines the amount of activity cost
assigned to a particular product. The sum of all such assigned activity costs is the total
amount of overhead consumed by a product. Overhead costs plus prime costs divided by
units produced then yields the unit cost.
7.3
Information:
Rio Novo’s Porto Behlo plant activity rate data for deluxe and regular models follows:
Deluxe Regular Activity Rate

Units produced per year 10 100
Prime costs $800 $8,000
Setup hours 3 1 $250
Number of moves 6 4 $100
Machine hours 10 40 $ 30
Direct labor hours 20 80 $ 5
(Continued)
CORNERSTONE Required:
Calculate the unit cost for deluxe and regular models.
7.3
Solution:
(Continued)
Deluxe Regular
Prime costs $ 800 $ 8,000
Overhead costs:
Setups:
$250 3 3 setup hours 750
$250 3 1 setup hour 250
Moving materials:
$100 3 6 moves 600
$100 3 4 moves 400
Machining:
$30 3 10 machine hours 300
$30 3 40 machine hours 1,200
Assembly:
$5 3 20 direct labor hours 100
$5 3 80 direct labor hours 400
Total manufacturing costs $2,550 $10,250
Units produced 410 4100
Unit cost (Total costs/Units) $ 255 $102.50
Exhibit 7.3 visually summarizes the calculations in Cornerstones 7.2 and 7.3.
EXHIBIT 7.3
Activity Rates and Activity-Based Unit Costs for Rio Novo’s Porto Behlo Plant
Setup $ Moving $ Machining $ Assembly $
Configuration
1
Configuration
2
$250/ $100/ $30/ $5/

setup move machine hour direct labor
hour
Deluxe low volume Regular high volume

$255.00 per unit $102.50 per unit
Comparison of Functional-Based and Activity-Based Product Costs A

plantwide rate based on direct labor hours is calculated as follows:
Total Overhead Costs

Overhead Rate ¼
Total Direct Labor Hours
$4,000
¼ $40 per direct labor hour
100
The product cost for each product using this single unit-level overhead rate is calculated
as follows:
Deluxe Regular
Prime costs $ 800 $ 8,000
Overhead costs:
$40 3 20 800
$40 3 80 3,200
Total cost $1,600 $11,200
Units produced 410 4100
Unit cost $ 160 $ 112
Now compare these product costs with the activity-based cost of Cornerstone 7.3.
This comparison clearly illustrates the effects of using only unit-based activity drivers to
assign overhead costs. The activity-based cost assignment reflects the pattern of over-
head consumption and is, therefore, the most accurate. Activity-based product costing
reveals that functional-based costing undercosts the low volume deluxe models and
overcosts the high volume regular models. In fact, the ABC assignment increases the
reported cost of the deluxe models by $95 per unit and decreases the reported cost of
the regular models by $9.50 per unit—a movement in the right direction given the pat-
tern of overhead consumption.
Illustrating Relationships: Product Diversity

and Product Costing Accuracy
For unit-level overhead rates to fail, products must consume the nonunit-level activities
in proportions significantly different than the unit-level activities. The greater the differ-
ence in this consumption pattern, the greater the potential product cost distortion.
For example, the Regular model of Rio Novo consumes activities in the following
proportions:
. 25% of the setup hours
. 40% of the number of moves
. 80% of the machine hours
. 80% of the direct labor hours
Since the plantwide overhead rate uses direct labor hours, a unit-level driver, 80% of the
total overhead would be assigned to the Regular model. However, the Regular model
consumes only an average of 32.5% of the nonunit-level overhead [(0.25 þ 0.40)/2] and
so we would expect a significant cost distortion. Intuitively, if the average consumption
ratio of the nonunit-level activities differs markedly from the unit-level consumption ra-
tio, as 32.5% differs from 80%, then there is greater product diversity and greater prod-
uct cost distortion. As expected, the distortion is significant because the plantwide rate
assigns $3,200 of overhead while the ABC approach assigns only $2,250. Alternatively,
if there is little or no product diversity, then products consume unit-level activities and
nonunit-level activities in the same (or close to the same) proportion and a plantwide
rate works well.
This diversity-accuracy relationship can be seen in the Rio Novo example in

Cornerstones 7.2 (p. 286) and 7.3, by allowing the average nonunit-level consumption
ratio to vary. We see a special structure characterized by the following features:
. The Deluxe and Regular products have the same consumption ratios (0.20 and 0.80,
respectively) for the unit-level activities (machining and assembly).
. The cost of the nonunit-level activities, setting up and moving, is the same ($1,000
for each activity).
. The total cost of the unit-level (nonunit-level) activities is $2,000.
This special structure means that the average consumption ratio for the two unit-
level (nonunit-level) activities can be used to assign the activity costs to each product,
achieving the same assignment as when done for each individual activity. This can be
calculated as follows:
Overhead Cost ¼ Average Consumption Ratio 3 Total Cost of Each Set of Activities
The average consumption ratios for the Regular product are:
Unit-Level Activities ¼ ð0:80 þ 0:80Þ=2
¼ 0:80
Nonunit-Level Activities ¼ ð0:25 þ 0:40Þ=2
¼ 0:325
Thus, for the Regular product:

Overhead Cost ¼ ð0:80 3 $2,000Þ þ ð0:325 3 $2,000Þ
¼ $1,600 þ $650
¼ $2,250
This is the same as the assignments using individual activities and activity rates.
To explore the effect of product diversity on accuracy, hold the unit-level consump-
tion ratios constant and allow the average nonunit-level consumption ratio to vary. This
produces the following overhead cost assignment equation for the Regular product:
Overhead Cost ¼ $1,600 þ Average Nonunit Consumption Ratio 3 $2,000
Using this equation, Exhibit 7.4 shows the overhead cost assigned to the Regular
model as the average nonunit-level consumption ratio varies. The red line represents the
average nonunit consumption ratio function. The blue horizontal line is the overhead
cost assignment using the plantwide rate. Notice that when it intersects $3,200 the over-
head cost assignment is the same for both ABC and plantwide assignments (the average
consumption ratio is 0.80, which is the same as the consumption ratio for the plantwide
rate). As the average consumption ratio decreases, the difference between the ABC and
plantwide assignments increases. The vertical lines indicate the difference between the
ABC and plantwide rate overhead assignments. Clearly, some values can occur that
would produce little difference between the plantwide and ABC assignments, and thus
it would be cheaper and simpler to use a single-rate costing system. For example, the
vertical lines are small between 0.70 and 1.00, indicating that when the average nonunit
consumption ratio is in this range, then a plantwide rate would provide good accuracy.
The green vertical line represents the accuracy loss when the product diversity corre-
sponds to the original example data.
The key message of the relationship analysis is that in a diverse product environ-
ment, activity-based costing promises greater accuracy. Given the importance of mak-
ing decisions based on accurate facts, a detailed look at activity-based costing is
certainly merited.
EXHIBIT 7.4
Diversity and Product Costing Accuracy
3,600
3,200
Overhead Cost of
2,800
Regular Model
2,400
2,000
1,600
1,200
800
400
0
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
Average Nonunit Consumption Ratio
ETHICAL DECISIONS One of the ethical standards of the Institute of Management

Accountants (IMA) requires that its members maintain professional expertise by contin-
ually developing knowledge and skills. An interesting issue is whether accounting pro-
fessionals who resist learning different cost management methods are exhibiting ethical
behavior. At the very least, cost accounting professionals should learn about different
approaches and assess whether the benefit-cost trade-offs justify their use. l
ACTIVITY-BASED PRODUCT COSTING OBJECTIVE 2

