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Theory appraisal in Islamic economic methodology: purposes and criteria

Hafas Furqani Mohamed Aslam Haneef
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HUM
28,4 Theory appraisal in Islamic
economic methodology: purposes
and criteria
270
Hafas Furqani
International Shari’ah Research Academy for Islamic Finance (ISRA),
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, and
Mohamed Aslam Haneef
Department of Economics, International Islamic University Malaysia,
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Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to attempt to investigate the conceptual foundations of
methodological inquiry in Islamic economics. The paper aims to develop criteria of acceptance and
rejection of a theory and providing rationalizations and guidelines in the process of theory appraisal
and evaluation.
Design/methodology/approach – The literature on Islamic economics especially in the area of
methodology of Islamic economics, both in English and Arabic, is reviewed critically and used in the
attempt of constructing the criteria of theory appraisal in Islamic economics.
Findings – The paper explicates two criteria of theory appraisal in Islamic economics, namely the
internal-integrity (doctrinal integrity, logical integrity and factual integrity) and relational-unity
(of doctrine and practical realities, ideals/goals and factual experiences, values and facts, normative
and positive dimensions, a priori and a posteriori).
Research limitations/implications – The paper is based on conceptual explorations of literature
in the area of methodology of Islamic economics. This is a conceptual paper, so it did not employ any
empirical analysis.
Practical implications – The findings of this paper will give insights of the criteria to distinguish
truth over false notions in theories, between valid theories and invalid ones as well as the acceptance or
rejection of theory in Islamic economics theory appraisal. With those criteria of theory, a unified
discipline of Islamic economics, which is based on doctrinal, logical on testable foundations in a real
typical Muslim society can be produced.
Originality/value – The paper proposes criteria and purpose of theory appraisal in Islamic
economics which is lacking in the discussion of methodology of Islamic economics literature. Those
criteria and purpose in theory appraisal and evaluation in a methodological unity of Islamic economics
suggest a new approach in dealing with revelation, intellectual reasoning and facts observation in
order to produce a coherent Islamic economic theory.
Keywords Methodology of Islamic economics, Tawhidic methodology, Theory appraisal,
Theory evaluation, Criteria, Framework, Islam, Economics
Paper type Conceptual paper

1. Introduction
Humanomics Methodology of economics has been the subject of interest among economists in the
Vol. 28 No. 4, 2012
pp. 270-284 midst of crisis of mainstream of neoclassical economics. The discussions in the literature
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited not only attempt to criticize the dominant methodological positivism in economics,
0828-8666
DOI 10.1108/08288661211277335 but also attempt to evaluate the whole dimension of discipline. Many alternatives have
 been proposed to answer the shortcomings of present methodology in order to offer Islamic
a better economics discipline. economic
While the debate is very dynamic in conventional economics, the same cannot be
said in Islamic economics. There seems to be a kind of consensus that in developing methodology
Islamic economics we can use whatever methodology of economics available in the
market. The development of Islamic economics in this perspective will not start from
scratch; instead it will utilize the relatively more advance development in economics 271
(theories and methodologies) and attempt to make them compatible with Islamic
frameworks/principles. Besides, there might be some common ground where (some)
conventional theories might be accepted as long as they are not in conflict with the
logical structure of the Islamic worldview (Chapra, 1996), they are not against the
explicit or implicit injunctions of Islam (Mannan, 1984, p. 17), or they do not contradict
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with the principles of Islamic teachings, and should be evaluated within an Islamic
framework and using Islamic criteria (Haneef, 1997).
Although the pragmatic concern is normal in the early stages of discipline
development, for the long term development of the discipline, this is not appropriate.
Some critics have stated that Islamic economics depends too much on neo-classical
economics “without questioning either the value-orientation of neoclassicalism or the
possibility of treating Islamic values in such otherwise value-free models of economic
behavior, pricing and allocation” (Choudhury, 1999, p. 1) and hence as criticized by
Alatas (2006) Islamic economics is an empirical theory with “neo-classical guise” that:
[. . .] merely substituted Islamic terms for neo-classical ones, retaining the latter’s
assumptions, procedures and modes of analysis. As such, it has failed to engage in the
analysis and critique of a highly unequal world economic order in which the gaps are ever
widening.
The main objective of methodological query is to develop criteria of acceptance
and rejection of a theory and providing rationalizations and guidelines in the process of
theory appraisal and evaluation. This is in line with Machlup’s (1978, p. 55) argument that:
[. . .] methodology provides arguments and rationalizations which support various
preferences entertained by the scientific community for certain rules of intellectual
procedure, including those for forming concepts, building models, formulating hypotheses,
and testing theories.
The preferences here refer to criteria put by economists in determining the assumptions,
arriving to the conclusion, and in preferring of one theory over another in theory appraisal.
These criteria are also used to distinguish “true” over “false” notions in theories, between
“valid” theories and “invalid” ones as well as the “acceptance” or “rejection” of that theory.
This paper attempts to discuss methodology of Islamic economics by investigating the
purpose of theory appraisal in Islamic economics as well as the criteria of a good theory in
Islamic economics.

