Student Centered Learning Toolkit

TIME FOR A NEW PARADIGM IN EDUCATION:
STUDENT-CENTRED LEARNING
Student-Centered
Learning
SCL Toolkit
You cannot teach a man anything. You can only help him discover it with-
in himself.
Galileo Galilei
It is important that students bring a certain ragamuffin, barefoot irrev-

erence to their studies; they are not here to worship what is known, but to
question it.
Jacob Bronowski
The European
Students’ Union
Imprint
Student-Centered Learning Toolkit
Content Design & Typesetting

Angele Attard, Emma Di Iorio, Koen Geven, Linus Rowedda
Robert Santa
Image credits
Editing and Proofreading
Angele Attard
Printing
Supported by the T4SCL Project Steering
#
Group
Printed on …
Ligia Deca, European Students’ Union
Monique Fouilhoux, Education Interna-
tional
Olav Øye, European Students’ Union
Milica Popovic, Education International
Robert Santa, European Students’ Union
Natalia Tarachiu, European Students’ Union
Bert Vandenkendelaere, European
Students’ Union
Milica Popovic, Education International
With the guidance of the International
Advisory Board
Prof. Lee Harvey, Copenhagen Business
School, Denmark
Dr. Sybille Reichert, Ph.D, Higher Education
Consultant
Prof. Jussi Välimaa, Institute for Educational
Research, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
Prof. Kirsten Hofgaard Lycke, Faculty of
Education, University of Oslo, Norway
This publication is part of the project »Time

for a New Paradigm in Education: Student
Centered Learning«, funded with support
from the European Commission.
This publication reflects the views only of
the authors, and the Commission cannot be
held responsible for any use which may be
made of the information contained therein.
Table of Content
1 Principles and Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 The Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3 An SCL Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4 Changing the Mindset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5 Implementation by Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6 Implementation by Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7 Maintaining a Culture of SCL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
8 Common Misconceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
9 SCL and the Bologna Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
10 Source: Dublin College University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
11 Sources for further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

ABBREVIATIONS
EACEA Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency

ECTS European Credit Transfer System
EI Education International
ESU European Students’ Union
LLL Lifelong Learning
LLP Lifelong Learning Programme (European Commission)
PBL Problem-Based Learning
RPL Recognition of Prior Learning
SCL Student-Centred Learning
T4SCL Time for a New Paradigm in Education: Student-Centred Learning
(Joint EI-ESU Project)
1 Principles and Definition
1.1 Introduction
This Toolkit forms part of the project to provide concrete policy input—dur-
entitled Time for a New Paradigm in ing and beyond the project lifetime—
Education: Student-Centred Learning to ongoing discussions as to the future
(t4scl), jointly led by the European Stu- of the EU Education & Training Pro-
dents’ Union (esu) and Education In- gramme and the next phase of the Bolo-
ternational (ei).This is an EU-fund- gna Process.
ed project under the Lifelong Learning Following on from the initial desk re-
Programme (llp) administered by the search and survey undertaken with both
Education, Audiovisual and Culture Ex- ei and esu member organisations (high-
ecutive Agency (eacea). er education staff unions and national
t4scl, as a pioneer student unions respectively), published
SLC is practical and initiative, aims to as- in May 2010, this toolkit is one of the
achievable, as well as sist policy makers in de- last initiatives, marking the end phase of
being highly beneficial signing sound student- the project. It represents a key outcome
for learners. centred learning (scl) of the project. This toolkit follows ex-
strategies and approach- tensive research and a series of events at
es and to increase the capacity of stu- both European and national levels, com-
dent and staff representative organisa- bined with trainings on the subject-mat-
tions to be active partners in spreading a ter.
culture of scl in higher education insti- This toolkit is designed for effective,
tutions across Europe. The project aims practical implementation of scl by teach-
to provide comprehensive insight into ing staff, students and institutional leaders.
the necessary tools, challenges and suc- It aims to show how practical and achiev-
cess stories of scl as a fundamental basis able scl is, as well as being highly benefi-
for lifelong learning (lll). It also aims cial for learners.
Principles and Definition 1

1.2 The Concept of SCL
scl was credited to Hayward as ear- Mutual respect within the learner-
qq
ly as 1905 and to Dewey’s work in 1956. teacher relationship; and
Carl Rogers was then associated with ex- A reflexive approach to the teaching
qq
panding this approach into a theory of and learning process on the part of
education in the 1980s and this learning both the teacher and the learner.
approach has also been associated with
the work of Piaget (developmental learn- scl is broadly based on constructiv-
ing) and Malcolm Knowles (self-direct- ism as a theory of learning, which is built
ed learning). Some of the scl literature on the idea that learners must construct
can be summarised into the following el- and reconstruct knowledge in order to
ements (cf. Lea et al, 2003): learn effectively, with learning being
most effective when, as part of an activi-
The reliance on active rather than pas-
qq ty, the learner experiences constructing
sive learning; a meaningful product. scl is also akin
An emphasis on deep learning and un-
qq to transformative learning which contem-
derstanding; plates a process of qualitative change
Increased responsibility and accounta-
qq in the learner as an ongoing process of
bility on the part of the student; transformation which focuses on en-
An increased sense of autonomy in the
qq hancing and empowering the learner,
learner; developing their critical ability.
An interdependence between teacher
qq
and learner;
1.3 Principles Underlying SCL

On the basis of an examination of the put forward a clearer understanding and
theory behind scl and following an in- debate about the topic.
tensive discussion with teachers and stu-
dents on what they consider scl to be, Principle I: scl requires an Ongoing
which took place at the launching con- Reflexive Process. Part of the underlying
ference of the t4scl Project—Time for philosophy of scl is that no one context
a New Paradigm in Education: Student- can have one scl style that can remain
Centred Learning—in Bucharest, Roma- applicable through time. The philoso-
nia in May 2010, below is a list of general phy of scl is such that teachers, students
principles underlying scl. These princi- and institutions need to continuously re-
ples do not aim to form a comprehensive flect of their teaching, learning and in-
picture of what scl is about. Rather they frastructural systems in such a way that
2
Student centered learning
time for a paradigm change
would continuously improve the learn- of choice. Learning can be organised in
ing experience of students and ensure liberal formats, such as at colleges of lib-
that the intended learning outcomes of a eral arts or choice can be offered in a
given course or programme component more traditional, disciplinary style.
are achieved in a way that stimulates Principle VI: Students have Dif-
learners’ critical thinking and transfer- ferent Experiences and Background
able skills. Knowledge. Learning needs to be adapt-
Principle II: scl does not have a ed to the life and professional experi-
›One-Size-Fits-All‹ Solution. A key ence of the individual concerned. For
concept underlying scl is the realisa- instance, if students already have con-
tion that all higher education institu- siderable experience in using itc, there
tions are different, all teachers are differ- is no point in trying to teach them the
ent and all students are different. These same thing again; if they already have
all operate in very diverse contexts and considerable research skills, perhaps it
deal with various subject-disciplines. would be better to help them in theo-
Therefore scl is a learning approach that ry. Personal experience can also be used
requires learning support structures to motivate students, for instance, by al-
which are appropriate to each given con- lowing students to share a personal story
text and teaching and learning styles ap- to illustrate a point.
propriate to those undertaking them. Principle VII: Students should have
Principle III: Students have Dif- Control Over their Learning. Students
ferent Learning Styles. scl recognises should be given the opportunity to be
that students have different pedagogical involved in the design of courses, cur-
needs. Some learn better through tri- ricula and their evaluation. Students
al and error, others learn through practi- should be seen as active partners who
cal experience. For some learners much have a stake in the way that higher edu-
is learned by reading literature, others cation functions. The best way to ensure
need to debate and discuss theory in or- that learning focuses more on students
der to understand it. is by engaging students themselves in
Principle IV: Students have Differ- how their learning should be shaped.
ent Needs and Interests. All students Principle VIII: scl is about ›Ena-
have needs that extend beyond the class- bling‹ not ›Telling‹. In simply impart-
room. Some are interested in cultural ac- ing facts and knowledge to students
tivities, others in sports or in represent- (telling) the initiative, preparation and
ative organisations. Students can have content comes mainly from the teach-
children or can be faced with psycholog- er. The scl approach aims to give the
ical conditions, illness or disability. student greater responsibility enabling
Principle V: Choice is Central to Ef- the student to think, process, analyse,
fective Learning in scl. Students like to synthesise, criticise, apply, solve prob-
learn different things and hence any of- lems, etc.
fer should involve a reasonable amount

Principle IX: Learning needs Coop- might work for both groups. In the class-
eration between Students and Staff. It room, such cooperation will have a posi-
is important that students and staff co- tive effect as the two groups increasingly
operate to develop a shared understand- come to consider each other as partners.
ing both of the problems experienced Such a partnership is central to the phi-
in learning, as well as their problems as losophy of scl which sees learning as
stakeholders within their given insti- taking place in a constructive interac-
tution, jointly proposing solutions that tion between the two groups.
1.4 A Workable Definition of SCL

scl remains a debated concept with A relationship of mutual assertive-
qq
no one clear definition available, since ness between students and teach-
multiple interpretations co-exist which ers; and
exclude each other. Nonetheless, this A focus on learning outcomes which
qq
section will try to circumvent this is- enable genuine learning and deep un-
sue by arriving at a workable definition derstanding.
of scl.
It is interesting first to consider what On the basis of all of the above and of
participants at the launching conference the practical suggestions put forward be-
of the t4scl Project considered as below, this toolkit is proposing the follow-
ing integral components of scl. These ing definition of scl:
include:
»Student-Centred Learning represents
Flexibility and freedom in terms of
qq both a mindset and a culture within a
the time and structure of learning; given higher education institution and
More and better quality teachers who
qq is a learning approach which is broadly
strive to share their knowledge; related to, and supported by, construc-
A clear understanding of students by
qq tivist theories of learning. It is charac-
teachers; terised by innovative methods of teach-
A flat hierarchy within higher educa-
qq ing which aim to promote learning in
tion institutions; communication with teachers and other
Teacher responsibility for student
qq learners and which take students seri-
empowerment; ously as active participants in their own
A continuous ongoing improvement
qq learning, fostering transferable skills
process; such as problem-solving, critical think-
A positive attitude by teachers and
qq ing and reflective thinking.«
students with the aim of improving
the learning experience;
4
With this definition serving as a use- the benefits that this learning approach
ful starting point, this toolkit will now produces and the key characteristics
move on to suggest practical ways in which are necessary in order for an in-
which scl can be implemented in a stitution to assess whether the scl ap-
meaningful manner, keeping in mind proach is being applied by it.

2 The Benefits
2.1 Introduction
scl, if implemented properly, offers Europe—the financial situation, massi-
benefits to all, including the institution, fication of higher education and a high
students and staff involved, higher ed- workload for teaching staff—there are
ucation staff unions, students’ unions many benefits to be reaped by imple-
and society as a whole. Given the cur- menting the scl approach.
rent context of higher education across
2.2 Benefits For Students

The benefits of scl for the students lier on. In this context, research-led
involved are many and varied. Com- teaching becomes all the more possi-
ing into an academic community possible. Teachers are able to discuss their re-
bly for the first time can shape the way search and hear the views of students on
students think for the rest of their lives. the matter. Increased cooperation and a
scl provides skills for life, creates inde- feeling of having one’s views valued can
pendent learners and responds to the further increase the interaction and en-
changing and differing needs of individ- gagement of students. This can lead to
ual students. Below is a list of what such participation in the development of re-
benefits can include: search and also to help develop a giv-
en course, due to the sense of ownership
Making Students an Integral Part that students feel. Lastly, it may also en-
of the Academic Community: Students courage more students to enter the aca-
are said to be part of the academic com- demic community as members. We must
munity, but in practice this can be diffi- not forget that students are the teachers
cult to achieve due to varied practices of of the future!
rigid teaching structures. Via scl, stu- An Increased Motivation to Learn:
dents can become part of that commu- scl can encourage deeper learning, as
nity much earlier, given that the teach- shown in the Learning Pyramid below.
er acts as a facilitator, rather than an Knowledge retention differs depending
instructor. In encouraging students to on the way in which material is learned,
think for themselves, analytical skills but all types of active learning show a
and critical thinking are gained ear- higher retention rate than traditional
6
fig. 1 Learning Pyramid
Source: National Training Laboratories, Bethel, Maine
average student
retention rates Lecturing
10% Reading
20% Audiovisual
30% Demonstration
50% Discussion
75% Practical doing
90% Teach others
forms of learning. The student is also of- tion, prioritisation of tasks and critical
ten more motivated to learn through scl, analysis. In turn, students can devel-
because the tasks set require original op transferable skills and would be able
thought and increase interest in the sub- to work more effectively in their careers
ject-matter. As the Learning Pyramid and lives in general.
below suggests, students retain more of Due Consideration for Student
the information they learn where there Needs: Massification of higher educa-
is an aspect of active learning and active tion has had the effect of diversifying the
participation. student body. Inevitably students have
Independence and Responsibili- differing needs that are wider than ever
ty in Learning: Within scl, students before. scl can enable students to study
must engage with the course material in a flexible manner, through the use of
and are in control of their learning. This part-time study, distance learning and
makes the student more independent e-learning. The scl approach demon-
and adaptable to life after higher educa- strates that learning is not limited to a
tion. The independence of students en- given time or place in the way that tradi-
ables them to learn more effectively and tional learning has been. Different learn-
to gain other skills such as teamwork, ef- ing needs of students can also be met
fective written and verbal communica- because students can engage with ma-
The Benefits 7
terials in different ways. For example, reading. Furthermore, by experiencing a
some students engage more with audi- range of teaching methods students are
ovisual materials whereas others prefer further challenged academically.
2.3 Benefits for Teachers