Functional-based overhead costing involves two major stages: Explain how an activity-based
costing system works for product
1. Overhead costs are assigned to an organizational unit (plant or department). costing.
2. Overhead costs are then assigned to cost objects.
As Exhibit 7.5 (p. 292) illustrates, an activity-based costing (ABC) system is also a two-
stage process:
1. Trace costs to activities.
2. Trace activity costs to cost objects.
The underlying assumption is that activities consume resources, and cost
objects, in turn, consume activities. An ABC system, however, emphasizes
direct tracing and driver tracing (exploiting cause-and-effect relationships),
while a volume-based costing system tends to be allocation-intensive (largely What are some key differences between ABC
ignoring cause-and-effect relationships). Since the focus of ABC is activities, and volume-based costing?
identifying activities must be the first step in designing an ABC system.
Answer:
Identifying Activities and Their Attributes ABC uses cause-and-effect relationships to
An activity is action taken or work performed by equipment or people for assign overhead costs. Volume-based costing
other people. Identifying activities usually is accomplished by interviewing uses unit-based drivers such as direct labor
managers or representatives of functional work areas (departments). A set hours, which often have nothing to do with
of key questions is asked in which answers provide much of the data needed the actual overhead resources consumed by
for an ABC system. a product.
Set of Key Questions Interview questions can be used to identify activi-

ties and activity attributes needed for costing purposes. The information
EXHIBIT 7.5
Activity-Based Costing: Assigning Cost of Overhead
Indirect Labor Depreciation Power, etc.
Resource Drivers (driver tracing) and Direct Tracing
1
2
Setup Moving Engineering Change, etc.
Activity Driver
Accounting
Dept.
Products Customer/Suppliers Territories Departments, etc.
derived from these questions provides data helpful for assigning resource costs to indi-
vidual activities. To prevent the number of activities from becoming unmanageably
large, a common rule of thumb employed by the interviewer is to tell the interviewee to
ignore activities that require less than 5% of an individual’s time. Examples of questions
that interviewers might ask to gather information include the following:
1. How many employees are in your department? (Activities consume labor.)
2. What do they do (please describe)? (Activities are people doing things for other people.)
3. Do customers outside your department use any equipment? (Activities also can be
equipment working for other people. In other words, the equipment provides the
service for someone by itself).
4. What resources are used by each activity (equipment, materials, energy)? (Activities
consume resources in addition to labor.)
5. What are the outputs of each activity? (Helps to identify activity drivers.)
6. Who or what uses the activity output? (Identifies the cost object: products, other
activities, customers, etc.)
7. How much time do workers spend on each activity? Time on each activity by
equipment? (Information assigns the cost of labor and equipment to activities.)
Illustrative Example: Hemingway Bank Suppose that the manager of Hemingway

Bank’s credit card department is interviewed and presented with the seven questions just
listed. Consider the purpose and response to each question in the order indicated.
. Question 1 (labor resource): There are five employees.
. Question 2 (activity identification): There are three major activities: processing credit
card transactions, issuing customer statements, and answering customer questions.
. Question 3 (activity identification): Yes. Automatic bank tellers service customers

who require cash advances.
. Question 4 (resource identification): Each employee has his or her own computer,
printer, and desk. Paper and other supplies are needed to operate the printers. Each
employee has a telephone as well.
. Question 5 (potential activity drivers): Processing transactions produces a posting
for each transaction in our computer system and serves as a source for preparing the
monthly statements. The number of monthly customer statements has to be the
product for the issuing activity, and I suppose that customers served is the output
for the answering activity. The number of cash advances measures the product of
the automatic teller activity, although the teller really generates more transactions
for other products such as checking accounts. So, perhaps the number of teller
transactions is the real output.
. Question 6 (potential cost objects identified): We have three products:
classic, gold, and platinum credit cards. Transactions are processed for
these three types of cards, and statements are sent to clients holding
these cards. Similarly, answers to questions are all directed to clients
who hold these cards.
What is the purpose of the interview
. Question 7 (identifying resource drivers): I just completed a work survey
questions?
and have the percentage of time calculated for each worker. All five
clerks work on each of the three departmental activities. About 40% of
their time is spent processing transactions, with the rest of their time Answer:
split evenly between preparing statements and answering questions. The purpose is to identify activities, drivers,
Phone time is used only for answering client questions, and computer and other important attributes essential for
time is 70% transaction processing, 20% statement preparation, and ABC.
10% answering questions. Furthermore, my own time and that of my
computer are 100% administrative.
Activity Dictionary These interview-derived data are used to prepare an activity

dictionary. An activity dictionary lists the activities in an organization along with some
critical activity attributes. Activity attributes are financial and nonfinancial information
items that describe individual activities. What attributes are used depends on the pur-
pose. Examples of activity attributes associated with a costing objective include the
following:
. types of resources consumed
. amount (percentage) of time spent on an activity by workers
. cost objects that consume the activity output (reason for performing the activity)
. measure of the activity output (activity driver)
. activity name
Illustrative Example: Hemingway Bank Exhibit 7.6 (p. 294) illustrates the activity dic-
tionary for Hemingway’s credit card department. The three products, classic, gold, and
platinum credit cards, in turn, consume the activities. It is not unusual for a typical or-
ganization to produce an activity dictionary containing 200 to 300 activities.
Assigning Costs to Activities

Once activities are identified and described, the next task is to determine how much it
costs to perform each activity. This determination requires identification of the resour-
ces being consumed by each activity. Some cost system experts consider this task to be
the most difficult one in creating an accurate cost system. Activities consume resources
such as labor, materials, energy, and capital. The cost of these resources is found in the
general ledger, but the money spent on each activity is not revealed. Thus, it becomes
necessary to assign the resource costs to activities by using direct and driver tracing.
For labor resources, a work distribution matrix often is used. A work distribution matrix
EXHIBIT 7.6
Activity Dictionary for Hemingway Bank’s Credit Card Department
Activity Name Activity Description Cost Object(s) Activity Driver
Processing Sorting, keying, and Credit cards Number of

transactions verifying transactions
Preparing Reviewing, printing, stuffing, Credit cards Number of
statements and mailing statements
Answering Answering, logging, reviewing Credit cards Number of cards
questions database, and making call

backs
Providing Accessing accounts, Credit cards, checking Number of teller
automatic withdrawing funds and savings accounts transactions
tellers
identifies the amount of labor consumed by each activity and is derived from the inter-
view process (or a written survey).
Illustrative Example: Hemingway Bank Exhibit 7.7 provides an example of a work dis-
tribution matrix supplied by the manager of Hemingway’s credit card department for
individual activities (refer to Question 7).
EXHIBIT 7.7
Work Distribution Matrix for Hemingway Bank’s Credit Card Department
Percentage of
Activity Time per Activity

Processing transactions 40%
Preparing statements 30%
Answering questions 30%
From Exhibit 7.5 (p. 292), we know that both direct tracing and driver tracing are used
to assign resource costs to activities. For this example, the time spent on each activity is the
basis for assigning the labor costs to the activity. If the time is 100%, then labor is exclusive
to the activity, and the assignment method is direct tracing. If the resource is shared by
several activities (as is the case of the clerical resource), then the assignment is driver tracing,
and the drivers are called resource drivers. Resource drivers are factors that measure the
consumption of resources by activities. Once resource drivers are identified, then the costs of
the resource can be assigned to the activity. Cornerstone 7.4 shows how resource drivers
and direct tracing are used to assign labor cost to the credit department activities.
Assigning Resource Costs to Activities by Using Direct

Tracing and Resource Drivers
Why:
Activities consume resources and other cost objects consume activities. Thus, the first step
in assigning costs is determining activity cost. The cost of resources is assigned to activities
using direct tracing and driver tracing. When resources are exclusively used by an activity,
7.4 direct tracing is used. For shared resources, resource drivers are used.
(Continued)
Information: CORNERSTONE
Refer to the work distribution matrix for Hemingway Bank’s credit card department in
Exhibit 7.7. Assume that each clerk is paid a salary of $30,000 ($150,000 total clerical cost 7.4
for five clerks).
(Continued)
Required:
Assign the cost of labor to each of the activities in the credit department. Is this assignment
driver tracing or direct tracing?
Solution:
The amount of labor cost assigned to each activity is given below. (Note: The percentages
come from the work distribution matrix.)
Processing transactions $60,000 (0.40 3 $150,000)