2. The purpose of theory appraisal in Islamic economics

Methodology of Islamic economics is developed in accordance with:
.
the needs and requirements of the subject-matter (object of study) of discipline; and
.
the provisional sources of knowledge to solve that subject-matter (discipline’s
body of problem).
 HUM In the former, methodology of Islamic economics will cater for both dimensions of
28,4 economics problems, i.e. in the “practical-paradigm” of what is experienced by man,
and in the “ideals/conceptual-paradigm” of why and for what purpose those problems
are to be solved, reflecting the interaction of positive and normative aspects in
appraising theories. In the latter, Islamic economic methodology attempts to appraise
theories from Islamic legitimate sources of knowledge, namely divine revelation
272 (wahy), intellectual reasoning (‘aql ), and facts observation of universe (āfaq) and
human self/behavior (anfus)[1].
In this light, the economic theory appraised from those multiple sources of economic
knowledge does three tasks: links the doctrine and practical reality, explains realities
and their relationship in a holistic way, and helps in goal realization.
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2.1 Economic theory that links the doctrine and practical- realities
Islamic economics as a science will link the doctrine and practical reality. Theory
produced is not merely a reflection of doctrine but also has a root in practical realities.
Islamic economics as a science will involve both doctrine and realities in its theory
appraisal. Its business is to interlink the doctrine and realities and evaluate
their relationship. As a science, Islamic economics is basically a “means” to achieve the
goals promised by doctrine, as well as a “tool” to analyze the practices in the light of
doctrine (Abu-Saud, 1995, p. 265). In the words of Al-Faruqi (1981, p. 17), Islamic
economic methodology:
[. . .] would endeavor to expose the immanent divine pattern in human affairs, to underline
that part of it which is in actu, and that part of it which is in potential; to expose the facts
realizing or impeding the completion of the process of embodiment, to focus the light of
understanding upon the relations of that process to all other processes of ummatic life.
Islamic economic methodology attempts to formulate theory according to the
principles and ethos of the Qur’an as well as the practical-realities or historical data of
human real-life experience. At the doctrinal and practical domain, it will interpret the
ideals and practical-realities and translate them into a set of theoretical propositions,
assumptions as well as hypotheses. It will also evaluate the reliability of those
theoretical propositions, assumptions and hypothesis in practice by providing
empirical evidence and then analyze them to be the feedback for further refinement and
development of a theory in Islamic economics. The interaction is a continuous process
with the main purpose to formulate a general theory for a system of Islamic economics
that is theoretically and empirically sound. With this task and purpose of methodology
of Islamic economics, Chapra (2000, p. 137) opines that Islamic economic theory should
be both “ideational” and “factual” in content. A theory should be able to absorb the
message of doctrine and portray the factual reality at once, something which is missing
in conventional neoclassical economic theory that has swayed too much to empiricism.
Nevertheless, how far Islamic ideals can be translated into practices will depend on:
.
the consciousness of the agent in concern, Islamic man, individually and
collectively, or
.
the practicability of that doctrine. Any gap between ideals and realities will be
the object of study in Islamic economic methodology that would also propose
recommendations to close the gaps, thus contributing to further theoretical
progress of Islamic economics.
 2.2 Economic theory that provides a holistic explanation of phenomena Islamic
An economic theory produced in Islamic economics cannot be reductionist in nature economic
(reducing all entities to the level of the individual) and should not try to isolate and detach
one entity from the “whole”. This is because methodological individualism/reductionism methodology
represents only partial knowledge and compartmentalization of realities. Methodology
of Islamic economics on the other hand aims at explaining the realities as a whole
recognizes all entities in their proper place, relating and integrating them in an orderly 273
and meaningful way.
Theory produced in Islamic economics should also be able to see the relationship
of realities or phenomena in a broader perspective. The measurement and quantification
request should not prevent us from seeing the non-measured/quantified
realities/experiences. This is in contrast to modern neoclassical economics that has
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been shaped by positivism to reject the unobservable phenomena and unquantifiable

realities/experiences which, according to Lawson (2003, pp. 15-17) makes its
assumptions/theories unrealistic in nature and could be applied only in a closed system
(especially in mathematical modeling) instead of in an open system[2]. The methodological
challenge of Islamic economics in theory appraisal would be in putting the proper
ontological perspective of human nature/existence by committing to the role of ethics,
spirituality and human intentional agency in economic activity.