Whilst the benefits of scl for stu- Continuous Self-Improvement: scl
dents seem obvious, some may question can enable teachers to review and de-
whether this is also the case for teach- velop their courses and teaching meth-
ing staff. Indeed, teachers can benefit ods so as to improve both the content of
from scl as much as the students in their their courses and their method of deliv-
classes. Below is a list of what such bene- ery as teachers. The confidence gained
fits can include: from implementing the scl approach is
also measurable in that teachers obtain
A More Interesting Role for the relevant and constructive feedback from
Teacher: scl, as stated above, puts the more highly-engaged students.
onus on the student to learn. The teach- Increased Learner Motivation and
er is there to facilitate and enable this. Engagement: Increased engagement by
Whilst this might be seen by some as students and a higher level of student
negative, it is a good opportunity to aca- participation makes the job of teach-
demically challenge students, in order to ing more interesting. The ability to bring
enhance their learning. new research into tutorials or classes be-
Solutions to Tackling Massification comes a reality in scl. This sounding
and Diversity: In a reality of massifica- board of ideas can contribute to the re-
tion in higher education and a more di- search of the teacher and introduces stu-
versified student body, it is likely that dents to research and the academic com-
scl will have to be used in many cas- munity at an early stage in their learning
es because of the increased demands process.
of quality from students, the increased Professional Development for
costs of higher education associated Academia: scl can offer a much higher
with this and the diversity of the student level of professional development with
body, meaning student needs are varied. regards to the development of knowl-
Positive Impact on Working Condi- edge, skills and competences relevant
tions: Given that scl provides the op- both for personal development and ca-
portunity for learning to take place in reer advancement. It also enhances
different ways, the work of a teacher can teachers’ flexibility in designing ways of
be more interesting and the negative as- running a course or a programme com-
pects of the working conditions normal- ponent and in applying new ways of
ly associated with teaching can be allevi- teaching or research.
ated by scl.
8
2.4 The Wider Benefits of SCL
Collectively both teaching staff and reflective thinkers and who are able to
students have an interest in, and benefit drive development forward in their giv-
from, scl. This produces cross-over and en society. Below is a list of what such
benefits for their representative organi- benefits can include:
sations. Below is a list of what such bene-
fits can include: Better Retention Rates in Higher Ed-
ucation: Where institutions employ the
Quality Enhancement: Any increase scl approach, there tends to be a low-
in the quality of both working condi- er number of students who choose not
tions and the student academic experi- to complete their studies. This may be
ence is to be welcomed by both teachers’ due to the flexibility within such courses
and students’ unions. and may also be due to the fact that, via
The Status of the Teaching Profes- scl, students engage with their studies
sion: Given the trend in institutions more than within traditional methods of
to focus on research, the status of the instruction. Indeed, students feel more
teaching profession can only be im- valued when learning within an scl en-
proved with the adoption of the scl ap- vironment because their learning needs
proach. scl takes into account innova- are paramount. In a climate of massifi-
tion and allows teachers to develop their cation, formalisation and anonymisa-
courses in the way they wish, whilst al- tion of higher education, this can only
lowing students the flexibility to develop be welcomed.
in their own ways. Attracting Students: Where students’
Increased Representation in Govern- learning needs are carefully considered,
ance Structures: Given that scl in and teaching will be seen as being of high-
of itself requires a higher level of coop- er quality. Meeting student expectations
eration between all institutional levels, and managing them is of paramount im-
it pre-supposes that the hierarchy with- portance. Furthermore, many aspects of
in higher education institutions is rather scl can be implemented without cost-
flat. scl therefore favours a more collab- ly measures and can make institutions
orative approach within institutions, al- which apply this approach much more
lowing for more representation of both attractive to potential students, also at-
students and staff within the relevant tracting more mobility into the region in
governance structures. which the institution is found, thus ben-
efitting also the development of society.
scl also produces benefits both to An Ongoing Improvement Proc-
institutions in which the learning ap- ess: The ability of institutions to eval-
proach is being applied as well as to so- uate their courses and the student aca-
ciety, which is a key beneficiary of grad- demic experience as a whole mean that
uates who are innovative, critical and they produce better graduates. The main
The Benefits 9
benefit to society as a whole is that such themselves and are likely to be more
graduates are more analytical and bet- practical and logical, with an ability to
ter citizens as a result of them having to tackle all sorts of problems as an when
think for themselves throughout their they arise, turning this into a learning
higher education studies. experience. scl can give graduates skills
for lifelong learning, making them more
Fostering a Lifelong Learning Cul- effective in their place of work and ena-
ture: Students who have experienced bling them to contribute extensively to
scl are likely to learn more lessons by the society in which they live.
10
3 An SCL Checklist
This chapter of the toolkit provides change happen in order to move to-
an indicative checklist of what may be wards applying the scl approach.
required in terms of successful imple- If, on the other hand, one finds that

mentation of the scl approach: many of the elements mentioned be-
low are present in their home insti-
If one finds that in their home institu-
 tution, it is an indication that the in-
tion none or few of the elements men- stitution is on the right track, but it
tioned below are present, then the would be useful to consult the subse-
subsequent chapters will be useful quent chapters in any case, being that
in helping to identify the manner in scl in and of itself teaches us to keep
which scl can be applied. In partic- seeking to improve on current appli-
ular, Chapter 4 looks at how to make cable methods.
1. Consultation with Students [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No
Are there transparent procedures in place for students to be

1.1 ❍ ❍
able give feedback on the quality of the educational process?
1.2 Are students consulted on curriculum content? ❍ ❍
Are students consulted on the teaching and evaluation meth-
1.3 ❍ ❍
ods used?
1.4 Are students involved in periodic programme quality reviews? ❍ ❍
Are students involved as full and equal members in commit-
1.5 tees where issues relating to the student experience are dis- ❍ ❍
cussed at all levels (e.g. department, faculty, university, etc.)?
Are straightforward procedures in place for students to ap-
1.6 peal decisions regarding their academic attainment or pro- ❍ ❍
gression?
An SCL Checklist 11
2. ECTS (European Credit Transfer System) and Learning Out-
Yes No
comes [Tick as Appropriate]
Are students consulted when learning outcomes are de-

2.1 ❍ ❍
signed?
Are student needs and the diversity of the relevant student
2.2 ❍ ❍
group considered when designing learning outcomes?
Are students informed on the intended learning outcomes
2.3 ❍ ❍
before they start a course or programme component?
Are ECTS credits used co-related with defined learning out-
2.4 ❍ ❍
comes?
2.5 Are credits transferable between courses and institutions? ❍ ❍
Are credits measured based on student workload, independ-
2.6 ❍ ❍
ent of contact hours?
Are students awarded credits for activities that help them at-
2.7 tain intended learning outcomes if conducted outside the in- ❍ ❍
stitution?
Does your institution refer its qualifications to a Qualifications
2.8 ❍ ❍
Framework?
3. Quality Assurance [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No
Are both staff and students consulted during the institutional

3.1 ❍ ❍
quality assurance process?
Are both representatives of teachers and students involved as
3.2 full and equal members in the panels undertaking institution- ❍ ❍
al quality assurance reviews?
Do institutional quality assurance reviews and guidelines take
3.3 ❍ ❍
into account the overall elements of teaching and learning?
Do programme quality reviews take into account the use of
3.4 ❍ ❍
learning outcomes?
Do programme quality reviews take into account the assess-
3.5 ❍ ❍
ment methods used?
Do external quality assurance evaluations refer to the teach-
3.6 ❍ ❍
ing and learning process?
12
4. Mobility, Recognition and Prior Learning [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No
Are study periods conducted by students in other institutions

4.1 within various mobility schemes recognised by your institu- ❍ ❍
tion?
Do incoming mobile students at your institution benefit from
4.2 support in order to be able to cope with their new cultural ❍ ❍
and linguistic environment?
Are examples of good practice in teaching and learning that
4.3 mobile staff come into contact with discussed and dissemi- ❍ ❍
nated at the institutional level?
Is prior learning (in non-formal learning environments) recog-
4.4 nised by your institution for the purpose of access into educa- ❍ ❍
tional programmes?
4.5 Is the process of recognition of prior learning difficult? ❍ ❍
Does the recognition of prior learning involve significant
4.6 ❍ ❍
costs or bureaucracy?
5. The Social Dimension [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No
Are special support measures in place in order to help stu-

5.1 ❍ ❍
dents from disadvantaged backgrounds?
Are learning paths flexible enough so as to permit combining
5.2 ❍ ❍
work/family-life and studies?
6. Teaching and Learning Methods [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No
6.1 Does your institution use peer assessment and peer learning? ❍ ❍
Does your institution have programmes for which it uses ac-
6.2 ❍ ❍
tivity-based learning?
Is group-work used in the learning process within your insti-
6.3 ❍ ❍
tution?
Are extra-curricular activities of students accepted and recog-
6.4 ❍ ❍
nised as an essential part of the learning experience?
Is the development of transversal skills by students one of the
6.5 ❍ ❍
objectives of the learning process in your institution?
An SCL Checklist 13
7. Student Assessment Methods [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No
Are the goals of the learning process agreed upon between

7.1 ❍ ❍
teachers and students?
Are peer- and self-assessment used as a method in the stu-
7.2 ❍ ❍
dent assessment process?
7.3 Are projects used in the assessment of students? ❍ ❍
Are simulations of tasks and ›real life‹ situations used in the
7.4 ❍ ❍
assessment of students?
8. Learning Environment [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No
Do students have access to appropriate research and study

8.1 ❍ ❍
facilities both on and off campus?
8.2 Is information technology used within the learning process? ❍ ❍
Do librarians collaborate with teachers in order to enhance
8.3 ❍ ❍
students’ learning experience?
Does you institution contribute to promoting a national/re-
8.4 ❍ ❍
gional culture of SCL?
9. Professional Academic Development [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No
Does your institution have any guidelines on teaching and

9.1 ❍ ❍
learning?
Does your institution have a regular professional develop-
9.2 ❍ ❍
ment programme for teaching staff?
If yes, does this programme include a constructive discussion
9.3 ❍ ❍
on the application of teaching methods?
Does this programme use an SCL approach in providing train-
9.4 ing on the use of innovative teaching methods and student- ❍ ❍
centred curriculum development?
14
4 Changing the Mindset
4.1 Introduction
Where none or few of the items listed should always be based on values such
in the above checklist are present with- as academic freedom and professional-
in a given higher education institution, a ism if they are to achieve tangible results.
change process would need to be initiat- The challenge is therefore to forge a co-
ed in order to move a higher education alition with those who want to change
institution or system towards applying and to persuade others who are sceptical.
the scl approach. In order for change to Below, some guidance is given on elabo-
take place in a given higher education rating reform plans. The chapter will run
setting, a strategy is needed with the through six steps in a creative policy cy-
aim of cooperating with and convinc- cle, starting with planning and ending
ing others. Collegiality is a central value with an evaluation of the change process,
in higher education. A strategy based on with the aim of implementing reforms
coercion and power will not only fail but leading to the successful application of
also raise active opposition. Strategies the scl approach.
4.2 The Policy Cycle