Preparing statements $45,000 (0.30 3 $150,000)
Answering questions $45,000 (0.30 3 $150,000)
Labor is a shared resource and is assigned using a resource driver (using labor con-
sumption ratios).
Labor, of course, is not the only resource consumed by activities. Activities also
consume materials, capital, and energy. The interview, for example, reveals that the
activities within the credit card department use computers (capital), phones (capital),
desks (capital), and paper (materials). The automatic teller activity uses the automatic
teller (capital) and energy. The cost of these other resources must also be assigned
to the various activities. They are assigned in the same way as was described for labor
(using direct tracing and resource drivers). The cost of computers could be assigned
by using direct tracing (for the supervising activity) and hours of usage for the remain-
ing activities. From the interview, we know the relative usage of computers by each
activity. The general ledger reveals that the cost per computer is $1,200 per year.
Thus, an additional $6,000 (5 3 $1,200) would be assigned to three activities based on
relative usage:
. 70% to processing transactions ($4,200)
. 20% to preparing statements ($1,200)
. 10% to answering questions ($600)
Repeating this process for all resources, the total cost of each activity can be calcu-
lated. Exhibit 7.8 (p. 296) gives the cost of the activities associated with Hemingway’s
credit card department under the assumption that all resource costs have been assigned
(these numbers are assumed because all resource data are not given for their calcula-
tion).
Assigning Costs to Products

From Cornerstone 7.3 (p. 287), we know that activity costs are assigned to products by
multiplying a predetermined activity rate by the usage of the activity, as measured by
EXHIBIT 7.8
Activity Costs for Hemingway Bank’s Credit Card Department

Processing transactions $130,000
Preparing statements 102,000
Answering questions 92,400
Providing automatic tellers 250,000
activity drivers. Exhibit 7.6 (p. 294) identified the activity drivers for each of the four
credit card activities:
. number of transactions for processing transactions
. number of statements for preparing statements
. number of calls for answering questions
. number of teller transactions for the activity of providing automatic tellers
To calculate an activity rate, the practical capacity of each activity must be determined.
To assign costs, the amount of each activity consumed by each product must also be
known.
Illustrative Example: Hemingway Bank Assuming that the practical activity capacity is
equal to the total activity usage by all products, the following actual data have been col-
lected for Hemingway’s credit card department:
Classic Gold Platinum

Card Card Card Total
Number of cards 5,000 3,000 2,000 10,000
Transactions processed 600,000 300,000 100,000 1,000,000
Number of statements 60,000 36,000 24,000 120,000
Number of calls 10,000 12,000 8,000 30,000
Number of teller 15,000 3,000 2,000 20,000
transactions*
* The number of teller transactions for the cards is 10% of the total transactions from all sources. Thus, teller
transactions total 20,000 (0.10 3 200,000).
Applying Cornerstone 7.2 (p. 287) by using the data and costs from Exhibit 7.8, the
activity rates are calculated as follows:
Rate calculations:
Processing transactions: $130,000/1,000,000 ¼ $0.13 per transaction
Preparing statements: $102,000/120,000 ¼ $0.85 per statement
Answering questions: $92,400/30,000 ¼ $3.08 per call
Providing automatic tellers: $250,000/200,000 ¼ $1.25 per transaction
These rates provide the cost of each activity usage. Using these rates, costs are
assigned as shown in Exhibit 7.9. However, we now know the whole story behind the
development of the activity rates and usage measures. Furthermore, the banking exam-
ple emphasizes the utility of ABC in service organizations.
EXHIBIT 7.9
Assigning Costs for Hemingway Bank’s Credit Card Department
Gold Classic Platinum
Processing transactions:
$0.13 3 600,000 $ 78,000
$0.13 3 300,000 $ 39,000
$0.13 3 100,000 $13,000
Preparing statements:
$0.85 3 60,000 51,000
$0.85 3 36,000 30,600
$0.85 3 24,000 20,400
Answering questions:
$3.08 3 10,000 30,800
$3.08 3 12,000 36,960
$3.08 3 8,000 24,640
Providing automatic tellers:
$1.25 3 15,000 18,750
$1.25 3 3,000 3,750
$1.25 3 2,000 2,500

Total costs $178,550 $110,310 $60,540
Units 45,000 43,000 42,000
Unit cost $ 35.71 $ 36.77 $ 30.27
ACTIVITY-BASED CUSTOMER COSTING AND OBJECTIVE 3

Describe activity-based customer
ACTIVITY-BASED SUPPLIER COSTING costing and activity-based supplier
ABC systems originally became popular for their ability to improve product-costing ac- costing.
curacy by tracing activity costs to the products that consume the activities. However,
since the beginning of the 21st century, the use of ABC has expanded into areas
upstream (i.e., before the production section of the value chain—research and develop-
ment, prototyping, etc.) and downstream (i.e., after the production section of the value
chain—marketing, distribution, customer service, etc.) from production. Specifically,
ABC often is used to more accurately determine the upstream costs of suppliers and the
downstream costs of customers. Knowing the costs of suppliers and customers can be
vital information for improving a company’s profitability.
LSI Logic, a high-tech producer of semiconductors, implemented ABC customer
costing and discovered that 10% of its customers were responsible for about 90% of its
profits. LSI also discovered that it was actually losing money on about 50% of its cus-
tomers. It worked to convert its unprofitable customers into profitable ones and invited
those who would not provide a fair return to take their business elsewhere. As a conse-
quence, LSI’s sales decreased, but its profit tripled.3 Exhibit 7.10 depicts this interesting
yet common relationship between customers and their contribution to company profit-
ability. Some managers refer to this graph as the ‘‘whale curve’’ of customer profitabil-
ity, likely because of its resemblance to the shape of whale cresting at the water’s
surface. The important observation from the curve is that the customers to the left of
3
Gary Cokins, ‘‘Are All of Your Customers Profitable (To You)?’’ (June 14, 2001): www.bettermanagment.com/Library
(accessed May 2010).
EXHIBIT 7.10
Whale Curve of Cumulative Customer Profitability
350.0%
300.0%
250.0%
Cummulative 200.0%
Profits
(percent of 150.0%
total profits)
100.0%
50.0%

0.0%
0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0%
Most Profitable Least Profitable
Customers Customers
Cumulative Customers
the hump, or peak, increase the company’s profitability, while the customers to the right
decrease the company’s profitability. Therefore, activity-based customer costing is help-
ful in determining where each customer falls on the curve and, subsequently, how each
customer should therefore be treated given its position on the curve. Of particular inter-
est are those customers to the far right because they severely decrease the company’s
profitability and need to be terminated as unacceptably bad customers or altered in
some way so as to become profitable customers for the company.
Activity-Based Customer Costing

Customers are cost objects of fundamental interest. As the LSI Logic experience illus-
trates, customer management can produce significant gains in profit. It is possible to
have customer diversity, just as it is possible to have product diversity. Customers can
consume customer-driven activities in different proportions. Sources of customer diver-
sity include order frequency, delivery frequency, geographic distance, sales and promo-
tional support, and engineering support requirements. Knowing how much it costs to
service different customers can be vital information for the following purposes:
. setting pricing
. determining customer mix
. improving profitability
Furthermore, because of diversity of customers, multiple drivers are
needed to trace costs accurately. This outcome means that ABC can be use-
ful to organizations that have only one product, homogeneous products, or
a just-in-time (JIT) structure where direct tracing diminishes the value of
How are costs assigned to customers by using ABC for product costing.
the ABC approach?
Customer Costing versus Product Costing Assigning the costs of cus-
Answer: tomer service to customers is done in the same way that manufacturing costs
Costs are traced to activities and then are assigned to products. Customer-driven activities such as order entry, order
assigned to customers based on their usage picking, shipping, making sales calls, and evaluating a client’s credit are iden-
of these activities. tified and listed in an activity dictionary. The cost of the resources consumed
is assigned to activities, and the cost of the activities is assigned to individual
customers. The same model and procedures that apply to products apply to customers as
well. Cornerstone 7.5 illustrates how ABC assigns costs to customers.
Calculating Activity-Based Customer Costs