2.3 Economic theory that helps in goal realization

Another objective in Islamic economic theory appraisal is to produce economic theory
that could assist in goal realization. Islamic economics is a goal-oriented discipline.
It is a science developed to solve the practical problems of life in a total manner.
In Islamic economics the purpose of analyzing the facts is not for the sake of explaining
the apparent realities but also with the purpose of putting them in the proper
place in accordance with the ideals/values/goals of Islam and to change the imperfect
facts/realities, if found. In this endeavor, the maqasid or falah framework would help
in providing a more meaningful framework to economic analysis. Empirical
observation is also to be conducted to examine whether maqasid is applied in
realities or vice versa.
With that purpose of economic theory, methodology of Islamic economics is not just
to describe, analyze and predict, but also to prescribe, enlighten and also compare the
actual results with the desired goals. It also aims to analyze the unity of
doctrine/principles/values/goals and practical/factual realities, and putting forward
reasons, if there exist a “gap between the two”, and to show how the gap may be
removed. In this regard, Chapra (1996, p. 32) insightfully contends that as actual
behavior may or may not be conducive to goal realization, methodology of Islamic
economics could also indicate the “kind” of behavior, or the “kind” of Islamic values
and institutions, that are needed for goal realization and scientifically analyze their
impact on goal realization. Therefore, an explicit inclusion of ethical values into the
economic calculus by accepting religion as the source of ethical values is not only valid
but also necessary in Islamic economic theory appraisal. This objective of methodology
will enable Islamic economists to explain, predict, and persuade more effectively,
and to suggest more confidently the necessary measures to go from “what is” to
“what ought to be”, from ideational to practical, from doctrine to practical realities, and
vice versa (Chapra, 2000, p. 133).
 HUM 3. The criteria for theory appraisal in islamic economics
28,4 The second primary interest in methodological discourse, apart from theory appraisal,
is to evaluate the reliability of the appraised theory. This methodological process aims at
producing “good theory”; differentiating fit theory from the unfit one; and ensuring further
progress in theoretical (nazariyyah) and practical (‘amaliyyah) aspects of the discipline.
A theory appraised from the sources of revelational interpretation, intellectual
274 reasoning and factual observation has a space-time dimension. Its relevance is subject
to certain conditions and situations. Theory, unlike doctrine, is dynamic and contestable,
whereby one theory could be challenged by another theory and could also be modified
or replaced by another superior theory.
Any theory appraised will be evaluated for its reliability and soundness. In this
endeavor, Maki (2008, p. 546) observes that in order to make progress in investigating
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the issues of scientific evaluation, we need to have an understanding of what exactly is

being evaluated, and what kind of performance/purpose it is tested for, apart from
technical questions of “how” to evaluate. For this purpose, the criteria for a good or bad
theory in Islamic economics are important. Those criteria should properly reflect and
capture the values and norms of Islam and Islamic epistemology principles that are
also consistent with the economic vision of Islam. Based on the previous discussion on
purposes of theory appraisal in Islamic economics, we propose the criteria of
“integrity” and “unity” as the main criteria to evaluate the fitness or otherwise of a
theory in Islamic economics. These criteria will help us to distinguish between
valid/sound theories and invalid ones from an Islamic point of view.