Much debate exists in higher educa- of the bottom-up approach argue that
tion policy on whether change happens no change is carried through if it is not
more effectively in a top-down or a bot- supported by those who will do the ac-
tom-up manner. There are strong argu- tual teaching, with this being more ef-
ments on both sides of the debate. Sup- fective if initiatives start with individu-
porters of the top-down approach argue als themselves and are spread by means
that democratically-elected leaders in of a process of inspiration and sharing of
higher education should control re- best practices.
sources to implement a consistent pol- In trying to make change happen to
icy at all levels of the higher education lead towards the adoption of the scl ap-
system. Top-down methods such as laws, proach, it is advisable to be pragmat-
regulations, ministerial decrees, insti- ic and acknowledge a more iterative way
tutional missions and reform agendas of policy-making. In a pragmatic vision,
can guarantee consistency across a giv- both the top and the bottom levels have
en higher education setting. Proponents different roles to play and neither should
Changing the Mindset 15

be over-emphasised. Higher education The policy cycle acknowledges that
leaders are needed because they have ac- policy is made in iterative steps that can-
cess to resources and to personnel and not be fully-planned from the outset. If
a good overview of the system. On the presented in a model, it can look as fol-
other hand, lower levels have expertise lows:
on the ground. They also have innova- In the coming paragraphs, the six
tive ideas and provide the motivation to steps referred to above are elaborated
implement any given policy. A good pol- in turn one by one, in order to provide
icy cycle acknowledges a role for both some ideas on how to make change hap-
levels and aims to enable them to work pen.
together.
fig. 2 The policy cycle in six steps
Analysis of
problem
Evaluate the impact Identify roles for

of the change different actors
Implement Identify drivers

the change for change
Identify strategies
to overcome
barriers to change
16
4.3 Step One: Analysis of the Problem
Many strategies fail at the basic lev- Analysing the problem is very much
el, as reformers do not really know what linked to thinking about solutions. This
it is that they want to change. The first stage thus includes thinking of crea-
step always needs to be a full analysis tive solutions and strategies to address
of the current situation and a mapping- the problem pro-actively. In order not
out of the existing problem. Although to get stuck in simple solutions, it is best
the extent and detail to which the latter to generate many different ideas to deal
can be done will differ from one situa- with the problem and to weigh them up
tion to another, it is useful to think clear- against each other only after coming up
ly about what the main problem is and if with several possibilities for action. This
an understanding of the will not hamper creativity in developing
A useful tool at this problem is shared with solutions. This is especially important
first stage is the SWOT colleagues and other for scl as it is such a broad concept. So-
analysis, including a stakeholders in a given lutions can include considerations relat-
list of: higher education com- ed to pedagogy, student participation or
Strengths munity. Even if it is clear broader social issues linked to the stu-
Weaknesses that not everything can dent experience.
Opportunities and be planned, clear out- At an early stage, it is important to
Threats comes and a timeline be aware that the current trend in pol-
of the current situation, should be set in order icy-making is evidence-based-policy. In
as a basis for chang- to achieve the intended short, this means that arguments and
ing it. change. ideas need to be backed-up by scientif-
ically undertaken policy-research. This
You can also try to ask a number of is because policy-makers prefer to see
questions: academic literature that discusses the
problem at hand and tried-and-tested
How many of the checklist-items
qq solutions to it. Although this may sti-
mentioned above are present? fle creativity in identifying solutions, it
How do you define scl?
qq is relevant to consider that the audience
How is your higher education envi-
qq is likely to be academic and that it will
ronment not student-centred? judge the arguments put forward in a sci-
What has already been done to solve
qq entific way. In order to improve the sci-
the problem? entific basis of such arguments, the fol-
To what extent have these attempts
qq lowing journals and other sources can
been successful or why have they not prove to be useful sources to consult:
been successful?
Who and what needs to change?
qq Active Learning in Higher Education
qq
Which competences and resources
qq journal;
are needed to solve the problem? The Journal of Higher Education;
qq

The International Journal of Academic
qq Student-Centred Learning. An In-
qq
Development; sight into Theory and Practice (ei, esu,
Teaching in Higher Education journal;
qq 2010).
Scholarship Reconsidered. Priorities of
qq
the Professoriate (Boyer,1990); and
4.4 Step Two: Identifying Roles for Different Actors

After taking the decision that change change process and the interests which
is indeed necessary, it is imperative to they may have:
identify the other persons who also want
the same change. Change is often initi- Students’ Unions: Not surprising-
ated by a ›coalition of the willing‹ or a ly, students are often the staunchest sup-
small grouping of those who agree on porters of the scl approach. The joint
the problem and the need to change. esu-ei survey (2010) undertaken dur-
To make higher education more stu- ing the initial stages of the t4scl project
dent-centred, it is useful to connect with shows that attitudes of students’ unions
lecturers, professional associations and are most positive towards the idea. Gen-
student organisations that can support erally, their priority is to promote it as a
the change project and increase its im- political issue, arguing for a more sup-
portance. A number of considerations portive learning environment. In many
can be made in choosing such change cases, students’ unions are also ready to
partners effectively. These include: develop projects in institutions, to iden-
tify experienced student representatives
The type of support they can provide
qq for project-work or to carry out reviews
(moral, financial, expertise, time, in- of learning processes at the institutional
fluence); or faculty level. In some situations, stu-
The type of relationship you have with
qq dents’ unions may be focused on non-
them (trust, personal, hierarchical); academic issues. Therefore, it will be
The type of resistance their involve-
qq helpful to clearly identify the broader
ment is likely to pre-empt (as involve- benefits of the scl approach.
ment typically leads to participation Higher Education Teachers’ Unions:
instead of opposition); and Similarly to students’ unions, teachers’
The legitimacy that they will bring to
qq unions are concerned with profession-
reforms (on the premise that a smart- al issues such as teaching and research as
ly constructed partnership sounds well with more traditional union issues
more convincing). such as working conditions of higher ed-
ucation teaching staff. They can provide
Below is a list of the potential differ- experienced teachers and researchers
ent actors that may be involved in such a and an all-important reality-check of the
18
conditions necessary for change to be many different initiatives at the same
implemented. Teachers’ unions are im- time and often change rather slowly.
portant allies as teachers are often seen Having a clear plan and a scientific basis
as having a negative attitude towards the for argumentation will help to involve
scl approach. If their voice is involved them in the change project.
at an early stage, enthusiasm for change Employer Organisations: Business
can grow on the ground as well. organisations play an increasingly im-
Rectors’ Conferences or Associ- portant role in higher education gov-
ations of Higher Education Institu- ernance. Although their knowledge on
tions: The modernisation of higher edu- higher education is usually not very high,
cation and of teaching is a clear priority they usually know the problems of grad-
for most associations of higher educa- uate employment quite well. Therefore,
tion institutions. Although often con- they are generally in favour of a more
cerned with issues such as research and student-centred approach that is aimed
funding, these organisations can be very at personal independence and more ef-
important for the successful implemen- fective learning. They can provide exper-
tation of change. They actively influ- tise on employment issues, as well as re-
ence the priorities of the higher educa- sources for projects to which they see a
tion system, they provide resources and clear beneficial outcome.
have networks of influential thinkers in The Media: The press is probably not
higher education. By mobilising some very interested in writing about making
of these resources, a change project can higher education more student-centred.
be enhanced by means of better visibili- Nonetheless, different media can be im-
ty and resources. When engaging these portant with respect to the public image
associations, it is important to be aware of the higher education system. By pub-
that they require a clear plan and vision lishing selected facts and examples of
of the problem a hand before engaging in TIP
the change project. Once you have gathered a
Leadership of Higher Education In- number of people around the table,
stitutions: Like their umbrella organisa- you can use Responsibility Charting
tions, leaders of individual institutions to distribute tasks effectively. Here
can provide resources and expertise and you try to map out who is involved
can influence priorities. Usually there in your project and what their role is
are specific structures within institu- in every stage or activity. You can as-
tions to deal with educational matters, sign four different roles to a person
such as a vice-rector for academic affairs, in each situation: Responsibility (R);
a quality assurance unit or a profession- Approval or Right to Veto (A-V); Sup-
al development unit. In more decentral- port or Consult (S-C); or Inform (I).
ised institutions, they exist at faculty or Be sure to assign a role to everyone
departmental level. These structures are for every activity!
not easily mobilised, as they deal with

problems encountered by students in the both motivated and capable in imple-
system, arguments can be put forward menting change projects to lead towards
publicly for need for more attention and the implementation of the scl approach.
resources to be assigned to scl. For example, educational researchers
Individuals: Experts, individual stu- working on the topic of scl would be
dents, colleagues or friends can be useful able to give evidence-based technical ad-
to provide extra people as members of a vice about implementing scl in a man-
change team. By gathering the right mix ner suitable to the given institution’s
of participants, each with their own area profile.
of expertise, a team can be set up that is
fig. 3 Example of Responsibility Charting for a Project Involving Four Actors
Responsi- Approval or Support or

Actor Inform
bility Veto Consult
Students’ Union R V . .
Teachers’ Union R V . .
Rectors’ Conference . A C .
Minister . . . I
20
4.5 Step Three: Identifying the Drivers for Change
In order to convince people to ity education may give access to higher-
change, it is important to know what level jobs in the labour market
motivates them. Therefore, it is neces-
sary to identify ›drivers‹, ›catalysts‹ or It is possible to assess whether or not
›incentives‹ for change. A lesson from people are ready to change. An adapt-
theories about reform is that individuals ed version of Gleicher’s formula can be
need to see a benefit in changing. This a useful tool. It is necessary to fill in the
benefit can take multiple forms (such as formula with respect to the main ac-
monetary rewards, quality improvement tors involved in a given reform and as-
and higher motivation) and it needs to sess whether all the factors outweigh
be identified explicitly. Benefits need to the costs of such change. If they do, the
be integrated into concrete and explicit readiness to change will be positive. In
policy in order for them to become driv- this formula, factors D, B, V and C can
ers for change. Following on the bene- be influenced in order to enhance the
fits of scl identified above in Chapter 2, readiness for change.
possible drivers for change could be: Incentives to change are often al-
ready part of the culture in higher edu-
Personal incentives: For teachers, cation institutions. Citation index scores,
teaching becomes more enjoyable, in- the academic career ladder or quality
teractive and rewarding if it is student- evaluation forms are just a few examples
centred. For students, learning becomes of the tools used by institutions to influ-
more interesting if it is interactive; ence academics’ behaviour. It is impor-
Educational incentives: Teaching tant to think about how these existing
can be more effective if it involves con- tools link in with, or work against, the
structive learning. Students will be able aims of the planned change project.
to learn better in such an environment,
making the time they spend in higher R = (D x B x V x F) > C
education more meaningful;
Scholarship incentives: Research Where:
work can be integrated into teaching, R stands for Readiness for change;
producing a closer connection with the D stands for Dissatisfaction with the
research activities of the teacher. For status quo;
students, the link with the academic B stands for the perceived Benefits of
world and opportunities for an academic the change for the actor;
career will also improve; and V is the clarity of the shared Vision of
Economic incentives: If academics what is possible;
improve their teaching, it may be possi- F stands for the Feasibility of the steps
ble for them to access higher levels of the to implement new ideas; and
career ladder. For students, higher-qual- C stands for the Costs of changing.

fig. 4 Filling in Gleicher’s Formula can Expose the Problems of People who you think
should Change!
Cost of Changing
Drivers of Change
Benefits of
changing
Feasibility of doing
Not knowing something differnt
what to do
Clarity of version
of what to do
More work
Disstisfaction with
the status quo
22
4.6 Step Four: Strategies to Overcome Barriers to
Change
Identifying barriers to change is those who outrightly resist any change

equally important to creating incen- plans. Different types of resistance can
tives. Negative attitudes towards change be tackled by means of different strate-
are probably the most problematic for gies. These may include informing peo-
reform. Reasons for such negative at- ple more, including them in decision-
titudes can be numerous and include making, trying to build competence and
past experience of having been asked to confidence through training or trying to
change in several different directions at persuade them and negotiate with them
the same time, or having experienced to address their needs more directly.
failed attempts at change. In any case, it Opposition to change can prove to
is necessary to plan for a number of neg- be useful if it is mobilised towards a pos-
ative attitudes. itive effect. If opposition is dealt with se-
riously, it will be useful in exposing neg-
Barriers to change are usually diverse and may ative aspects of the change plan, which
include: can then be adapted accordingly. In any
qq Administrative hurdles; case, it is good to plan for the type of
qq Other priorities for higher education; barriers that may arise as well as plan-
qq Lack of financial support; ning how such barriers could be dealt
qq Too centralised (or decentralised) decision- with along the way.
making;
qq Misunderstanding of the concept;
qq Negative attitudes towards the concept; TIP
and A Force Field Analysis can be
qq A different understanding of the vision for a useful tool at this stage. This is
the future. a discussion tool with the aim of
identifying different actors, listing
It is useful to identify different all the different people and organi-
types of negative attitudes towards the sations that may have an influence
planned change project, such as people and mapping their connections and
who give constructive feedback, those levels of influence over the situation.
who are pragmatically sceptical and

fig. 5 An example of a force-field analysis, using some of the actors presented above.
Students' Union:
qq Provides student
representatives
qq Has effective
mediastrategies
Rectors' Conference Teachers' Union:
qq Provides resources qq Links teachers and
qq Set priorities of researchers
higher education qq Assesses realism
system of reforms
Student
Centered
Learning
4.7 Step Five: Implementing the Change