Why:
Customer-based activity costs are assigned to customers or customer-types using activity
drivers. Knowing the costs of individual customers or customer-types can be helpful in set-
ting prices, determining the best customer mix, and in improving profitability.
Information:
Milan Company produces precision parts for 11 major buyers. Of the 11 customers, one
7.5
accounts for 50% of the sales, with the remaining 10 accounting for the rest of the sales. The
10 smaller customers purchase parts in roughly equal quantities. Orders placed by the smaller
customers are about the same size. Data concerning Milan’s customer activity follow:
Large Ten Smaller

Customer Customers
Units purchased 500,000 500,000
Orders placed 2 200
Number of sales calls 10 210
Manufacturing costs $3,000,000 $3,000,000
Order filling costs allocated* $ 202,000 $ 202,000
Sales force costs allocated* $ 110,000 $ 110,000
* Allocated based on sales volume.
Currently, customer-driven costs are assigned to customers based on units sold, a unit-level
driver.
Required:
Assign costs to customers using an ABC approach.
Solution:
The appropriate drivers are orders placed and number of sales calls. The activity rates are:
$404,000=202 orders ¼ $2,000 per order
$220,000=220 calls ¼ $1,000 per call
Using this information, the customer-driven costs can be assigned to each group of cus-
tomers as follows:
Large Ten Smaller

Customer Customers
Order filling costs:
($2,000 3 2) $ 4,000
($2,000 3 200) $400,000
Sales force costs:
($1,000 3 10) 10,000
($1,000 3 210) 210,000
$14,000 $610,000
The activity-based cost assignments reveal a much different picture of the cost of
servicing each type of customer. The smaller customers cost more due to their smaller,
more frequent orders and the need of the sales force to engage in more negotiations to
make a sale.
What does this analysis tell management that it didn’t know before? First, the large
customer costs much less to service than the smaller customers and perhaps should be
charged less. Second, it raises some significant questions relative to the smaller custom-
ers. For example, is it possible to encourage larger, less frequent orders? Perhaps offer-
ing discounts for larger orders would be appropriate. Why is it more difficult to sell to
the smaller customers? Why are more calls needed? Are they less informed than the
larger customer about the products? Can we improve profits by influencing our custom-
ers to change their buying behavior?
Activity-Based Supplier Costing

ABC can also help managers identify the true cost of a firm’s suppliers. The cost of a
supplier is much more than the purchase price of the components or materials acquired.
Just like customers, suppliers can affect many internal activities of a firm and signifi-
cantly increase the cost of purchasing. A more correct view is one where the costs asso-
ciated with quality, reliability, and late deliveries are added to the purchase costs.
Managers are then required to evaluate suppliers based on total cost, not just purchase
price. ABC is the key to tracing costs relating to these factors.
Supplier Costing Methodology Assigning the costs of supplier-related

activities to suppliers follows the same pattern as ABC product and customer
costing. Supplier-driven activities are identified and listed in an activity dic-
How are costs assigned to suppliers by using
tionary. Some examples of supplier-driven activities include the following:
the ABC approach? . purchasing
. receiving
Answer: . inspection of incoming components
. reworking products (because of defective components)
Costs are traced to activities and are then . expediting products (because of late deliveries of suppliers)
assigned to suppliers based on a cause-and-
effect relationship.
. warranty work (due to defective supplier components)
The cost of the resources consumed is assigned to these activities, and the
cost of the activities is assigned to individual suppliers. Cornerstone 7.6
illustrates how to use ABC for supplier costing.
Calculating Activity-Based Supplier Costs

Why:
Activity drivers are used to trace the costs of activities associated with supplier reliability,
quality, and late deliveries to individual suppliers. These costs are then added to direct pur-
chase costs. This outcome enables managers to improve their evaluation and selection of
suppliers, with the objective of reducing total supplier costs.
7.6 Information:
Assume that a purchasing manager uses two suppliers, Murray Inc. and Plata Associates,
as the source of two machine parts: Part A1 and Part B2. Consider two activities: repairing
products (under warranty) and expediting products. Repairing products occurs because of
part failure (bought from suppliers). Expediting products occurs because suppliers are late
(Continued)
in delivering needed parts. Activity cost information and other data needed for supplier CORNERSTONE
costing follow:
I. Activity Costs Caused by Suppliers (e.g., failed parts or late delivery)
7.6
Activity Costs (Continued)
Repairing products $800,000
Expediting products $200,000
II. Supplier Data
Murray Inc. Plata Associates

Part A1 Part B2 Part A1 Part B2
Unit purchase price $ 20 $ 52 $ 24 $ 56
Units purchased 80,000 40,000 10,000 10,000
Failed units 1,600 380 10 10
Late shipments 60 40 0 0
Required:
Determine the cost of each supplier by using ABC.
Solution:
Using the above data, the activity rates for assigning costs to suppliers are computed as follows:
Repair Rate ¼ $800,000=2,000 unit
¼ $400 per failed unit
*(1,600 þ 380 þ 10 þ 10)
Expediting Rate ¼ $200,000=100 late shipment

¼ $2,000 per late shipment
**(60 þ 40)
Using these rates and the activity data, the total purchasing cost per unit of each component is computed:
Murray Inc. Plata Associates

Part A1 Part B2 Part A1 Part B2
Purchase cost:
$20 3 80,000 $1,600,000
$52 3 40,000 $2,080,000
$24 3 10,000 $240,000
$56 3 10,000 $560,000
Repairing products:
$400 3 1,600 640,000
$400 3 380 152,000
$400 3 10 4,000
$400 3 10 4,000
Expediting products:
$2,000 3 60 120,000
$2,000 3 40 80,000
Total costs $2,360,000 $2,312,000 $244,000 $564,000
Units 480,000 440,000 410,000 410,000
Total unit cost $ 29.50 $ 57.80 $ 24.40 $ 56.40
Managing Customer Profitability
As a consultant, you recently implemented an activity-based cus- lower level and improving business processes are ways to
tomer-profitability system. In your written report to management, increase customer satisfaction while at the same time maintaining
you classified the customers of the company into one of four cate- or increasing profitability. For customers with low profitability but
gories based on current profitability and the potential for future substantial potential, the goal is to move these customers up to a
profitability4: high profitability state. Pricing policies or initiatives related to
both the order and the transactions caused by the order is one
High Profitability, Substantial Future Potential way to increase profitability (e.g., activity-based pricing is based
Low Profitability, Substantial Future Potential on the costs-to-serve, something clearly revealed by the ABC cus-
High Profitability, Limited Future Potential tomer model). Another way is to lower the costs to serve by
improving activity efficiency and eliminating nonvalue-added
Low Profitability, Limited Future Potential
activities. The final category of customers (low-profitability and
After discussing the report with the CEO, he asks you to an- limited potential) is managed up or out—these customers need
swer the following question: to be made profitable quickly or simply dropped.
How would you manage the customers in each of the four Knowing customer profitability is important because not every
categories? revenue dollar contributes equally to overall profitability.
Thus, it is critical for a manager to understand the net profit
For highly profitable customers, and especially those with long- contribution that each customer makes to the company.
term potential, special efforts should be made to retain these cus- Understanding individual customer profitability and the associ-
tomers as it is much more expensive to attract new customers. ated drivers allows managers to take actions to sustain and
Offering these customers special discounts and new products and maintain profitable customers and transform unprofitable cus-
service lines coupled with managing their costs-to-serve to a tomers into profitable customers.5
The example in Cornerstone 7.6 (p. 300) shows that Murray, the ‘‘low-cost’’ supplier
(as measured by the purchase price of the two parts), actually costs more when the
supplier-related activities of repairing and expediting are considered. If all costs are consid-
ered, then the choice becomes clear: Plata Associates is the better supplier with a higher-
quality product, more on-time deliveries, and, consequently, a lower overall cost per unit.
OBJECTIVE 4 PROCESS-VALUE ANALYSIS