3.1 The criteria of internal-integrity

In accordance with the source of knowledge from where economic theory is appraised;
Divine revelation (wahy), intellectual reasoning (‘aql ) and factual observation of nature
(āfaq) and man (anfus), a theory will be evaluated in three scientific tests: “doctrinal”,
“logical” and “empirical”. Those sources of knowledge characterize the hypothesis and
theories produced into doctrinal, logical and factual characteristics, respectively. In
Islamic economic methodology, those three dimensions are interrelated and integrated
in a theory. That integration (relationship) will be the basis of our evaluation of a theory.
The criterion of “integrity” is to examine the “internal fitness/soundness” of a
theory, i.e. to see its soundness in terms of processes, methods, and rules of appraisal.
In this regard, any theory appraised in Islamic economics will be juxtaposed by the
“textual examination”, “logical/rational validation”, and “contextual” and “empirical
investigation”. A reliable and sound theory is the one that can show doctrinal, logical
and factual integrity (i.e. internally consistent with textual evidence, logically valid and
empirically proven, respectively). In other words, unlike conventional scientific
methodology, the validity of a theory in Islamic economics is not simply obtained by
measuring it against empirical evidence; instead, it has to be put first to the test of
doctrinal integrity (compliance) and logical validity.
In the “doctrinal integrity” test we examine the soundness of a theory in terms of:
.
its “consistency” and “reliability” (“correctness”) in the process, methods and
rules utilized in the Qur’anic insight derivation; and
.
its “correspondence” and “confirmation” with the principles, framework and
values of the Qur’an.
 A sound theory is the one that strongly abides by proper methodology used in deriving Islamic
insights from the Qur’an and the one that is strongly corresponding to Qur’anic principles economic
and values.
In the “logical integrity” test we examine the “coherence” or “logical consistency” of a methodology
theory from the hypothesis to the conclusion. A sound theory is one that is “logically
sound/valid” (i.e. not a fallacious statement and does not contradict with valid
reasoning); the assumptions or statements in the theory do not “contradict” each other; 275
and has “coherence” with a logical consistency in the full body of that theory from its
premises, hypothesis and conclusion. In the “factual integrity” test we examine
the “correspondence” of a theory to the factual reality. A sound theory is one that
has “practical efficacy” and “relevance” to the phenomena and hence can
“understand” and “explain” the phenomena or the relationship of the variables
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thoroughly.

3.2 The criteria of relational-unity

The unity criteria (i.e. the unity of doctrinal, logical and factual dimensions of a theory)
come from the principle in Islamic epistemology that aims at realizing unity in doctrine
and realities, ideals and facts. The manifestation of unity criteria in Islamic economic
theory is in understanding and explaining practical-realities in a total perspective, and
in uniting the doctrine and practical realities.
If in the “integrity criteria”, a sound theory must be sound in its doctrinal, logical
and factual dimensions, respectively, in the “unity criteria” all the three doctrinal,
logical and factual dimensions must exist and be integrated in a theory. If in the
“integrity criteria” we are interested to see “internal fitness” of a theory in terms of its
doctrinal integrity (i.e. its consistency and correctness in deriving insights from
revelation, and its correspondence and confirmation to the principles, frameworks or
values), logical integrity (i.e. its “coherence” or “logical consistency/no contradiction”
from the hypothesis to the conclusion) and factual integrity (i.e. its “practical efficacy”
and “correspondence” to the factual reality), in the “unity criteria” we are interested to
see that “relationship” and “unity” of the doctrinal, logical, and factual dimensions in a
theory. In other words, whether a theory is able to correspond to doctrine, logic and
relevant phenomena in its explanation, and whether the three dimensions of Islamic
economics, namely, the doctrinal, the theoretical, and the applied, intermingle and
interact in theory and practice.
A good theory of Islamic economics will fulfill all those integrity criteria in the
relational aspects-unity of doctrinal, logical and factual. For example, a theory that is
derived from revelation (doctrinal) must also be logically sound and rooted in empirical
reality (i.e. can be applied and reliable). A theory that has no root in factual reality is
meaningless or insufficient for grounding action. This is because:
.
the system consists of general and universal rules, its application to particular
cases requires further deliberation and specification, such empirical
reality will provide necessary insight on applicability of theory in the practical
realm; and
.
the application of universal rules requires knowledge about existing conditions,
only when theoretical conditions of an action correspond with its actual
conditions does the application of the rule become possible and knowledge
become probable (Safi, 1996, p. 171).
 HUM Likewise, a theory developed from facts observation would be useless without a
28,4 confirmation or justification of the revelation or logically acceptable. This is because:
.
some facts might be corrupt (false) if they deviate from the Islamic
doctrine/principles/values or valid reasoning; and
.
some facts are relative to the time and place that require further investigation
and justification for their generalization.
276
In unity criteria, the dependence of empirical, logical and transcendental knowledge
(reality) to each other is not one-sided. This is because; each dimension lacks something
which can only be perfected if they are connected. Safi (1996, p. 174) called this
interrelationship a “reciprocal dependency” whereby not only the empirical is dependent
on the transcendental, but also the truth of the transcendental principles need to be
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empirically substantiated trough their manifestations. This imperative contradicts the