At this stage, it is imperative to find which lists sources for further reading.
and use the resources to deal with the Many policy manuals also exist which
problem. It is not in the scope of this show that plans can run into a number of
toolkit to present ideas for fund-raising difficulties. As the change project devel-
or to give general suggestions on project ops, the planning tools mentioned above
management. However, an abundance of and below can be used to recalibrate the
literature exists on such issues, some of change project when needed.
which can be found in Chapter X below,
4.8 Step Six: Evaluating the Impact of the Change

It is probably not so easy to evalu- forms do not expose much about an ac-
ate the impact of a change project. Sim- tual change in students’ experiences.
ple quantitative indicators such as the Moreover, as students will probably not
amount of people impacted, the amount have experienced both the situation be-
of teachers trained or the number of fore and after the implementation of the
positive results in student evaluation change project, students themselves will
24
also find it hard to judge the impact of their own experiences and opinions
the change after the implementation of about the project. After this step, a set
Step Five. Standard evaluation models of methods can be used to see if as-
are therefore probably inadequate in as- sumptions about the effectiveness of the
sessing whether or not the change which project were correct, such as by asking
led to the implementation of the scl ap- colleagues or students who have been af-
proach was successful. Luckily, quality fected by the project to judge the team’s
assurance practices in higher education self-evaluation. Similarly students’ un-
provide some tools to evaluate the im- ions, teachers’ unions and the other ac-
pact of the change undertaken. tors mentioned above can be consulted
It is important to realise that the about the impact of the change project.
members of the team responsible for These organisations usually have a more
steering the change are in a position to historical overview over the system and
evaluate the impact of the work them- might judge its impacts more broadly. It
selves. This can be done by means of a is most important to consult with those
self-evaluation which tries to answer a who are involved in the learning proc-
number of questions. These include the ess itself as they will be better placed to
following: judge the ›student-centredness‹ of the
system.
What were the aims of the change
qq
project and the methods in attempt-
ing to reach those aims?
Have these methods been consistent-
qq An integrated model of planning and
ly applied? evaluation is the so-called Plan-Do-
Were the resources for the change
qq Check-Act model or simply the PDCA
project adequate and have they been model. The idea is that all these stages
used responsibly? are explicitly integrated in the change
Have the different partners carried
qq project, making it possible to actually
out their role in the change project to check whether what was planned has
an adequate level? actually been achieved. In the ›check‹
Have the different barriers been suc-
qq phase, it is important to try to find out
cessfully overcome? the differences between what was
Have any negative side-effects of the
qq planned and the results achieved. In
change project arisen? the ›act‹ phase, it is key to find out the
reasons why planned results did not
In self-evaluation of a change project, materialise and to try to apply the ap-
team members could try to spell out propriate changes to the plans.

5 Implementation by Teachers
5.1 Introduction
Learning is often presented in a jux- is to see it as a combination of the two
taposition of either student-centred or which are presented as either ends of a
teacher-centred learning. In the reality continuum, using three concepts regu-
of practice the situation is less black and larly used to describe scl, as follows:
white. A more useful presentation of scl
fig. 6 The Learning Continuum
Teacher–Centred Learning ↔ Student–Centred Learning
Low student choice ↔ High student choice

Passivity of students ↔ Activity of students
Teacher as holder of power ↔ Student empowerment
In examining how this might look in uation. This includes a consideration of

practice, it is worth thinking how far up their subject-discipline, classroom size,
institutional infrastructure and insti-
Talk to me … and I will forget tutional traditions, among other things.
Show me … and I will remember Below are a few elements to be taken
Involve me … and I will understand into consideration by teachers in high-
Step back … and I will act er education within their given class-
Confucius room environment in order to help them
to move up the continuum towards the
the continuum teachers, in their indi- implementation of the scl approach, for
vidual approach, are able to move within the benefit of their students’ learning ex-
the contextual barriers of their given sit- perience.
Implementation by Teachers 27
5.2 Students Motivation and Teachers’ Knowledge of
Students
Within the different roles that scl Inviting representatives from socie-
qq
envisages for both teachers and stu- ty with specific expertise and experi-
dents, the key factor in implementing a ences regarding a field of study or in-
new approach to learning is the motiva- viting alumni to act as role models,
tion of students. Greater involvement connecting practical and learning ex-
with students by the teacher is central periences in their profession with ex-
to this. Where students are motivated periences gained during their study.
to come to an under-
What are students’ standing of, and engage By making practical experiences
backgrounds? with, the material with more explicit, students as well as profes-
What do they which they are present- sionals will be able to relate theory and
already know? ed, they are more likely knowledge and to share knowledge and
How did they learn in to adopt strategies that skills.
the past? will lead to deeper levels In addition, there is a demonstrable
What brought them to of learning. link between students’ previous experi-
your classroom? The following are ex- ences and their performance as learners.
What are their amples of good practice By tapping into this information, teach-
interests? and ideas for teachers to ers would be in a better position to as-
What are their enhance student moti- sist students by increasing relevance and
aspirations? vation: thereby enriching students’ understand-
ing. Previous experiences influence stu-
Including students in co-creating
qq dents’ views of learning, their motiva-
compelling courses; tion for learning and the way in which
Exposing students to extremes of the
qq they approach learning. Teachers can
subject-matter; connect best with students, and vice ver-
Making students aware of the differ-
qq sa, if they know a bit about who they are,
ent career paths that may be availa- their previous experiences and their un-
ble to them upon completion of their derstanding of the subject matter.
studies; There are various ways in which
Making students aware of the impor-
qq teachers can get to know this informa-
tance of what they are doing and its tion about their students. The following
context in an applied situation which are a few examples:
shows its value to others;
Applying their own research to the
qq In small groups: Teachers can ask stu-
qq
learning experience of students, dents to interview each other, ask-
questioning used methods and asking why they chose the class, what
ing for alternatives; and they hope to get out of it and what
28
they already know about the subject- In larger lecture groups: The teacher
qq
matter. Each student can then intro- can try using small groups to briefly
duce their interviewee to the rest if summarise each group’s knowledge
the class. of the subject, sharing this with the
whole class.
5.3 Choice of Teaching and Learning Methods

In scl there is an emphasis on skills Within the classroom, practical im-
and competences which demonstrate plementation of an scl approach can in-
responsibility for one’s own learn- clude a number of components. The fol-
ing, independence and lowing are a few examples of these:
Whatever the cooperation, problem-
teaching method used, solving, understanding Problem-based learning (pbl);
qq
the most important is and thinking for one- Group project work;
qq
to ensure an ACTIVE self. There are a number Student-centred active learning;
qq
role for the learner. of strategies used in in- Resource-based learning;
qq
struction in order to en- Use of the case method;
qq
courage this type of learning. These in- Role plays;
qq
clude: Classroom workshops;
qq
Group presentations;
qq
Making students more active in ac- Use of a web-conferencing environ-
qq
quiring knowledge and skills: This can ment, particularly in distance educa-
take the form of activities in class, field- tion; and
work, and the use of computer-assisted Use of learning logs for students to
qq
learning packages, among others; record their educational experience.
Making students more aware of what
they are doing and why they are do- TIP
ing it: This can be done by using learn- Consider reducing the amount
ing logs, analytical presentations and of contact hours, in order to have
the like; more SCL formats where possible.
Focusing on interaction: Such as
by the use of tutorials, buzz groups and Small group work, often used in pbl,
larger discussion groups; and enables students to learn how to work
Focusing on transferable skills: in a team, in the process of which they
Looking beyond the immediate course identify and fill the gaps in their knowl-
requirements to other benefits to stu- edge. This is an effective method of
dents later on in their careers and in life. learning as it activates prior knowledge,
enhancing learning particularly where Building on the above, the follow-
the problem-based approach is applied ing table provides a sample of scl teach-
in a relevant context (e.g. with medical ing methods. It contains some ideas for
students in a hospital). teachers both within and outside the
classroom.
fig. 7 [Missing!]
Inside the Lecture Format Outside the Lecture Format

Buzz groups (short discussion in
qq Independent projects
qq
twos) Group discussion
qq
Snowballing (turning buzz groups
qq Peer mentoring of other students
qq
into larger groups) Team work
qq
Cross-overs (mixing students into
qq Debates
qq
groups) Field-trips
qq
Use of tutorial groups
qq Practicals
qq
Rounds (giving turns to individual
qq Reflective diaries, learning logs
qq
students to talk) Computer-assisted learning
qq
Quizzes
qq Writing media articles
qq
Writing reflections on learning (du-
qq Portfolio development
qq
ration of 3-4 minutes)
Student presentations
qq
Poster presentations
qq
Role play
qq
Students producing mind-maps
qq
What teachers need to keep in mind to deal with. Not all students are moti-
when opting for one scl teaching meth- vated to learn in the same way, so that
od over another is the audience that they different stimuli or a combination of
have—the student groups that they have them may be necessary in different cases.
30
5.4 Choice of Student Assessment Methods
Student assessment is one of the most the learning process in view of the de-
important elements of higher education. sired learning outcomes, the best forms
The outcomes of assessment have a pro- of assessment need to be aligned with
found effect on students’ future careers. set learning goals. Thus forms of as-
It is therefore important that assessment sessment need to be used that show evi-
is carried out professionally at all times dence of student achievement of the set
and that it takes into account the exten- learning outcomes. Otherwise students
sive knowledge which will not take such goals seriously. In ad-
Learning contracts exists about testing and dition, students should be clearly in-
are goals set by the examination processes. formed about the assessment strategy
student depending Within the scl ap- being used for their programme, what
on their learning gaps, proach, there arise a examinations or other assessment meth-
which are in turn nego- number of difficulties ods they will be subjected to, what will
tiated with the teacher with respect to the con- be expected of them and the criteria that
in terms of what to cept of student assess- will be applied to the assessment of their
study and how to be ment. This is because performance.
assessed. assessment typically Examples of Good Practice in Terms of
compares students with Assessment Methods Compatible with the
one another, thus highlighting competi- scl Approach include:
tion rather than personal improvement.
This is particularly the case with sum- Formative Assessment: As opposed
mative modes of student assessment, in to summative assessment, this empha-
which the giving of marks and grades sises the need to give feedback to stu-
is typically over-emphasised, while the dents on their learning thus making
giving of advice and the learning func- students’ learning experience more au-
tion are under-emphasised. thentic and providing a focus for stu-
Student assessment practices need dents by highlighting their learning gaps
to reflect, encourage and reward the scl and areas that they can develop. This can
approach. Teachers need to be aware of take a number of forms including: dia-
any discrepancies between what they ries, logs and journals, portfolios, peer-
are asking students and what they really or self-assessment, learning contracts
want them to know. and negotiated assessment, projects,
This does not mean that student as- group work, profiling and identification
sessment is incongruent with the scl ap- of own skills and competencies.
proach. Rather, it needs to be tailored Criterion-Referenced Assessment:
to reflect the philosophy and goals of This measures students against the
scl. In scl, in the same way that teach- learning criteria in their course, unlike
ing methodologies used need to be de- norm-based assessment which measures
signed to give feedback to students on students against other students. One of
the benefits of this type of assessment be on the why and how rather than sim-
is that both teachers and students can ply on factual information.
more easily see where students are suc-
ceeding and where they are not. This can In order to assess learning out-
be invaluable in improving the course comes which are not reliant on short-
for future students. term memorising, a range of assessment
Peer- and self-assessment both give methods can be used by teachers with
responsibility back to the student, em- clear objectives in mind. The following
phasising an increased sense of autono- table indicates a few examples which can
my in the learner. In setting questions in be used:
any form of assessment, the focus should
fig. 8 Possible Assessment Methods and their Objectives

Source: University of Adelaide, 2000
Assessment Example of Objectives Assessment Example of Objectives