Explain how activity-based Process-value analysis is fundamental to activity-based management. Activity-based
management can be used for cost management is a system-wide, integrated approach that focuses management’s attention
reduction. on activities with the objective of improving customer value and profit achieved by pro-
viding this value. Process value analysis focuses on cost reduction instead of cost assign-
ment and emphasizes the maximization of systemwide performance. As Exhibit 7.11
illustrates, process-value analysis is concerned with:
EXHIBIT 7.11
Process-Value Analysis Model
Driver Performance
Activities
Analysis Analysis
Why? What? How Well?

4
Based on a classification in Cokins, Gary, Performance Management: Finding the Missing Pieces (to Close the
Intelligence Gap). Wiley and SAS Business Series, March 29, 2004.
5
Kaplan, Robert S. and V. G. Narayanan, ‘‘Measuring and Managing Customer Profitability,’’ Journal of Cost
Management, (September/October 2001) 5–15.
. driver analysis
. activity analysis
. performance measurement
Driver Analysis: The Search for Root Causes

Managing activities requires an understanding of what causes activity costs. Every ac-
tivity has inputs and outputs. Activity inputs are the resources consumed by the activ-
ity in producing its output. Activity output is the result or product of an activity. For
example, if the activity is moving materials, the inputs would be such things as a fork-
lift, a forklift driver, fuel (for the forklift), and crates. The output would be moved
goods and materials. An activity output measure is the number of times the activity is
performed. It is the quantifiable measure of the output. For example, the number of
moves or distance moved are possible output measures for the material moving
activity.
The output measure effectively is a measure of the demands placed on
an activity and is what we have been calling an activity driver. As the
demands for an activity change, the cost of the activity can change. For
example, as the number of programs written increases, the activity of writing
programs may need to consume more inputs (labor, CD-ROMs, paper, and What is the purpose of driver analysis?
so on). However, output measures, such as the number of programs, may
not (and usually do not) correspond to the root causes of activity costs. They Answer:
are the consequences of the activity being performed. The purpose of driver The objective of driver analysis is to find the
analysis is to reveal root causes. Thus, driver analysis is the effort expended root causes of activity costs. By knowing root
to identify those factors that are the root causes of activity costs. For exam- causes, costs can be managed effectively.
ple, an analysis may reveal that the root cause of the cost of moving materi-
als is plant layout. Once the root cause is known, then action can be taken
to improve the activity. Specifically, reorganizing plant layout can reduce
the cost of moving materials.
Often, the root cause of the cost of an activity is also the root cause of other related
activities. For example, the costs of inspecting purchased parts and reordering may both
be caused by poor supplier quality. By working with suppliers to reduce the number of
defective components supplied (or choosing suppliers that have fewer defects), the
demand for both activities may then decrease, allowing the company to save money.
Activity Analysis: Identifying and Assessing Value Content

The heart of process-value analysis is activity analysis. Activity analysis is the process of
identifying, describing, and evaluating the activities that an organization performs. Ac-
tivity analysis produces four outcomes:
1. what activities are done
2. how many people perform the activities
3. the time and resources required to perform the activities
4. an assessment of the value of the activities to the organization, including a
recommendation to select and keep only those that add value
Steps 1 through 3 have been described earlier and are common to the information
needed for determining and assigning activity costs. Knowing how much an activity
costs is clearly an important part of activity-based management. Step 4, determining the
value-added content of activities, is concerned with cost reduction rather than cost
assignment. Thus, some managerial accountants feel that this is the most important part
of activity analysis. Activities can be classified as value-added or nonvalue-added.
Value-Added Activities Those activities necessary to remain in business are called

value-added activities. Some activities—required activities—are necessary to comply
with legal mandates. Activities needed to comply with the reporting requirements of the
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and the filing requirements of the Internal
Revenue Service (IRS) are examples. These activities are value-added by mandate. The
remaining activities in the firm are discretionary. A discretionary activity is classified as
value-added provided it simultaneously satisfies all of the following conditions:
. The activity produces a change of state.
. The change of state was not achievable by preceding activities.
. The activity enables other activities to be performed.
For example, consider the production of rods used in hydraulic cylinders. The first
activity, cutting rods, cuts long rods into the correct lengths for the cylinders. Next, the
cut rods are welded to cut plates. The cutting rods activity is value-added because:
. It causes a change of state—uncut rods become cut rods.
. No prior activity was supposed to create this change of state.
. It enables the welding activity to be performed.
Though the value-added properties are easy to see for an operational activity like
cutting rods, what about a more general activity like supervising production workers? A
managerial activity is specifically designed to manage other value-added activities—to
ensure that they are performed in an efficient and timely manner. Supervision certainly
satisfies the enabling condition. Is there a change in state? There are two ways of
answering affirmatively:
. First, supervising can be viewed as an enabling resource that is consumed by the
operational activities that do produce a change of state. Thus, supervising is a
secondary activity that serves as an input that is needed to help bring about the
change of state expected for value-added primary activities.
. Second, it could be argued that the supervision brings order by changing the state
from uncoordinated activities to coordinated activities.
Once value-added activities are identified, we can define value-added costs. Value-added
costs are the costs to perform value-added activities with perfect efficiency.
Nonvalue-Added Activities All activities other than those that are absolutely essen-
tial to remain in business, and therefore considered unnecessary, are referred to as non-
value-added activities. A nonvalue-added activity can be identified by its failure to
satisfy any one of the three previous defining conditions for adding value. Violation of
the first two conditions is the usual case for nonvalue-added activities. Inspecting cut
rods (for correct length), for example, is a nonvalue-added activity. Inspection is a
state-detection activity, not a state-changing activity. (It tells us the state of the cut
rod—whether it is the right length.) Thus, it fails the first condition (activity produced a
change of state). Consider the activity of reworking goods or subassemblies. Rework is
designed to bring a good from a nonconforming state to a conforming state. Thus, a
change of state occurs. Yet the activity is nonvalue-added because it repeats work; it is
doing something that should have been done by preceding activities Condition 2
(change of state was not achievable by preceding activities) is violated.
Nonvalue-added costs are costs that are caused either by nonvalue-added activities or
the inefficient performance of valued-added activities. For nonvalue-added activities,
the nonvalue-added cost is the cost of the activity itself. For inefficient value-added
activities, the activity cost must be broken into its value-added and nonvalue-added
components. For example, if Receiving should use 10,000 receiving orders but uses
20,000, then half of the cost of Receiving is value-added and half is nonvalue-added.
The value-added component is the waste-free component of the value-added activity
and is, therefore, the value-added standard. Due to increased competition, many firms
are attempting to eliminate nonvalue-added activities because they add unnecessary cost
and impede performance. Firms are also striving to optimize value-added activities.
Thus activity analysis identifies and eventually eliminates all unnecessary activities and,
simultaneously, increases the efficiency of necessary activities.
The theme of activity analysis is waste elimination. As waste is eliminated, costs are
reduced. The cost reduction follows the elimination of waste. Note the value of managing
the causes of the costs rather than the costs themselves. Though managing costs may
increase the efficiency of an activity, if the activity is unnecessary, what does it matter if it’s
performed efficiently? An unnecessary activity is wasteful and should be eliminated. For
example, moving raw materials and partially finished goods is often cited as a nonvalue-
added activity. Installing an automated materials handling system may increase the effi-
ciency of this activity, but changing to cellular manufacturing with on-site, just-in-time deliv-
ery of raw materials could virtually eliminate the activity. It’s easy to see which is preferable.
Examples of Nonvalue-Added Activities Reordering parts, expediting production, and