common practice in conventional economics which describes and interprets the fact
merely as an autonomous phenomenon (as it is) in the empirical sense. The theory
appraised is merely based on “objective-facts” and should be confirmed only by facts
with the exclusion of subjective-ethical and ideological elements. Human knowledge in
conventional economics is confined to the realm of empirical phenomena and the concept
of truth is limited to “empirical truth”[3]. In this perspective, we would argue that
methodological unity should be attempted. While dealing with revelation, intellectual
reasoning and facts observation requires its own methodology, attempting to link and
unite those methodologies in a methodological perspective is important to produce a
coherent body of Islamic economic theory.
A theory that is not successful to show integrity and unity in all the three aspects is
not a fit theory and could be replaced by another theory that could show integrity and
unity in those three aspects. However, in line with Occam’s law if there are two theories
that are considered to be equivalent on the ground of “internal-integrity” and
“relational-unity”, as well as coherence and correspondence in those three aspects and
therefore have equal explanatory power, then a theory that is concise and clearer is
preferred[4].
3.2.1 Unity perspective in understanding realities. In Islamic ontology, while realities
are viewed as varying from material, to spiritual and transcendental realities; from
physical to metaphysical realities; from the sensible-observable to unobservable
realities, they are also viewed in a unity perspective and are interconnected and
interdependent to each other. In this perspective, there is no room for dichotomy,
isolation and fragmentation or reduction and atomism of one to the other. In order to
explain one thing we need to know its connections to all other things.
As the Islamic worldview holds the view of “multiplicity” and “unity” of Realities,
Islamic economic methodology should not only recognize that multiplicity of realities,
but should also be able to explain it in a broader and unity perspective that would
provide a “comprehensive understanding” of the economic phenomena and a “complete
picture” of the working economy.
A theory of Islamic economics therefore, should not only be able to explain the
outer-observable phenomena that would only gain the outward appearance of the actual
truth (and hence might be partial in approach and solution), but should also go deeper by
not only revealing the “social reality” as suggested by Lawson (2003, p. 54) of the
underlying and governing structures of social systems that consist of social relations,
 rules, positions and institutions, but also by relating them to the transcendental reality Islamic
by having a metaphysics or spiritual perspective. A theory that misses this unity economic
perspective in understanding realities (such as reductionist, isolationist, or having a
fragmented view) will not be accepted. methodology
3.2.2 Unity of doctrine and practical realities. A theory in Islamic economics should
also be able to unite the economic doctrines/principles/values/ideals and facts or factual
experiences/empirical realities. A theory in this perspective is essentially the reflection of 277
both doctrinal-ideals and practical-realities. Economic phenomena therefore are
explained in terms of set of explanatory variables rooted in practical-realities as well
as based on normative-ideals. This manifests itself in the unification of theories and
intra-linkages of normative-positive dimension. A theory will unite the doctrinal and
factual aspects of reality. Hence positive-normative distinctions to demarcate between
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the scientific and non-scientific aspects/dimensions as applied in conventional

economics are not accepted.
This criterion comes from the Islamic epistemological principle that what might be
apriori true should also be true aposteriori and vice versa. Practical-realities are
essentially the accumulated experiences which are nothing more than the doctrine’s
manifestation in the real-life. They are essentially the manifestation of internal
human’s belief and consciousness. Doctrine in this regard is part of an individual’s and
society’s “personality” and consciousness and would then transform and manifest it in
the realm of practice. The transformation is taking place through:
.
internalization Islamic values into one’s behavior; and
.
transformation of Islamic ideals into institutions and economic practices.