Maintain appropriate
qq
Prepare arguments
qq
motivation
and analysis
Participate in class-
qq
Seek relevant infor-
qq
work
mation
Take-home Coursework Develop techniques
qq
Organise effective
qq
essay or (continuous in line with course
presentation
assignment assessment) goals
Integrate ideas or
qq
Sustain interest or
qq
theories
energy
Express ideas in an
qq
Relate different tasks
qq
appropriate manner
to each other
Retrieve informa-
qq Show appropriate at-
qq
tion and ideas from titudes
sources Interact with others
qq
Reference material
qq in applying knowl-
Open-book Simulated
adequately edge or experience
examination tasks
Apply information to
qq Analyse or synthesise
qq
relevant situations ideas
Remember key ideas
qq Display creativity or
qq
or structures imagination
Show knowledge of
qq Cooperate
qq
course aims Benefit from ›real
qq
Assignments Display understand-
qq life‹ situations
Group
proposed by ing of course struc- Evaluate person-
qq
projects
students ture and materials al skills
Display understand-
qq Integrate with other
qq
ing of key issues views or models
32
Assessment Example of Objectives Assessment Example of Objectives
Cope with questions
qq Seek information
qq
and arguments Reason
qq
Show reasoning be-
qq Plan study in appro-
qq
hind statements or priate depth
ideas Organise informa-
qq
Oral commu-
Interact with others
qq Project work tion for special pur-
nication
Use general /tech-
qq poses
nical language in an Present ideas
qq
appropriate manner Be original
qq
Express ideas flu-
qq Sustain appropriate
qq
ently motivation
Choice is one of the key terms in the sion-making influence in an area such
scl approach. In assessment, choice is in as assessment, especially in view of the
relation to the criteria and standards to manner in which assessment has tradi-
be used, the judgements that are made tionally taken place. The following are a
and by whom such judgements are made. few ideas of how this can be done, with
It is not easy for teachers to actually pro- respect to two key stages—when the
vide students with autonomy and deci- task is set and after the task is completed.
fig. 9 Areas for Involving Students in Assessment
Areas for involving students Areas for involving students

when the task is set after the task is completed
Choosing the assessment task
qq Making self-assessment comments
qq
Setting the assessment task
qq Making peer-assessment feedback
qq
Discussing the assessment criteria
qq comments
Setting the assessment criteria
qq Suggesting self-assessment grades/
qq
marks
Negotiating self-assessment grades/
qq
marks
Assigning self-assessment grades/
qq
marks
Assigning peer-assessment grades/
qq
marks
Teachers might consider moving as- topics and exam questions as a manage-
sessment practices slightly up the teach- able starting point. It is important to re-
er/student–centred continuum with member that as long as learners are prop-
small but significant changes, for in- erly prepared for assessment, they will
stance by providing a choice of essay adjust to various forms of use.
5.5 Using Course Evaluation in SCL
In addressing the quality of the learn- Are they better at problem-setting
qq
ing experience at the course or pro- and solving than my previous stu-
gramme component level, the basic dents taught in a similar manner?
question to be answered in evaluation is:
Do programmes ensure Process Evaluation: This consid-
Q What is Effective that students achieve ers what happens during the learn-
Evaluation? the intended learning ing/teaching process and examines the
A Ensuring that the outcomes of the course course in operation. This evaluation de-
course or programme or programme compo- pends on what the teacher aims to do. It
component enables nent? may involve the following questions:
students to achieve Course evaluation
the intended learning can fall within two qq Did I give my students the incentive
outcomes. broad categories (cf. (through assessment and structure) to
University of Adelaide, develop their own independent learn-
2000): ing?
qq Did the activities I offered really get my
Outcome Evaluation: This looks at students involved?
the qualities a course instils in students. qq Could the students generalise their sub-
In this type of evaluation, teachers might ject-knowledge to aspects of the non-ac-
want to find out any of the following: ademic world?
qq Did my students acquire the knowl- qq Was I an effective communicator?
edge goals I set for them? It is important for teachers to choose
qq Are they better critical thinkers than the most appropriate strategy of evalua-
when they began? tion for each of their courses. There are a
TIP number of sources of information which
In outcome evaluation, base- may be available for an evaluation. These
line measures are needed. E.g. To include (cf. ibid):
find out if graduates have better
problem-solving skills in their Learners: For information on imple-
qq
post-university lives, teachers will mentation and teaching quality;
need to know the current problem- Observers: For descriptions of class
qq
solving skill levels of graduates. process;
Professional Associations: For com-
qq
TIP parative data pegged to agreed stand-
Try not to evaluate too much ards;
at one time. It is better to evaluate a Employers: For information on satis-
qq
few carefully selected and manage- faction with graduate skills;
able aspects of the course. Course Materials: For information on
qq
teaching plans and philosophies;
34
TIP
While questionnaires are help- In particular, in assessing the quality
ful, they are not the only way of of the learning experience, learners can
obtaining student feedback; be asked to give their opinion about a va-
Simple questions to students or riety of matters, including:
open class discussions of the course
content and methods could prove Lectures and teachers;
qq
to be more useful than question- Textbooks used;
qq
naires; Technical aids available;
qq
Collecting feedback from students Student workload;
qq
needs to have a clear purpose— Learning activities;
qq
including reacting to such feedback Time used by the learner for different
qq
and following it up. activities;
Course content and any overlap with
qq
Graduates: For perceptions about rel-
qq other courses;
evance of the course to the world of Perceptions regarding transferable
qq
work; and skills attained;
Assessment Results: For information
qq Room for discussion available dur-
qq
on whether learning outcomes have ing the course or programme com-
been achieved. ponent;
Adequacy of assessment methods
qq
Different methods are available to used; and
gather information from these sourc- Perceptions regarding whether in-
qq
es, including questionnaires, interviews, tended learning outcomes have been
learning logs/diaries, discussion, com- attained.
ments (un/solicited), observation, feed-
back sections on web-pages and results
of student work.
5.6 Using Information Technology to Enhance SCL

As methods of teaching and learn- mation management systems that a large
ing develop over time, so do the ways in number of institutions use.
which knowledge is imparted and the In applying scl, possible approach-
tools that students use to learn. This is es as to the use of information technolo-
attested in the rise of online and dis- gy include:
tance education and in the everyday day The use of e-mail (electronic mail)
use of computers, the internet and on- which enhances scl as an active rath-
line interactive spaces in teaching and er than a passive medium, allowing for a
learning as well as in the advanced infor- combination of distance and on-campus
learning in flexible mixtures and help-
TIP
ing to build user feedback, staff monitor- It is important for teachers to
ing and course revision in the process of be able to impart to students the
running the course; need for an adequate balance in the
The use of (wireless) internet with- use of internet resources outside
in the classroom which can improve col- the classroom—helping students
laboration and communication among to identify the hierarchy between
classmates and teachers and make the different resources and to use them
class more active and interesting; adequately in their learning process.
The use of internet outside the class-
room, enabling learning to occur in plac- TIP
es where it normally does not, extend- It is important that teachers
ing information to places where it is not use IT tools in the classroom in such
usually available, expanding the learn- a way that is truly interactive and
ing day and opening the learning place. not simply passive. E.g. the use of
It helps students find information from power-point presentations can risk
a variety of sources, adapting to their being a passive tool if not used
personal learning styles and supporting adequately.
critical thinking.
The infrastructure necessary for stu- side the classroom, in order to enhance
dents to engage in some form of inter- students’ learning processes and com-
action with teachers, study groups and plement what is learnt in a classroom set-
librarians, leading to the mastery of sub- ting. This can empower students to ac-
ject content, includes all forms of media, cess information and analyse it critically
whether digitised, print or multimedia. in their own time and space. It can also
Information Technology therefore can prove to be a highly useful component in
be of use both inside the classroom to designing professional development pro-
help teachers in creating an interactive grammes.
classroom environment, as well as out-
36
6 Implementation by Institutions
6.1 Introduction
The concept of scl extends far be- to be kept in mind. In particular both
yond the classroom, making it pertinent the subjectivity of scl as well as the di-
to examine how scl can be implement- versity between different institutions
ed in practice in terms of a wider institu- is key to understanding that there is no
tional approach, with the aim of creating one-size-fits-all method to implementing
powerful learning en- scl, particularly at the institutional lev-
»I never teach my pupils; vironments in the phil- el. A variety of areas are examined be-
I only attempt to provide osophical, pedagogical, low in relation to what can be done, rath-
the conditions in which practical, organisation- er than what should be done, in the form
they can learn.« al and infrastructur- of a portrayal of good practice in the im-
Einstein al sense. In this respect, plementation of scl. In particular, it is
the role of higher educa- important to keep in mind that while we
tion institutions is to stimulate the scl may be completely unaware of any scl
approach by providing the right environ- practice in our institutions this does not
ment in which scl can be nurtured over mean that scl is not present within the
time. In implementing scl, the princi- daily work of academics.
ples mentioned in the Chapter 1 need
6.2 Curriculum Design and the Use of Learning Out-

comes
One of the key foci of any given insti- what to study and how to study. The use of
tution is curriculum design, as the main credits (in Europe primarily by means of
cog around which the teaching mission the European Credit Transfer System—
of any institution is centred. Curricu- ects—across the European Higher Ed-
lar design is central both to the organi- ucation Area) and by means of modular-
sation of learning and to the methods by isation provide an institutional structure
which teaching can take place in order to that allows students an element of
enhance learning. It is important to keep choice in what to study.
in mind, at all times, that scl incorpo- A growing practice in course design
rates the idea that students have a choice in is that of writing learning outcomes fo-
Implementation by Institutions 37
TIP
cusing on what the student will be able Writing Learning Outcomes:
to do, rather than on the content being Learning Outcomes should be clear,
covered by the teacher. This practice is positive, ›can do‹ statements and
an indication of the move towards scl in should:
curricula and helps to shift the emphasis qq Contain a single verb;
onto the learner. This is qq Contain verbs that are active and
Students’ work needs an emphasis on process unambiguous;
to show how well and competence, rather qq Contain verbs which are used to
students go about than on subject content. encourage deeper understand-
processes such as criti- An institution- ing by students. These include
quing what they read, al policy for the iden- reflect, hypothesise, relate, argue,
making models, solving tification, use and com- theorise, explain, analyse.
problems, writing munication of learning The number of learning outcomes
academically, applying outcomes by all teach- should be limited!
principles and thinking ers and across all cours-
about concepts. es is beneficial to the in- It is be helpful for institutions to set
stitution as it helps to a structure in which learning outcomes
ensure that there is a focus on the needs are written. One way of doing so is by
of students across all courses at the ear- setting up a framework in which the
ly stage of curriculum design, thus holis- knowledge, skills and competences to be
tically enhancing the institution’s teach- acquired by the end of any given course
ing mission. Additionally, it is important are made explicit. In this respect:
for learning outcomes to be specifically as-
sessed and that feedback is provided to stu-
dents in a way that shows students the
importance of the learning process un- Example 1: A First Year Level/10
dertaken by them. Credit Unit in Biological Chemistry
On completion of the Course the
learner will be able to:
Learning Outcomes qq Give examples of biocatalysis;
Enable students to understand what
qq qq Give examples of chemical nomen-
is expected of them and what they clature in complicated structures;
have achieved; qq Identify organic reactions in bio-
Are to define the essential material
qq chemical systems;
(core) in a unit or module; qq Interpret the mechanisms in natural
Should define the totality of the
qq polymerisation; and
material that the learner will know qq Associate biological reactivity with
or be able to do on completing the structure.
unit; and Source: Presentation by George Francis
Define what can be assessed by
qq t4scl Launch Conference, Romania, May
whatever means. 2010
38
›Knowledge‹ refers to subject con-
qq tive verbs expressing knowledge, com-
tent, such as mathematical formulae, prehension, application, analysis, syn-
chemical reactions, historical events, thesis, evaluation and the like. It is
theories, models in existence, etc. important for learning outcomes to be
›Skills‹ refers to abilities, such as in-
qq written in a way that describes what the
terview skills, team-leadership skills, student will be able to do and will know
etc.; and as a result of their experiences, while en-
›Competences‹ refers to the thought
qq abling learning to be assessed. Accord-
processes involved in deploying skills ing the ects Guide (European Commis-
such as critical thinking, active lis- sion, 2009) two approaches exist with
tening, a proactive attitude towards respect to incorporating assessment into
learning, respect for the opinion of learning outcomes, these being:
others, etc.
By writing learning outcomes as
qq
Learning outcomes statements are threshold statements, showing the
typically characterised by the use of ac- minimum requirements to obtain a
pass; or
Example 2: Similar Course, Second By writing learning outcomes as ref-
qq
Year Level erence points describing the typical
On completion of the Course the expected level of achievement of suc-
learner will be able to: cessful learners.
qq Apply chemical nomenclature to
complicated structures; Statements of learning outcomes
qq Classify organic reactions in bio- should therefore always be accompanied
chemical systems; by clear and appropriate assessment cri-
qq Distinguish the mechanisms in natu- teria for the successful completion of
ral polymerisation; and a course or other programme compo-
qq Deduce biological reactivity from nent, which make it possible to ascertain
structure. whether the learner has acquired the de-
Note: The change in the use of verbs indi- sired knowledge, skills and competenc-
cates that the second year course credits es. In addition, they should also clearly
correspond to more advanced outcomes indicate which approach, from the above
than the course at first year level. two, is being used.
Source: Presentation by George Francis
t4scl Launch Conference, Romania, May
2010
6.3 Internal Quality Programme Evaluation of Assess-
ment Practise
Within internal programme qual- Emphasis needs to be placed on the