rework because of defective parts are all examples of nonvalue-added activities. Other
examples include warranty work, handling customer complaints, and reporting defects.
Nonvalue-added activities can exist anywhere in the organization. In the manufacturing
operation, the following major activities are often cited as wasteful and unnecessary:
. Scheduling: An activity that uses time and resources to determine when different
products have access to processes (or when and how many setups must be done) and
how much will be produced.
. Moving: An activity that uses time and resources to move raw materials, work in
process, and finished goods from one department to another.
. Waiting: An activity in which raw materials or work in process use time and
resources by waiting on the next process.
. Inspecting: An activity in which time and resources are spent ensuring that the
product meets specifications.
. Storing: An activity that uses time and resources while a good or raw material is
held in inventory.
None of these activities adds any value for the customer. (Note that inspection would
not be necessary if the product were produced correctly the first time and, therefore,
adds no value for the customer.) The challenge of activity analysis is to find ways to
produce the good without using any of these activities.
For Stillwater Designs, warranty work is decides whether or not the problem is covered under warranty.
a significant cost. Warranty work associ- Sometimes, problems are covered even though they are not at-
ated with defective products is typically tributable to a defective product. When the company decides to
labeled a nonvalue-added cost. Stillwater Designs recog- replace a nondefective product, it is making a conscious decision
nizes the nonvalue-added nature of this activity and takes meas- to increase customer satisfaction and brand loyalty. This part of
ures to eliminate the causes of the defective units. The company the warranty cost is a ‘‘marketing warranty cost’’ and could be
tracks return failures (over time) and provides this information to classified as a value-added cost. For example, customers some-
its research and development (R&D) department. R&D then uses times buy amplifiers that are more powerful than the subwoofers
this information to make design improvements on existing models can handle, resulting in burnt voice coils. By replacing the
(running changes) as well as to change the design on future mod- product (even though technically it’s the customer’s fault), the
ª Jackson Smith/Getty Images
els. The objective of the design changes is to reduce the demand customer will be more likely to buy again and to provide good
for the warranty activity, thus reducing warranty cost. word-of-mouth advertising for Kicker products.
However, not all Kicker warranty costs can be classified as
nonvalue-added. When products are returned, customer service
Cost Reduction Activity management carries with it the objective of cost reduction.
Competitive conditions dictate that companies must deliver customer desired products
on time and at the lowest possible cost. These conditions mean that an organization
must continually strive for cost improvement. Activity management can reduce costs in
four ways:6
. activity elimination
. activity selection
. activity reduction
. activity sharing
Activity Elimination Activity elimination focuses on nonvalue-added activities. Once

activities that fail to add value are identified, measures must be taken to rid the organi-
zation of these activities. For example, the activity of inspecting incoming parts seems
necessary to ensure that the product using the parts functions according to specifica-
tions. Use of a bad part can produce a bad final product. Yet this activity is necessary
only because of the poor quality performance of the supplying firms. Selecting suppliers
who are able to supply high-quality parts or who are willing to improve their quality
performance to achieve this objective will eventually allow the elimination of incoming
inspection. Cost reduction then follows.
Activity Selection Activity selection involves choosing among different sets of activities
that are caused by competing strategies. Different strategies cause different activities.
Different product design strategies, for example, can require significantly different
activities. Activities, in turn, cause costs. Each product design strategy has its own set of
activities and associated costs. All other things being equal, the lowest-cost design strat-
egy should be chosen. In a continual-improvement environment, redesign of existing
products and processes can lead to a different, cheaper set of activities. Thus activity
selection can have a significant effect on cost reduction.
Activity Reduction Activity reduction decreases the time and resources required by an
activity. This approach to cost reduction should be primarily aimed at improving the ef-
ficiency of necessary activities or a short-term strategy for improving nonvalue-added
activities until they can be eliminated. Setup activity is a necessary activity that is often
cited as an example for which less time and fewer resources need to be used. Finding
ways to reduce setup time—and thus lower the cost of setups—is another example of
the concept of gradual reductions in activity costs.
Activity Sharing Activity sharing increases the efficiency of necessary activities by using
economies of scale. Specifically, the quantity of the cost driver is increased without
increasing the total cost of the activity itself. This lowers the per-unit cost of the cost
driver and the amount of cost traceable to the products that consume the activity. For
example, a new product can be designed to use components already being used by other
products. By using existing components, the activities associated with these components
already exist, and the company avoids the creation of a whole new set of activities.
Assessing Nonvalue-Added Costs Cornerstone 7.7 shows how to determine the

nonvalue-added cost of activities. Determining the cost is followed by a root-cause analy-
sis and then by the selection of an approach to reduce the waste found in the activity. For
example, defective products cause warranty work. Defective products, in turn, are caused
by such factors as defective internal processes, poor product design, and defective supplier
components. Correcting the causes will lead to the elimination of the warranty activity.
Inefficient purchasing could be attributable to such root causes as poor product design
(too many components), orders that are incorrectly filled out, and defective supplier com-
ponents (producing additional orders). Correcting the causes will reduce the demand for
the purchasing activity, and as the activity is reduced, cost reduction will follow.
6
Peter B. B. Turney, ‘‘How Activity-Based Costing Helps Reduce Cost,’’ Journal of Cost Management (Winter 1991): 29–35.
Assessing Nonvalue-Added Costs

Why:
Nonvalue-added costs are caused either by nonvalue-added activities or value-added activi-
ties performed inefficiently. Determining the nonvalue-added costs allows managers to see
the amount of waste, assess its importance, and identify opportunities for improvement.
Information:
Consider the following two activities: (1) Performing warranty work, cost: $120,000. The
7.7
warranty cost of the most efficient competitor is $20,000. (2) Purchasing components, cost:
$200,000 (10,000 purchase orders). A benchmarking study reveals that the most efficient
level will use 5,000 purchase orders and entail a cost of $100,000.
Required:
Determine the nonvalue-added cost of each activity.
Solution:
Determine the value content of each activity: Is the activity nonvalue-added or value-
added?
1. Performing warranty work is nonvalue-added; it is done to correct something that

wasn’t done right the first time. Thus, the nonvalue-added cost of performing warranty
work is $120,000. The cost of the competitor has no bearing on the analysis. Root
causes for warranty work are defective products.
2. Purchasing components is necessary so that materials are available to produce products
and, thus, is value-added. However, the activity is not performed efficiently, as revealed
by the benchmarking study. The cost per purchase order is $20 ($100,000/5,000). The
nonvalue-added cost is calculated as:
ðActual Quantity Value-Added QuantityÞ 3 Cost per Purchase Order
ð10,000 5,000Þ 3 $20 ¼ $100,000

ðor simply, $200,000 $100,000Þ
Activity Performance Measurement

Assessing how well activities (and processes) are performed is fundamental to manage-
ment’s efforts to improve profitability. Activity performance measures exist in both finan-
cial and nonfinancial forms. These measures are designed to assess how well an activity was
performed and the results achieved. They are also designed to reveal if constant improve-
ment is being realized. Measures of activity performance center on three major dimensions:
. efficiency
. time
. quality
Efficiency Efficiency focuses on the relationship of activity inputs to activity outputs.