Once the process of internalization and transformation takes place, an economic theory
becomes an integral part of practice, and likewise, the practice (economic reality or fact)
is nothing more than a manifestation of that doctrine (value) and hence unity criteria is
fulfilled[5].
In this perspective, practical-realities (waqi’ah) which occur based on the
consciousness that emerge from Islamic doctrine/principles/values (haqq) are
considered as valid (salim) reality which is a haqiqah and the reality which is
against the Islamic doctrine/principles/values are considered as false realities
(waqi’ah fasidah)[6].
Nevertheless, the process is not as easy or smooth as thought. Some divergences
and discrepancies occur. While the unification of doctrine and reality, normative and
positive, ideals and practices, are preferred, some challenges and gaps could be seen.
Generally speaking, at both doctrinal and empirical levels we could say that Islamic
economics has yet to reach a satisfactory level of unity. At present, there is still a gap
between theoretical ideals and practical realities. In Islamic economics literature, we
see a compromise has been made in theoretical formulation by retaining conventional
neo-classical assumptions, procedures and modes of analysis and apply them in the
case of Islamic society. While we agree that not all conventional theories should be
rejected, this should be treated in the short-run while attempting to appraise Islamic
economic theory in a way that properly captures the Islamic ideals and Islamic
practical-realities/cases simultaneously.
 HUM 3.3 Tawhidic methodology (methodological unity)
28,4 A methodology that attempts to unify the objects of study; economic realities, doctrine
and practical experiences, ideals and facts, normative and positive aspects and that
fulfill the integrity and unity criteria in Islamic economics theory is called tawhidic
methodology or methodological unity. This unity will mark the highest objective
of Islamic economic methodology as the notion of scientific truth is defined in the unity
278 framework that covers doctrinal, rational and empirical dimensions. This unity
also marks the soundness of Islamic economic theory hence could avoid what Naqvi
(1994, p. 20) terms as the “apologetic structure” of Islamic economics that puts it as a
mere logical possibility rather than an actuality. Islamic economists in the tawhidic
methodology must show that the system they put forward can be implemented and can
better tackle specific economic issues[7].
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Methodological unity, in our inquiry into the world, attempts to observe and theorize
(appraise) propositions, hypothesis, assumptions and theories while rooted in Islamic
doctrine. It must also be consistently “logical” and “empirical”. This would imply that
there will be multiple methods of scientific enquiry in Islamic economics in accordance
with the sources of knowledge. In methodological unity, those methods are not only
recognized, but should interact and be integrated. The objective is to attain “theoretical
integrity” and “unity” to arrive at a holistic understanding and coherent interpretation of
reality and reach the truth. The knowledge from revelation, intellectual reasoning and
facts observation will be unified in Islamic economic theory appraisal and empirical
practices. We thus have a combination of the textual, rationalistic and empiricist orders
in tawhidic methodology and an integration of normative/ideals/goals and
positive/practices/directions perspective as well[8]. Therefore, in a tawhidic
methodology, isolation, the dichotomy or conflict between scientific propositions and
religious claims, between the ideational and practical/objective realms become obsolete.
Instead, we will see the integration between the domain of rational and empirical reality
and the Divine normative frameworks; and the integration among the moral, rationalistic
and empirical aspects of epistemological inquiry (Choudhury, 1995, p. 20)[9].
In this endeavor, Islamic economics could also benefit from the development of
methodology of social sciences especially in dealing with facts or empirical testing,
although our treatment of empirical results differs from western scholarship. Based on
the integrity and unity criteria, our attempt to interpret and evaluate facts is not aimed
at establishing truth merely on those empirical facts without any reference to the
revelation principles or logical analysis. Therefore, in methodological unity, we
attempt to interact and integrate the western methodology and Islamic methodological
legacy in understanding economic phenomena and coming up with a coherent body of
theory in an Islamic perspective.
At the end, Islamic economic methodology aims at reaching the unification of
multiple truths; doctrinal truth, logical truth and empirical truth. An Islamic economic
theory would satisfy doctrinal consistency, intellectual rationality as well as pragmatic
utility. Tawhid sets the framework of ethics and values as well as direction and goals
which will ensure that multiplicity of methods are integrated. The tawhidic truth
(al-haqq) is multidimensional, too complex and interwoven and cannot be reduced into
“rational” truth or “empirical” truth. Truth for the Greek philosophers is understood
more in terms of rational justification, rather than correspondence to an external reality.
On the contrary, modern scientific method defines truth in terms of its correspondence
 to external reality that require empirical and experimental test (Shah, 2006, p. 99). Truth Islamic
in Islamic scientific tradition is also defined in the “ethical” criteria of good and bad, right economic
and wrong and also in “spiritual” framework of its correspondence with Islamic doctrine
and could assist human beings in spiritual transformation of self actualization. methodology
With those methodological purposes and criteria in mind, we then consider a theory
that satisfies the “internal-integrity” and “relational-unity” criteria as a good theory.
The proven theory becomes a scientific discovery and as such, is added to the 279
accumulated body of knowledge in Islamic economics. If we find new ideas or identify
new problems, and the existing theory is not able to provide a proper answer,
modification to that theory is needed. If theory cannot be modified to absorb the new
ideas/problems, hence we should reinterpret the revelation insights, empirical facts and
intellectual conclusions from where new insights, assumptions and hypothesis could
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be gained. The process would contribute to knowledge accumulation, and if this is

systematized properly it will develop into an organized body of knowledge.
Finally, Islamic economic methodology will play a role to fulfill those criteria in
Islamic economic theory appraisal and evaluation. It will continuously examine a
theory in its doctrinal, logical and factual aspects and study their interrelationship and
suggest theoretical modification for further improvement[10]. The application of the
internal-integrity and relational-unity criteria in the process of theory appraisal in
Islamic economic methodology could be seen in the following chart (Figure 1).