qq
ity evaluation, at system level, the in- careful use of assessment methods, in
stitution needs to ensure that there is a particular in terms of their validity
strong focus on the quality of assessment and reliability.
practices, with importance being given
to the achieved learning outcomes of the The Standards and Guidelines for
student when compared to the intend- Quality Assurance in the European High-
ed learning outcomes as written at the er Education Area (esg) (ENQA, 2005)
point of curricular de- adopted by Ministers responsible for
Students should be assign. While the choice Higher Education under the auspices of
sessed using published of student assessment the Bologna Process in 2005 are very ex-
criteria, regulations and methods is a key com- plicit with respect to the need for pub-
procedures which are ponent of the consid- lished procedures which are to be ap-
applied consistently. erations to be made by plied consistently.
esg the teacher in apply- The esg (Standard 1.3) are useful to
ing the scl approach, as support institutions’ efforts to assure the
seen above, it is also a central aspect of quality of their assessment processes. In
learning outcomes designed for a given this respect, the esg refer to the need for
course or programme component. student assessment procedures to:
At the institutional level, in view of
the need to interlink learning outcomes Be designed to measure the achieve-
qq
and assessment, it is useful to keep the ment of the intended learning out-
following considerations in mind: comes and other programme objec-
tives;
Assessment must be aimed at show-
qq Be appropriate for their purpose,
qq
ing achievement of specific learning whether diagnostic, formative or
outcomes; summative;
Assessment should be undertaken
qq Have clear and published criteria for
qq
within a holistic framework that does marking;
not override the achievement of oth- Be undertaken by people who under-
qq
er, non-explicit outcomes; stand the role of assessment in the
Assessment should be designed to en-
qq progression of students towards the
sure that appropriate links are made achievement of the knowledge and
between the assessment of a course skills associated with their intended
or programme component and the qualification;
overall learning outcomes of the pro- Where possible, not rely on the judg-
qq
gramme; and ments of single examiners;
40
Take into account all the possible
qq It is recommended that institutions,
consequences of examination regu- in implementing assessment practices,
lations; ensure that these are:
Be subjected to clear regulations cov-
qq
ering student absence, illness and Carefully designed and proportion-
qq
other mitigating circumstances; ate;
Be conducted securely in accordance
qq Reviewed on a regular basis, includ-
qq
with the institution’s stated proce- ing feedback from students;
dures; and An integral part of, and a contributor
qq
Be subjected to administrative verifi-
qq to, the teaching process;
cation checks to ensure the accuracy Focused on identified learning out-
qq
of their implementation. comes;
Based on objective criteria made
qq
available to all staff and students in-
volved; and
fig. 10 Principles to Ensure the Quality of Student Assessment

Source: ENQA, 2009
Employing assessment strategies and procedures which:

Focus on learning outcomes;
Comparability
Are applied equitably and constituently across disciplines and
and Consistency
the institution; and
Allow for comparability.
All individuals and committees involved in assessment need
Accountability to be aware of, and act in accordance with, their specific and
identifiable responsibilities.
This involves the following components:
Making the assessment strategy used for a programme clear
and easily available to all staff and students involved;
Informing students on the form and extent of assessment
Transparency
they will be subject to and what will be expected of them;
and
Making the criteria used available to all staff and students in-
volved and relevant to the programme’s learning outcomes.
All staff involved in the delivery of a programme or its parts
need to be involved in the design and implementation of the
overall assessment strategy and students must have the op-
Involvement portunity to offer their views on the amount and type of as-
sessments they undertake and whether they are regarded as
both ›fair‹ and ›effective‹ measures of their learning and abil-
ities.
Subject to quality assurance at pro-
qq are available or against other institution-
gramme and institutional levels. al or national indicators.
It is paramount that institutions un-
The table below outlines four over- dertake reviews of assessment practic-
arching principles which are recom- es in order to ensure that the impact of
mended for considera- learning environments is recognised.
A clear understanding tion by institutions in This is particularly pertinent in trying to
of the terms assess- their efforts to assure implement the scl approach, being that
ment, standards and the quality of student the choice of mode of assessment can di-
quality and learning assessment. rectly reflect whether the learning ap-
outcomes needs to be Particularly in re- proach is one that is more student- or
present within a given lation to accountabili- more teacher-centred. Indeed, quality
institution. ty and comparability, at assurance at the programme level, with
the institutional level, a focus on assessment, provides valuable
it is important that faculty-level reports information for institutions about the ef-
are reviewed against reports of the insti- fectiveness of learner support.
tution’s external examiners where these
6.4 Ongoing Professional Development of Academic

Staff
The ongoing development of the scl proach. The philosophy and methods
approach within any given institution is used in scl thus are to feature as a key
largely determined by professional de- aspect of the learning process for teach-
velopment of higher education teaching staff, who, in a manner of learning by
ing staff, as further examined in the fol- doing, are encouraged to develop their
lowing chapter of this toolkit. Teachers own scl approaches which are to be
need guidance to enable them to active- used in their own instruction. Such pro-
ly use the concepts of scl in their own grammes of professional development
development or in course development, are to be used both with new teachers
which could further improve their teach- and with teachers who are more experi-
ing. Successful professional develop- enced, thus reinforcing the idea that scl
ment models use scl approaches in and is an approach which requires contin-
of themselves in order to train teachers uous change, effort, reflection and up-
in higher education in using the scl ap- dating.
42
6.5 Using Information Systems to Support SCL
The out-of-classroom setting is of cen- covery and innovation support the
tral importance in enhancing scl, which learning that takes place inside the class-
setting is largely dependent on the use of room. In addition, they offer a number
information systems and technologies. of virtual services by making assistance,
The use of information literacy technolo- courses and resources available online
gies such as e-portals via which access to and at all times. For learning to be ex-
information is central in this respect as a tended beyond the physical confines of
measure to help learners to master con- the classroom, and for such learning to
tent and extend their investigation, be- continue to be student-centred, wheth-
come more self-directed, and assume er the learner is the presence of a teach-
greater control over their own learning. er or otherwise, it is necessary to create
It is the role of institutions to provide an inviting out-of-classroom environment
the infrastructure for such online learn- for active learning, growth and enrich-
ing spaces. ment through student-focused research as-
Technology-rich online environ- sistance, outreach to all students and inno-
ments which, in practice, serve as a phys- vative instructional services which enable
ical space for student collaboration, dis- students to work at their own pace.
6.6 The Central Role of Libraries in SCL

The above leads us to consider the cel of the process of scl in four key are-
crucial role of libraries in scl, as the main as, as follows:
place where information is kept, ac-
cessed and disseminat- Providing Information Resources:
This particular use of ed. In this respect, li- In such a way that the library’s tradition-
technology, within the braries are expected al role of selection, organisation, storage
wider approach to scl, to continuously adapt and retrieval of information becomes
can help to improve for them to maintain a more crucial as such information needs
the retention rate of central role within the to be made available in off-campus sites;
students at a given teaching and learning Fostering Partnerships and Collabo-
institution, attesting to environment. Librari- ration: In such a way that librarians col-
the idea that students ans are also expected to laborate more with personnel from oth-
consider an scl ap- play various roles in fur- er departments within their institution,
proach to be more thering the aims of scl. including teachers, in planning curricu-
worth their while. The role of librar- la and lessons, as well as other staff em-
ies and librarians, via ployed to deliver the computing servic-
the use of technology, are part and par- es within their institution. This is with
the aim of enabling librarians to help
teaching staff in using technology in in- purpose, librarians themselves need to
novative ways across the curriculum, in be equipped with the skills to deal with
selecting appropriate technology re- diverse student needs and technological
sources and in collaborating with the usage in order to maintain the principle
learning community to plan, design, im- of equal access to information; and
plement and continually refine an effec- Developing Outreach Programmes:
tive student-centred technology plan. In order to ensure that information can
This is also aimed at enabling librari- be accessed outside the physical walls
ans to help students evaluate the sources of the library building, in order to be
available to them and to help computing able to accommodate varied student and
staff understand students’ needs in the teacher needs.
design and implementation of itc-based Institutions therefore need to ensure
student support systems; that modern technologies are manipu-
Developing Students’ Information lated and used intelligently not only by
Literacy Skills together with Members teachers but also by librarians and all
of Teaching Staff: This is in order to en- staff connected to the students’ learning
sure that students know when they need environment in such a way so as to pro-
to find information, identify the infor- vide multiple places and spaces for learn-
mation relevant to addressing their prob- ing for students with the highest possi-
lem and find, evaluate, organise and use ble degree of access to information and
the information effectively in addressing of interaction with others.
the problem they are faced with. For this
6.7 Promoting a National Policy and Culture of SCL

While the above focuses highly on take a leadership role by emphasising a
creating the ideal environment for scl unified philosophy of education which is
directly in relation to enabling learn- student-centred, with a view to solidify-
ing on and off campus, promoting the ing a well-defined policy of scl.
scl approach at the institutional lev- It is therefore important to realise
el also depends highly on the context in that, as a necessary condition, in any
which a given institution operates. Thus context and in any continental, histor-
beyond the physical or virtual walls of ical or geographical setting, national or
an institution, it is important for insti- regional policy, whichever is the most ap-
tutional leaders to garner the support plicable, is key. With this in mind, it must
of the organisations within their given be cautioned that any student-centred
country or region, which include politi- approach needs to be clearly and sim-
cal, educational, economic or social or- ply articulated and mechanisms need to
ganisations. In this respect, institutions be in place to allow for every stakeholder
need to urge Ministries of education to in the educational process to be fully in-
44
formed about the processes arising from cation of the student-centred approach
such an educational approach. Thus, in- is to be applied with any measure of suc-
stitutions need to develop, in line with cess, particularly in the quest to moti-
a national or regional policy, as the case vate students and to apply innovative
may be, a sense of belonging to the wid- methods to stimulate learning.
er applicable policy on scl, if the appli-
7 Maintaining a Culture of SCL
7.1 Introduction
As the need for regular and system flexive and open to development and
review of assessment practices within a improvement. scl implementation in
given institution attests, beyond any re- an ongoing activity. Organisational re-
quirement of change or first-time imple- flection and development needs to take
mentation of a widespread institution- place constantly within each given in-
al scl approach, scl is a culture that has stitution with the members of its com-
to be maintained across an institution munity in order for any scl system to re-
in an ongoing manner, so as to truly cre- main sustainable.
ate an scl approach that is genuine, re-
7.2 Consequences of an Un-Nurtured Learning

Approach
An example of implementation of conscious decisions made by faculty offi-

problem-based learning (pbl) at Maas- cials. These changes included:
tricht University over a span of three
decades (cf. Moust et al, 2005) high- Changes connected to processing of
lights the need to revitalise the learn- information by students in the tutori-
ing process after the passage of a peri- al group. These crept in over time and
od of time, in order to effect educational negatively affected the learning proc-
innovations of a more solid basis. The ess, resulting in a watered-down process
Maastricht University example shows of running tutorial groups. This mani-
how pbl, referred to above as one of the fested itself in: a drop in the time of self-
teaching methods used in scl and ap- study; minimalist preparation by stu-
plied at Maastricht University since its dents for the tutorial group; elimination
establishment in 1976, eroded over a of the brainstorming and elaboration
thirty-year period due to a number of phases originally designed for tutori-
changes which either occurred by co- al groups; a deterioration of the synthe-
incidence, creeping in erroneously and sis and integration phase originally de-
becoming stabilised afterwards, or by signed, reducing it to a short report on
46
minor issues; and a decrease in student sources; making tutor guides for tu-
interest and the quest for learning, man- tors more subject-matter oriented rather
ifested in students’ attempt to study the than process oriented; gradually ignor-
same sources, among others; ing the analysis and synthesis part of the
Changes due to inadequate student- tutorial, thus posing less of a challenge
staff ratios in a faculty. These changes to students’ thinking processes; and the
were a direct consequence of financial erosion of the role of the lecture, which
constraints related to national funding was originally intended to be delivered
considerations and manifested them- after students had totally immersed
selves by an increase in the number of themselves in a given area.
students in tutorial groups and the con-
tracting of advanced students to guide The Maastricht University experi-
tutorial groups once or several times per ence shows that the lack of funding, poor
year; and understanding of underlying principles
Changes caused by the exaggerated by both staff and students, misguided at-
fears of teachers that the subject-mat- tempts to make the approach more ef-
ter was not being sufficiently covered. ficient and a focus on content at the ex-
These changes occurred because some pense of process all contribute to the
members of staff did not believe that the erosion of a set of intertwined princi-
students were able to cover a sufficient ples that make the pbl method work. Of-
amount of subject-matter through in- ten subtle changes, taken together, could
dependent, self-directed learning, try- lead to the collapse of the application
ing to steer their students’ activities in of such an innovative teaching method
various ways. This manifested itself in: over time, as staff and students could be-
teachers giving students specific sourc- come dissatisfied with an inconsistent
es rather than a long list of learning re- and failing educational framework.
7.3 Ideas to Constantly Improving the SCL Approach