For example, one way to improve activity efficiency is to produce the same activity out-
put with lower cost for the inputs used. Thus cost and trends in cost become important
measures of efficiency.
Time The time required to perform an activity is also critical. Longer times usually
mean more resource consumption and less ability to respond to customer demands.
Time measures of performance tend to be nonfinancial, whereas efficiency and quality
measures are both financial and nonfinancial.
Cycle time and velocity are two operational measures of time-based performance.
Cycle time can be applied to any activity or process that produces an output, and it meas-
ures how long it takes to produce an output from start to finish. In a manufacturing proc-
ess, cycle time is the length of time that it takes to produce a unit of output from the time
raw materials are received (starting point of the cycle) until the good is delivered to fin-
ished goods inventory (finishing point of the cycle). Thus, cycle time is the time required
to produce one unit of a product (Time/Units produced). Velocity is the number of units
of output that can be produced in a given period of time (Units produced/Time). Notice
that velocity is the reciprocal of cycle time. For the cycle time example, the velocity is two
units per hour. Cornerstone 7.8 demonstrates how to compute cycle time and velocity.
Calculating Cycle Time and Velocity

Why:
Cycle time (Time/Units Produced) and velocity (Units Produced/Time) measure the time it
takes for a firm to respond to such things as customer orders, customer complaints, and
the development of new products. The objective is to reduce cycle time (increase velocity)
and thus improve response time, making the firm more competitive.
7.8 Information:
Assume that Frost Company takes 10,000 hours to produce 20,000 units of a product.
Required:
What is the velocity in hours? Cycle time in hours? Cycle time in minutes?
Solution:
Velocity ¼ 20,000=10,000 ¼ 2 units per hour
Cycle Time ¼ 10,000=20,000 ¼ 1=2 hour
¼ 10,000ð60 minutesÞ=20,000 ¼ 30 minutes
Quality Quality is concerned with doing the activity right the first time it
is performed. If the activity output is defective, then the activity may need
to be repeated, causing unnecessary cost and reduction in efficiency. Qual-
ity cost management is a major topic and is discussed in more detail next.
What are the three dimensions of performance Quality Cost Management

for activities? Explain why they are important.
Activity-based management also is useful for understanding how quality
costs can be managed. Quality costs can be substantial in size and a source
Answer: of significant savings if managed effectively. Improving quality can produce
Efficiency, time, and quality are the three per- significant improvements in profitability and overall efficiency. Quality
formance dimensions. All three relate to the improvement can increase profitability in two ways:
ability of a manager to reduce activity cost. . by increasing customer demand and thus sales revenues
. by decreasing costs
For example, when Toyota sold more cars and trucks than General Motors for the
first time ever in 2007, some automotive industry experts attributed this crowning
achievement to Toyota’s long-time commitment to quality-related issues, such as qual-
ity cost management.7
Quality-Related Activities Quality-linked activities are those activities performed

because poor quality may or does exist. The costs of performing these activities are
referred to as costs of quality. The definitions of quality-related activities imply four cat-
egories of quality costs:
. prevention costs
. appraisal costs
. internal failure costs
. external failure costs
Thus, the costs of quality are associated with two subcategories of quality-related
activities: control activities and failure activities.
Control Activities Control activities are performed by an organization to prevent or

detect poor quality (because poor quality may exist). Control costs are the costs of per-
forming control activities. Control activities are made up of prevention and appraisal
activities.
Prevention costs are incurred to prevent poor quality in the products or services
being produced. As prevention costs increase, we would expect the costs of failure to
decrease. Examples of prevention costs are quality engineering, quality training pro-
grams, quality planning, quality reporting, supplier evaluation and selection, quality
audits, quality circles, field trials, and design reviews.
Appraisal costs are incurred to determine whether products and services are con-
forming to their requirements or customer needs. Examples include inspecting and test-
ing raw materials, packaging inspection, supervising appraisal activities, product
acceptance, process acceptance, measurement (inspection and test) equipment, and out-
side endorsements. The main objective of the appraisal function is to prevent non-
conforming goods from being shipped to customers.
Failure Activities Failure activities are performed by an organization or its custom-

ers in response to poor quality (poor quality does exist). Failure costs are the costs
incurred by an organization because failure activities are performed. Notice that the
definitions of failure activities and failure costs imply that customer response to poor
quality can impose costs on an organization.
Internal failure costs are incurred when products and services do not conform to
specifications or customer needs. This nonconformance is detected before the bad prod-
ucts or services (nonconforming, unreliable, not durable, and so on) are shipped or
delivered to outside parties. These are the failures detected by appraisal activities.
Examples of internal failure costs are scrap, rework, downtime (due to defects), rein-
spection, retesting, and design changes. These costs disappear if no defects exist.
External failure costs are incurred when products and services fail to conform to
requirements or satisfy customer needs after being delivered to customers. Of all the
costs of quality, this category can be the most devastating. For example, costs of recalls
can run into the hundreds of millions of dollars. Other examples include lost sales
because of poor product performance, returns and allowances because of poor quality,
warranties, repairs, product liability, customer dissatisfaction, lost market share, and
complaint adjustment. Northwest Airlines is notorious for placing near the bottom of
customer satisfaction rankings, which some analysts believe consistently hurts its ticket
sales. External failure costs, like internal failure costs, disappear if no defects exist.
7
D. Jones, ‘‘Toyota’s Success Pleases Proponents of ‘Lean’,’’ USA Today (May 3, 2007): 2B.
Environmental Cost Management

For many organizations, management of environmental costs is becoming a matter of
high priority and a significant competitive issue. Many executives now believe that
improving environmental quality may actually reduce environmental costs rather than
increase them. For example, between 2002 and 2008, Baxter International Inc., a pro-
ducer of medical products, reduced toxic wastes emitted to air, water, and soil;
increased recycling activity; and, as a consequence, reported environmental income, sav-
ings, and cost avoidance for the 7-year period of $91.9 million.8
Before environmental cost information can be provided to management, environmen-
tal costs must be defined. Various possibilities exist; however, an appealing approach is to
adopt a definition consistent with a total environmental quality model. Accordingly, envi-
ronmental costs can be referred to as environmental quality costs. Similar to product qual-
ity, environmentally linked activities are those activities performed because poor
environmental quality may or does exist. The costs of performing these activities are
referred to as environmental costs. Environmental costs are associated with the creation,
detection, remediation, and prevention of environmental degradation. With this defini-
tion, environmental costs, like quality costs, are classified into four analogous categories:
. prevention costs
. detection costs
. internal failure costs
. external failure costs
External failure costs, in turn, can be subdivided into realized and unrealized categories.
As with quality costs, environmental costs are associated with two subcategories of
environmentally related activities: control activities and failure activities.
Control Activities Environmental prevention costs are the costs of activities carried
out to prevent the production of contaminants and/or waste that could cause damage to
the environment. Examples of prevention activities include evaluating and selecting sup-
pliers, evaluating and selecting equipment to control pollution, designing processes and
products to reduce or eliminate contaminants, training employees, studying environ-
mental impacts, auditing environmental risks, undertaking environmental research,
developing environmental management systems, and recycling products.
Environmental detection costs are the costs of activities executed to determine if
products, processes, and other activities within the firm are in compliance with appro-
priate environmental standards. The environmental standards and procedures that a
firm seeks to follow are defined in three ways:
. regulatory laws of governments
. voluntary standards developed by private organizations
. environmental policies developed by management
Examples of detection activities are auditing environmental activities, inspecting prod-
ucts and processes (for environmental compliance), developing environmental perform-
ance measures, carrying out contamination tests, verifying supplier environmental
performance, and measuring levels of contamination.
Failure Activities Environmental internal failure costs are costs of activities per-
formed because contaminants and waste have been produced but not discharged into
the environment. Thus, internal failure costs are incurred to eliminate and manage con-
taminants or waste once produced. Internal failure activities have one of two goals:
. to ensure that the contaminants and waste produced are not released to the environment
. to reduce the level of contaminants released to an amount that complies with
environmental standards
8
Baxter Environmental Financial Statement, 2008, at www.baxter.com/sustainability (accessed May 2010).
Examples of internal failure activities include operating equipment to mini-