4. Conclusion
We have discussed two main pillars of methodological inquiry namely, how to
“appraise” theories and how to “evaluate” the reliability of those theories in Islamic
economics. The main objective of methodological inquiry is to develop criteria of
acceptance or rejection of a theory as well as providing rationalizations and guidelines in
the process of theory appraisal and evaluation. These criteria are also used to
distinguish “true” over “false” notions in theories, between “valid” theories and “invalid”
ones as well as the “acceptance” or “rejection” of that theory. Those criteria are related to
the source of knowledge from which theories are appraised, namely divine revelation
(wahy), intellectual reasoning (‘aql ), facts observation of universe (āfaq) and human
behavior (anfus).
In theory appraisal, we discussed three purposes of Islamic economic methodology,
namely:
(1) To produce economic theory that could link doctrine and practical reality, ideals
and realities, doctrine and factual experience, values and facts. A theory that
dichotomizes them in its body (assumptions, hypothesis and conclusion) is not
accepted as an Islamic economic theory.
(2) To produce an economic theory that could explain economic phenomena and
human actions and behavior in making choces/decisions in a comprehensive
and integrated manner. A theory with a partial understanding of realities is not
accepted as an Islamic economic theory.
(3) To produce an economic theory that could help in goal realization. Islamic
economic theory is goal and value-oriented, designed to realize the Islamic
economic objectives and to the optimization of human well-being in all
dimensions, moral, material, social, and spiritual.
 HUM
28,4

280
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Figure 1.
Islamic economic theory
appraisal and evaluation
in a methodological unity
 Based on the nature and subject-matter of Islamic economics, the legitimate sources of Islamic
knowledge and those purposes in Islamic economic theory appraisal, we proposed the economic
criteria of “integrity” and “unity” as the main criteria to evaluate the fitness of a theory
of Islamic economics. methodology
A theory appraised in Islamic economics is evaluated by its internal-integrity of the
doctrinal, logical and factual dimensions. A good theory:
.
must be based on the Islamic doctrine/principles/values; 281
.
must be capable of rational economic analysis in the sense that they must be
consistent with economic assumptions and behavior, normative and positive, at
the micro and macro levels; and
.
must be also capable of translating itself into practical applications with the help
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of suitable Islamic policy instruments.

The validity of economic theory appraised in Islamic economics is evaluated by its:

.
unity of doctrinal, logical and factual dimensions;
.
unity of understanding and explaining realities; transcendental, logical and
empirical realms; and
.
unity of doctrine and practical realities, ideals/goals and factual
experiences, values and facts, normative and positive dimensions, apriori and
aposteriori.

Methodological unity (tawhidic methodology) is an Islamic economic methodology

that would fulfill the integrity and unity criteria in Islamic economic theory and attempts
to unify the object of study; the realities, doctrine and practical experiences, ideals and
facts, normative and positive aspects. In this process, a continuous construction of new
concepts and of new ways of classifying and describing phenomena is crucial for the
production and accumulation of theories and later on accumulation of knowledge for
discipline progress.

Notes
1. Both nature (world and universe) and human (self and behavior, as individual and society)
can be a source of knowledge in Islamic economics. The Qur’an says “We will soon show
them Our signs (ayat) in the universe (āfaq) and in themselves (anfus) so that it becomes
clear to them that this [revelation ] is indeed the truth (ha-mim: 53)” and “in the earth there are
signs (ayat) for those who seek certitude (al-muqinin), as also within your own selves (anfus).
Will you not then see? (Qur’an, Adh-dhariyat: 20).
2. This is because those theories are developed in an atomistic ontology by viewing individuals
as part of an assumed-to-be isolated and self-contained set or system, instead of considering
social reality as intrinsically dynamic and that all phenomena’s existence would depend on
transformative human agency and are internally related or organic whereby once cannot
exist without the other (a closure of concomitance) (Lawson, 1994, p. 262, 2003, pp. 15-17).
3. Hence, it is not surprising, when numerous empirical evidences found that the behaviour of
human being tends to be pursuing self interest by maximizing his own utility, the
conventional economics then construct theory of self-interest motive and utility
maximization which supports this evidence irrespective of what the ultimate nature of
human behaviour should be.
 HUM 4. We should however note that this concise and clear criterion is for the purpose of
convenience without sacrificing its comprehensive nature for the sake of “simplicity” as in
28,4 reductionist principle.
5. The place of this unity according to Izutsu (1994, p. 15) is rooted in human consciousness
himself whereby “the correlation between the metaphysical and the epistemological means
in this context the relation of ultimate identity between what is established as the objective
282 structure of reality and what is usually thought to take place subjectively in human
consciousness. There should be no distance between the subject and object”. It is man who
will apply the doctrine into practice and shape practice according to the doctrine.
6. If we could recall back, one of Al-Sadr’s (1983) arguments for not developing a science of
Islamic economics is because at present the Muslim society is practicing false reality since no
Islamic economic system has been established. Establishing a science of economics on the
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basis of false reality would produce a false science of Islamic economics.