The changes referred to above show Transparency Renewal
qq
how the pbl approach, which represent- Promotion
qq … at all levels and in all
ed the pillar of the learning process at places within an hei.
Maastricht University, eroded over time.
They also attest the need for an scl cul- Pursuing a path of continued re-
ture (or any other given learning cul- newal is the ideal measure to fight wan-
ture) to be nurtured and developed for ing interest and lack of adherence to the
the benefit of learners, via: learning approach employed in a given
institution.
Organisation Monitoring
qq Building on the experience of Moust
Consistency Regular Review and
qq et al (2005) and of Kember (2008), who
Maintaining a Culture of SCL 47

examined the implementation of scl working in groups, chairing a meeting,
across an entire university, some meas- giving feedback, giving a presentation)
ures by which institutions can coun- and confronting students on a regular
teract erosion in the application of the basis with theoretical ideas that under-
scl approach and revitalise their pro- lie scl, aimed at helping students to un-
grammes are put forward below: derstand the ›why‹ of this approach to
education;
Addressing Teachers’ Concerns in Helping Students more Extensive-
Implementing Educational Innovation: ly to become Self-Directed Learners: By
By investing time and money in profes- equipping teachers and students with
sional development programmes which a clear conceptual framework to guide
help teachers understand and apply ide- them to ensure that the goals of self-di-
as, skills and attitudes about innovative rected and independent learning are un-
teaching methods. It is of paramount im- derstood and interpreted in a more con-
portance that teachers be trained to dis- sistent way, thus helping to achieve the
cuss and identify solutions to problems goals that scl intends to achieve. In this
in teaching and learning whilst under- respect, teachers can have considera-
taking an scl approach in their learn- ble influence on the development of stu-
ing as well; dents as self-directed learners, helping
Stimulating Good Practice in Teach- them to gradually master cognitive and
ing Activities: By recognising the efforts regulative learning skills to become in-
of teachers who steer the scl approach dependent and lifelong learners;
forward, awarding exemplary teach- Offering Students more Variety in
ing and giving the opportunity to such Educational Formats within the Con-
awardees to systematically share good text of an scl Environment: By offering
learning practices; them an array of teaching methods, thus
Building Learning Communities: By giving them various opportunities to en-
splitting new students into groups which hance their competences and learning
regularly meet each other in tutorial skills in various collaborative environ-
groups, guided by a fixed group of teach- ments and by allowing them to experi-
ers, making the lines of feedback shorter ence different self-directed learning ac-
and more visible and enabling teachers tivities;
and students to discuss the way in which Developing Computer-Supported
information has been processed and the scl Environments: By using multimedia
advantages and disadvantages of activ- to provide a richer learning environment,
ities offered, enabling the setting up of facilitating more authentic assessment
special activities of interest for the given and individualising practice, feedback
learning community; and reflection;
Informing Students More about the Adopting New Forms of Assessment:
Ideas underlying scl: by giving stu- By adopting innovative forms of assess-
dents initial training in scl skills (e.g. ment which move away from simple pa-
48
per-and-pencil tests to more stimulating ment and professional development of
forms such as portfolios, peer- and self- teachers, with related statements expect-
assessment, and assessment of perform- ed to be backed by evidence.
ance skills in a tutorial group; and
Adopting and Improving Processes It is important to keep in mind that
of Programme Quality Review: Where- the above are proposed ideas that need
by student evaluation is a key compo- to be applied to the extent to which their
nent and programme teams produce a context requires, which context includes
self-evaluation report which address considerations of diversities in the stu-
programme management, quality assur- dent body and teaching corps as well as
ance, desired learning outcomes, con- in the national context and institution-
tent, learning activities, student assess- al history.
7.4 Professional Development of Teaching Staff

Although one may assume that the When referring to the high pedagogic
role of the teacher becomes easier in the effort required of teachers in an institu-
scl approach as the focus shifts onto the tion in which scl is applied, it is impor-
student, this cannot be further from the tant to view the necessity of pedagogic
truth. The role of the teacher is crucial in development of teachers as complemen-
implementing the scl tary to the self-directed learning of stu-
The role of the teacher approach and in equip- dents which is contemplated in scl. It
is not only to communi- ping students with a is interesting to examine ways in which
cate knowledge, but to clear understanding of such professional development efforts
act as initiator, frame- this learning approach. have been undertaken within institu-
builder and consultant. Furthermore scl moves tions, in order to both foster and main-
away from the concept tain a true culture of scl.
of a teacher as a lecturer and envisages a The following are a few elements of
more intense role for the teacher. good practice in professional develop-
It is specifically due to such a central ment programmes for teaching staff (cf.
role of the teacher that, from all of the Kember, 2008; Lavoie et al, 2007) which
suggestions put forward in the previous can be tried and tested by institutions,
section, professional development is the mindful of the context in which they are
main indispensable component of main- being applied:
taining an scl culture which enhances
the learning experience of students and Using an Interactive scl Approach
truly helps them to achieve the intended in Professional Development Pro-
learning outcomes of a given course or grammes: Participants of such cours-
programme component. es become students in this process and
learn how to design courses that pro-

mote active scl and in- teachers are not only given the oppor-
Professional devel- formation literacy in the tunity to develop their own approach-
opment of teachers classes that they teach. es to learning in their respective cours-
should be included In this way teachers, es but are also given the space to provide
as an important part learn how to work to- constructive criticism to their peers and
of the scholarship of wards effective student- share their experiences in a dialogue as a
teaching and run in centred learning over community of scholars;
parallel to the active efficient teaching, to Focusing on Problem-Solving:
SCL approach used for ground information lit- Where participants are asked to identify
students to enable life- eracy contextually rath- problems they have encountered in their
long learning among er than to offer general teaching which are then discussed in or-
teachers as well. bibliographic instruc- der to identify potential strategies to
tion and to use inclusive overcome them.
multiple styles of learning over exclusive
pedagogy; Learning by doing in professional de-
velopment programmes respects the ac-
The scl approach in teacher train- ademic freedom of teachers to critically
ing involves an ongoing reflexive process evaluate which practical mode of teach-
for teachers in which they are engaged in ing would be better. This mirrors the
thinking about their thinking in order to freedom and the concomitant responsi-
improve their pedagogy and delineating bility of any student engaged in a learn-
how they teach. ing process which is student-centred.
Focusing Teachers’ Knowledge Applying Ideas and Teaching Meth-

about the use of Technological Tools ods in Practice: This can be applied by
in Learning: Where participants learn means of a group project which allows
about using technology in a manner participants to try out and experience
which is relevant to their subject-disci- forms of interactive teaching in a sup-
pline and to their students, rather than portive environment.
in a random manner;
Using Constructive Criticism to Im-
prove the Teaching Process: Where
50
7.5 Professional Development and Working Condi-
tions
At the launching conference of the to enhance the scl approach. This will
t4scl Project, one of the workshops also help the institution to test the ped-
specifically addressed the issue of pro- agogical methods used in such cours-
fessional development and working con- es and fine-tune them over time, in or-
ditions of teachers in higher education. der to constantly improve this service
During this workshop it emerged that, for teachers.
apart from constraints that may be re- TIP
lated to financial and human resourc- Start with those who are willing
es within institutions to carry out pro- and then gradually increase the cov-
fessional development programmes for erage of professional development
teaching staff, there may be further bar- programmes over time.
riers to setting up such professional de-
velopment programmes. These include It is important to note that such pro-
the following: grammes of professional development
for teaching staff are of key importance
Teachers’ Resistance to Taking Up in maintaining the scl approach in a
such Training: This may be due to a given institution and are to be used both
higher interest in research than in teach- with new teachers and with teachers
ing, an excessively high workload or the who are more experienced. Where some
lack of realisation of the need for up- form of resistance to continued teacher
grading their pedagogic skills, among training may arise by teachers who have
other reasons; already participated in similar courses,
Lack of Awareness by Govern- it is important to identify roles for such
ance Structures of the Need for Teach- teachers, particularly when it comes to
er Training: There is a high risk of this sharing of good practices, problems ex-
where governance structures are not perienced and solutions applied.
representative. In such cases, the system
may not fully appreciate that teachers It is important that professional de-
need the necessary support to teach in velopment programmes are in and of
the same way that students need the nec- themselves INNOVATIVE in the way in
essary support to learn. which they are delivered!
Important! It is paramount to address
While there may be resistance to the issue of working conditions of
such professional development pro- teaching staff hand in hand with the
grammes from some teachers, it is of par- upgrading of their pedagogical skills
amount importance to work with those through professional development
who are willing to develop their skills programmes.

In addition, it is of key importance class formations and diverse student
to address the issue of workload of teach- groups;
ing staff concomitantly with their pro- Use diverse assessment methods in
qq
fessional development. This is because, order to genuinely assess whether or
as findings of a recent not their students have reached the
Q How can we teach ei study confirm (cf. ei, intended learning outcomes at the
teachers all of this? 2010), over the past dec- end of their course or programme
A By employing the ade, academics have ex- component;
teaching methods that perienced an increase in Communicate effectively with stu-
qq
are outlined in Chapter their workload and par- dents, understanding both their
V for teachers to use in ticularly in their bureau- strengths and the problems they may
SCL. Teach teachers in cratic tasks while their face, helping students realise the full
the same way that you job security has grad- potential;
would teach students ually eroded. In oecd Motivate students and stimulate
qq
within the SCL ap- countries (cf. Santiago them to be innovative in their own
proach. et al, 2008) one of the learning;
main reasons for the in- Communicate with students about
qq
crease in bureaucratic tasks has been the the scl approach that they are em-
massification of higher education, which ploying, the importance of this
was not accompanied by an increase type of learning and what it aims to
in teaching staff, therefore reflecting a achieve;
higher student-staff ratio and a high- Foster critical analysis in students—
qq
er workload on teaching staff, accom- teaching students how to think—and
panied by increasing demands for more also transferable skills—teaching stu-
output in research. dents to be able to act in every situation
In the above-mentioned workshop, that may require their input; and
teachers and students agreed that teach- Understand the importance of, and
qq
ers need both disciplinary and pedagog- learn how to use, constructive crit-
ic training within their professional de- icism, for the development of both
velopment programmes. Together they their teaching and research work.
identified what the desired outcomes of
professional development programmes In addition, teachers and students
would be. This included that teachers in the workshop agreed that profession-
would be able to: al development programmes should
bring together teachers across disci-
Constantly upgrade their knowledge
qq plines in order for them to be able to dis-
about their subject-discipline and be cuss the methods applied across sub-
able to impart this to their students; ject-areas, the strengths and pitfalls of
Use innovative teaching meth-
qq such methods and their applicability in
ods which are applicable to diverse other disciplines. In particular, teachers
and students in the workshop empha-
52
sised the need for teachers to be able to un- text, students in particular advocated
derstand that they can never finish learn- for a community of masters and scholars
ing about their own teaching, since scl is in which students and teachers regular-
not a closed box with one method which ly interact, both within and outside the
is applicable across time. Rather, teach- classroom setting, with a view to foster-
ers need to understand that a culture of ing discussion that leads to the improve-
discussion and constructive criticism re- ment of teachers’ overall teaching ex-
garding both their disciplinary and ped- perience and students’ overall learning
agogic skills will serve to upgrade both experience.
their teaching and research. In this con-

8 Common Misconceptions
8.1 Introduction
Below, many of the pre-conceived II above, it can be useful to go beyond
ideas about scl are set out, explained these misconceptions, in order to ful-
and dispelled. These are general pre- ly embrace the elements of the scl ap-
conceptions and misconceptions about proach.
scl. Given the benefits listed in Chapter
8.2 [What does SLC means? …]