mize or eliminate pollution, treating and disposing of toxic materials, main-
taining pollution equipment, licensing facilities for producing contaminants,
and recycling scrap. Why are there two categories of external
Environmental external failure costs are the costs of activities performed failure costs?
after discharging contaminants and waste into the environment. Realized
external failure costs, or private costs, are those incurred and paid for by
Answer:
the firm. Examples of realized external failure activities are cleaning up a
polluted lake, cleaning up oil spills, cleaning up contaminated soil, using One category represents those external
materials and energy inefficiently, settling personal injury claims from envi- environmental costs that the firm causes and
ronmentally unsound practices, settling property damage claims, restoring pays for, and the other category is those
land to its natural state, and losing sales from a bad environmental reputa- external environmental costs caused by the
firm but paid for by parties outside the firm.
tion. Unrealized external failure costs, or societal costs, are caused by the
firm but are incurred and paid for by parties outside the firm. Examples of
societal costs include receiving medical care because of polluted air (individ-
ual welfare), losing a lake for recreational use because of contamination
(degradation), losing employment because of contamination (individual wel-
fare), and damaging ecosystems from solid waste disposal (degradation).
SUMMARY OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LO 1. Explain why functional (or volume)-based costing approaches may produce distorted
costs.
. Overhead costs have increased in significance over time and in many firms represent a
much higher percentage of product costs than direct labor.

. Many overhead activities are unrelated to the units produced.
. Functional-based costing systems are not able to assign the costs of these nonunit-
based overhead activities properly.

. Nonunit-based overhead activities often are consumed by products in different pro-
portions than are unit-based overhead activities. Because of this nonproportionality,

assigning overhead by using only unit-based drivers can distort product costs.
. If the nonunit-based overhead costs are a significant proportion of total overhead
costs, the inaccuracy in cost assignments can be a serious matter.

LO 2. Explain how an activity-based costing system works for product costing.
. Activities are identified and defined through the use of interviews and surveys. This in-
formation allows an activity dictionary to be constructed.
. The activity dictionary lists activities and potential activity drivers, classifies activities
as primary or secondary, and provides any other attributes deemed to be important.

. Resource costs are assigned to activities by using direct tracing and resource drivers.
. The costs of secondary activities are ultimately assigned to primary activities by using
activity drivers.
. Finally, the costs of primary activities are assigned to products, customers, and other
cost objects.
. The cost assignment process is described by the following general steps: (1) identifying
the major activities and building an activity dictionary, (2) determining the cost of
those activities, (3) identifying a measure of consumption for activity costs (activity
drivers), (4) calculating an activity rate, (5) measuring the demands placed on activi-
ties by each product, and (6) calculating product costs.
LO 3. Describe activity-based customer costing and activity-based supplier costing.

. Tracing customer-driven costs to customers can provide significant information to
managers.
. Accurate customer costs allow managers to make better pricing decisions, customer-
mix decisions, and other customer-related decisions that improve profitability.

. Tracing supplier-driven costs to suppliers can enable managers to choose the true low-
cost suppliers, producing a stronger competitive position and increased profitability.

LO 4. Explain how activity-based management can be used for cost reduction.
. Assigning costs accurately is vital for good decision making.
. Assigning the costs of an activity accurately does not address the issue of whether or
not the activity should be performed or whether it is being performed efficiently.
. Activity-based management focuses on process-value analysis.
. Process-value analysis has three components: driver analysis, activity analysis, and
performance evaluation. These three steps determine what activities are being done,
why they are being done, and how well they are done.
. Understanding the root causes of activities provides the opportunities to manage
activities so that costs can be reduced.
. Quality and environmental activities are particularly susceptible to activity-based
management.
. Quality costs are costs that are incurred because poor product quality exists or may
exist.
. Environmental costs are costs that are incurred because environmental degradation
exists or may exist.
SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT EQUATIONS

Amount of Activity Driver per Product
1. Consumption Ratio ¼
Total Driver Quantity
Total Overhead Costs
2. Overhead Rate ¼
Total Direct Labor Hours
CORNERSTONE 7.1 Calculating consumption ratios, page 286

CORNERSTONE 7.2 Calculating activity rates, page 286
CORNERSTONE 7.3 Calculating activity-based unit costs, page 287
CORNERSTONE 7.4 Assigning resource costs to activities by using direct tracing
and resource drivers, page 294
CORNERSTONE 7.5 Calculating activity-based customer costs, page 299
CORNERSTONE 7.6 Calculating activity-based supplier costs, page 300
CORNERSTONE 7.7 Assessing nonvalue-added costs, page 307

CORNERSTONE 7.8 Calculating cycle time and velocity, page 308

Bab 7

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bab 7

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bab 7

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

7 Activity-Based Costing and

After studying Chapter 7, you should be

1 Explain why functional (or volume)-

Arizona, has helped to lead this cost of various orders’ prepa-

family. Cold Stone operates

order to profitably manage its ice combined with other costs,

cream with ‘‘mix in’’ ingredients—

with 30 different ingredients and expected margin, Cold Stone

Stone adopted activity-based costing (ABC) to identify the franchises in America.

OBJECTIVE 1 LIMITATIONS OF FUNCTIONAL-BASED COST

Nonunit-Related Overhead Costs

Type of Cost Description of Cost Driver Example

Unit-level Varies with output volume Cost of indirect materials for

Product-sustaining Varies with the number of Cost of inventory handling

Facility-sustaining Necessary to operate the Cost of General Motors

Nonunit-Level Activity Drivers Setting up equipment is one example of a non-

plane. These additional product-sustaining costs included the costs for

Illustrating the Failure of Unit-Based Overhead Rates

Activity Cost Data

Units produced 10 100 110 Setting up equipment $1,000

Prime costs $800 $8,000 $8,800 Moving goods 1,000

Amount of Activity Driver per Product

Calculating Consumption Ratios

Calculating Activity Rates

Setup rate: $1,000/4 setup hours ¼ $250 per setup hour

To assign overhead costs, the amount of activity consumed by each product is

Calculating Activity-Based Unit Costs

Deluxe Regular Activity Rate

$250/ $100/ $30/ $5/

Deluxe low volume Regular high volume

Comparison of Functional-Based and Activity-Based Product Costs A

Total Overhead Costs

Illustrating Relationships: Product Diversity

This diversity-accuracy relationship can be seen in the Rio Novo example in

Thus, for the Regular product:

ETHICAL DECISIONS One of the ethical standards of the Institute of Management

ACTIVITY-BASED PRODUCT COSTING OBJECTIVE 2

Set of Key Questions Interview questions can be used to identify activi-

Indirect Labor Depreciation Power, etc.

Resource Drivers (driver tracing) and Direct Tracing

Setup Moving Engineering Change, etc.

Products Customer/Suppliers Territories Departments, etc.

Illustrative Example: Hemingway Bank Suppose that the manager of Hemingway

. Question 3 (activity identification): Yes. Automatic bank tellers service customers

Activity Dictionary These interview-derived data are used to prepare an activity

Assigning Costs to Activities

Activity Name Activity Description Cost Object(s) Activity Driver

Processing Sorting, keying, and Credit cards Number of

ª Cengage Learning 2014

ª Cengage Learning 2014

Assigning Resource Costs to Activities by Using Direct

Processing transactions $60,000 (0.40 3 $150,000)

Assigning Costs to Products

ª Cengage Learning 2014

Classic Gold Platinum

Gold Classic Platinum

$1.25 3 2,000 2,500

ACTIVITY-BASED CUSTOMER COSTING AND OBJECTIVE 3

ª Cengage Learning 2014