7. This would also answer critics by Kuran (1995) who alleges that many Islamic economists
hold highly unrealistic expectations concerning the potential effectiveness of norms in a
complex economy.
8. On the multiple methods in the past Islamic intellectual tradition and the spirit of
methodological unity, Bakar (1991) interestingly observes: “Mantiq (logic) was used
extensively from the 11th century but did not lead to kind of secular rationalism experienced
in the west during the enlightenment and renaissance. Similarly, the empirical studies
employed by Muslim scholars did not lead to the kind of empiricism in the west beginning
with Roger Bacon. This was because reason always linked to revelation and sense
perception was never made the source and verification of all knowledge”.
9. Based on that perspective Nasr (1967, pp. 22-3) differentiates a tawhidic methodology with
methodological reductionism as follows: the Muslim science breathed in a Universe in which
God was everywhere. They were based upon certainty and searched after the principle of
unity in things which is reached through synthesis and integration. The modern sciences, on
the contrary, live in a world in which God is nowhere or, even if there, He is ignored as far as
the sciences are concerned. They are based on doubt. Having once turned their back on the
unifying principles of things, they seek to analyze and divide the contents of Nature to an
ever greater degree, moving towards multicity and away from unity.
10. Anwar (1990, p. 39) in this regard insightfully comments “knowledge in Islamic economics
must increase continuously through improvement in the existing theories, economic life of
people, realities and evidence”.

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Further reading
Al-Attas, S.M.N. (1989), Islam and the Philosophy of Science, ISTAC, Kuala Lumpur.
Haneef, M.A. and Furqani, H. (2009), “Contemporary Islamic economics: the missing dimension
of genuine Islamization”, Thoughts on Economics, Vol. 19 No. 4, pp. 29-48.
Rahman, F. (1995), “Islam and the problem of economic justice”, Journal of Islamic Economics,
Vol. 3 No. 2, pp. 13-51.

About the authors

Hafas Furqani is currently a Researcher at International Shari’ah Research Academy for Islamic
Finance (ISRA). He receives PhD of Economics (2012) as well as Master’s of Economics (2006) from
the Department of Economics, International Islamic University Malaysia. His Bachelor degree is in
Shari’ah Mu’amalah from the State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta (2002).
 HUM He has extensively written and published articles in the areas of Islamic economics, banking and
finance in academic journals as well as newspapers and magazines. His paper “Challenges in the
28,4 construction of Islamic economics discipline” was awarded 1st Prize winner at KLIFF Essay
Competition (2011). His PhD thesis “The foundations of Islamic economics: a philosophical
exploration of the discipline” has recently been awarded Gold Medal at the 2012 International
Islamic University Malaysia Research, Invention and Innovation Exhibition (IRIIE 2012).
Hafas Furqani is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]
284 Mohamed Aslam Haneef is currently Professor at the Department of Economics,
International Islamic University Malaysia. He received his PhD from the School of
Development Studies, University of East Anglia, UK and also holds a Master’s of Economics
from the University of Malaya and Bachelor’s of Economics (Hons) from the IIUM. His PhD
thesis entitled “Intellectual parameters of contemporary Islamic economic thought and policy”
won the Ismail Faruqi Award for Academic Excellence in IIUM (1996). He teaches Economics
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and Islamic Economics at both the undergraduate and graduate levels as well as in executive
MBA and Post-Graduate Diploma programs. He was Head of the Economics Department, IIUM
from June 1996-September 1999, Fulbright Visiting Scholar at the Center for Muslim-Christian
Understanding, Georgetown University, US from September-October 1996 and held a
Commonwealth Fellowship at the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies (1999-2000). He has
published books and articles and conducted research in various areas of Economics and
Development Studies and is also involved in numerous public and private executive training
programs, specializing in Islamic economics and contemporary development issues.

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