SCL DOES NOT MEAN ANYTHING IN SCL REQUIRES A HIGHER AMOUNT OF
PRACTICE RESOURCES
While it is clear that scl does not re- The biggest challenge in the first-time
fer to one specific method in any given implementation of the scl approach is
setting, this does not mean that scl does in changing the mindset of students and
not amount anything in practice. Rath- teachers with a view to helping them ar-
er it means that scl is flexible enough rive at an acceptance of such a learn-
to be adapted and applied to all areas of ing approach. This is something which
study and teaching. One must first en- does not require additional resourc-
sure that students are at the centre of es. While institutions cannot necessar-
their own learning and that the teach- ily build new classrooms or install mul-
er is a facilitator in this learning proc- ti-media packages without additional
ess, enabling learning, rather than en- financial resources, much can be done to
forcing it. Once this culture is in place, achieve scl without additional funding
studies good practice ideas exist for ap- in terms of encouraging students to be
plication in particular cases. What must active learners in the ways explored in
be kept in mind is that each teacher and the above chapters.
each student is unique and thus scl can
be adapted to all needs.
54
SCL IS NOT APPROPRIATE TO TEACH A STUDENTS HAVE MORE WORK TO DO
LARGE AND DIVERSE STUDENT BODY IN SCL
While it is true that the student body scl does necessarily pose a higher
in higher education institutions is be- workload for students. Rather it requires
coming increasingly larger and more di- a re-organisation of students’ study-time,
versified, the ideas put forward above focusing more on genuine learning ac-
for implementing scl can be very effec- tivities rather than memorisation of in-
tive in dealing with large and diverse formation. This enables graduates to be
student groups. A good example is that more effective and adaptable, making
of a teacher giving a small slip of paper them better-equipped to solve problems
to students asking them to write down as they may arise.
one aspect of the course that they really
like and another which they are unsure TEACHERS HAVE TO DO MORE
of and want to ask questions about. Even PREPARATORY WORK IN SCL
having one such session is a concrete In more traditional methods of teach-
step towards implementing scl. ing, it is quite often the case that teach-
scl requires imaginative thinking, ers have a lot of preparatory work to do
but can be done! in order to make sure their students will
be able to take notes from what they say
SCL UNDERMINES THE TEACHING in class and then repeat this in their ex-
PROFESSION amination. While teachers may have
Some assert that the teaching pro- to re-think their ways of teaching, it is
fession will no longer be valued if scl likely in the long-term that the prepara-
becomes the norm as it takes the focus tion work will not increase and that their
away from the teacher and places it on work will be more enjoyable.
the student. As explained above, while
the role of the teacher is somewhat dif- PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING IS THE
ferent in scl, it is not diminished in its SAME AS SCL
importance. Rather it is a role of ena- Problem-based learning (pbl) is a
bling students to learn, guiding them method of learning in which students
through the course or programme com- collaboratively solve problems and then
ponent, rather than feeding them in- reflect upon their experiences. pbl is
formation. It is likely that the teaching one teaching method in which the wid-
profession will actually become more er scl approach can be applied but there
valued with a higher emphasis being are many alternatives to this method, as
placed on scl because scl brings stu- explored above. scl is therefore the um-
dents in as part of the academic commu- brella under which pbl falls. They are
nity, where research-led teaching can not one and the same thing.
become a reality and where feedback is
more constructive.
Common Misconceptions 55
SCL IS NOT SUITABLE TO ALL ACADEMIC NOT ALL TEACHERS CAN TEACH IN A
FIELDS STUDENT-CENTRED WAY
scl is easily adaptable to all subjects All teachers are able to apply the scl
and courses, though the practical man- approach! It does not matter whether a
ner in which it is implemented may dif- teacher has been in the profession for a
fer. In all courses and programme com- few months or for many years. Nonethe-
ponents, students can be put at the less, as explained above, all teachers re-
centre. The increasing use of quality as- quire support for their teaching in the
surance in higher education, applica- form of professional development which
ble across academic fields, can be a tool is imperative for the success of the im-
which enhances the application of this plementation of the scl approach.
approach. Some differences do arise
when teaching across different subject- SCL REQUIRES being TECHNOLOGICAL-
disciplines, with a notable distinction LY-MINDED
being between the humanities and the scl may incorporate aspects of e-
sciences. However, scl provides an un- learning for students and the possibil-
derlying learning philosophy which can ity of distance-learning, thus provid-
be used in both areas. ing added flexibility to where and how
learning can take place. As seen above,
SCL STUDENTS LEARN VERY LITTLE the use of technology is also useful both
SUBJECT-MATTER inside and outside classroom settings
On the contrary, students who have in enhancing the learning experience
learned in this way are likely to know of students, enabling them to give feed-
more. They may know fewer repeatable back in various ways and to source in-
facts but are likely to know more about formation as necessary. However, the
solving problems for themselves, think- use of the internet and of online learn-
ing for themselves in an analytical man- ing spaces and sources all represent de-
ner and engaging in research. Upon leav- velopments which have already weaved
ing higher education, it is more useful for their way into the practice of higher ed-
graduates to be able to apply transferable ucation institutions. Thus scl requires
skills rather than to regurgitate exact ac- no more than what is already required in
counts of information imparted to them. many cases.
56
9 SCL and the Bologna Process
9.1 Inroduction
There is a general acceptance across and compatibility across the European
Europe that scl is a learning approach Higher Education Area. As outlined be-
which focuses on the needs of the learn- low, these tools also prove to be helpful
er rather than those of others involved in
the educational process. It is also wide- »We reassert the importance of the
ly agreed that scl ultimately has a far- teaching mission of higher education
reaching impact on the design and flexi- institutions and the necessity for ongo-
bility of curricula, on course-content, on ing curricular reform geared toward
learning methods used and on consulta- the development of learning outcomes.
tion with students. Student-centred learning requires
Often broken down into smaller ac- empowering individual learners, new
tion lines, the Bologna Process did not approaches to teaching and learning,
deal directly with scl from the outset. effective support and guidance structures
The concept itself was only substantially and a curriculum focused more clearly on
included in the communiqué of the Leu- the learner in all three cycles. Curricular
ven/Louvain-la-Neuve Bologna Proc- reform will thus be an ongoing process
ess ministerial conference of 2009. How- leading to high quality, flexible and more
ever, in the communiqué adopted at this individually tailored education paths.
meeting, no official definition of scl was Academics, in close cooperation with
put forward and reference is only made student and employer representatives,
therein to the aspect of flexibility and to will continue to develop learning out-
the procedures according to which con- comes and international reference points
sultation processes should take place in for a growing number of subject areas.
leading towards curricular reform. We ask the higher education institutions
In fact, to pay particular attention to improv-
This notwithstanding, the Bologna ing the teaching quality of their study
Process has come to include several el- programmes at all levels. This should be a
ements which can help to establish a priority in the further implementation of
functioning scl system. Many of these the European Standards and Guidelines
are tools which offer students increased for quality assurance.«
flexibility and allow for better visibil-
ity of the qualifications that students Leuven/Louvain-la-Neuve Communi-
gain, enabling increased comparability qué, 2009
SCL and the Bologna Process 57

in fostering scl, since Bologna-inspired traditionally rigid elements in higher ed-
reforms also provide and opportunity ucation.
for change, replacing some of the more
9.2 How can the Bologna Process Help in SCL?

At the t4scl launching conference, implementation of the scl approach.
where a workshop specifically addressed The personal development of learn-
the link between the Bologna Process ers was also identified as a valuable out-
and scl, many students and teachers come of higher education. Participants
who participated in the conference felt stressed that, through scl, learners
that shifting mentalities, changing meth- should be empowered and autonomous,
ods and increasing flexibility in higher allowing their creativity to flourish and
education institutions is extremely diffi- fostering critical thinking in a lifelong
cult. The elements that students and staff learning approach. All of these are de-
found important for a move towards an sired but do not fully exist in current
scl approach included: higher education systems. Some of these
Flexible learning paths based on the desired changes can be brought about
use of learning outcomes; by a reconsideration of policy but a solu-
Student participation in curriculum tion to the struggle to make the educa-
design; tional system more flexible and learner-
Focus on the individual learner and centred can be found in various Bologna
the importance of learning how to learn; Process tools and concepts.
Portfolio models for assessment; As can be seen below, the Bologna
An interactive learning process Process can help enhance scl since it is
which includes peer learning; and a system that has introduced change in
Increased consultation and participa- a large number of European countries,
tion of students in curricular design; which change, where properly imple-
In addition, the heightened respon- mented, has fostered increased flexibil-
sibility of students related to their high- ity and the use of outcome-based learn-
er influence on curricula in scl was per- ing.
ceived as an important element in the
58
9.3 ECTS and the Use of Learning Outcomes
The European Credit Transfer Sys- to correspond to 25-30 hours of work-
tem (ects) is often seen as the most ba- load, which, in an scl setting, might
sic of all Bologna tools because it was vary based on the specificity of subjects
implemented in the Process from a very and of the learning styles adopted by
early stage. It actually predates the Bolo- students. ects would be worthless with-
gna Process as it was first applied in the out the proper steps taken to ensure the
context of the European Commission’s use of learning outcomes. Very careful
Erasmus exchange programme in order attention needs to be paid to how learn-
to facilitate mobility of students. From ing outcomes are written, so as to facil-
the very start of the Bologna Process in itate learner-centred education. This is-
1999 there was a clear commitment to sue was examined in depth in Chapter
the setting up of a European-wide cred- VI above.
it system, which was later determined
to be the ects model. Many countries How can ECTS benefit SCL?
started to adopt ects as their credit ac- ECTS is a flexibility tool which can help
cumulation and transfer system, this be- to a great degree in applying SCL. The
ing the Bologna action line which they benefits which ECTS can bring to the
chose to implement first. However ini- educational process include the fol-
tial implementation was quite flawed as lowing:
there was very little good practice avail- No learning is lost: ECTS gives students
able by way of measuring workload or the possibility to have their learning
defining ects in terms of learning out- attainment recognised and to accumu-
comes. late credits for their learning;
Mobility is made much easier: ECTS
ECTS is a standard for comparing the credits are transferable, enabling
attainment of learners across the Eu- mobility of students where adequate
ropean Higher Education Area. It helps recognition procedures are in place;
make education flexible by offering ECTS enables the recognition of prior
students the possibility to transfer and learning: This feeds into students’
accumulate credits for the knowledge, education if they prove that they had
skills and competences acquired. a learning experience outside the
formal educational setting, being
granted ECTS as recognition for it; and
In order for ects credits to fulfil ECTS enables recognition of the entire
their function, they need to be based on spectrum of students’ work which is
learning outcomes and measured work- dedicated to achieving the goals of
load. One ects is normally considered their studies.
SCL and the Bologna Process 59

9.4 Qualification Framework
Qualification frameworks are rep- paths and enabling them to apply a con-
resented by systems that map out exist- structionist approach to their learning
ing qualifications and correlate them through a step-by-step approach to their
with attained learning outcomes and lev- learning process. If combined with rec-
els of education. Qualifications frame- ognition of prior learning and the prop-
works do not only apply to higher educa- er use of ects, this can enable maximum
tion, but to the entire span of education efficiency to be applied to student work-
levels. Though not all European coun- load by not making learning repetitive
tries have as yet set up functioning qual- and establishing specific goals applica-
ification frameworks, for the ones that ble at a given level of the qualifications
did, qualification frameworks are vi- framework.
tal in offering students flexible learning
fig. 11 Irish Qualifications Framework
60
10 Source: Dublin College University
10.1 Quality Assurance as an Aid to SCL

The joint ei-esu survey undertak- ards and Guidelines for Quality Assur-
en with member organisations at the be- ance in the European Higher Education
ginning of the t4scl project brought to Area (esg) do not take into account is-
the fore a number of policies and areas sues of teaching and learning in an ad-
which impact upon the advancement of equate way, as the onus of the quality
scl. Quality assurance was one of the ar- assurance process remains highly proce-
eas most-frequently identified as influ- dural, focusing largely on mechanisms
encing reform in teaching and learning. and regulations as such, rather than on
The is because quality reviews influence setting up a quality culture at all levels.
institutions in many ways, including An important step that needs to, and
with respect to funding and institution- can, be taken in quality assurance with-
al prestige, so that it acts as an incentive in the framework of the Bologna Process
more than any other action line of the
Bologna Process. However the Stand- How does Quality Assurance Con-
tribute to SCL?
How can Qualifications Frameworks Quality assurance is the main Bologna
help in SCL? tool that influences decision-making
They emphasise the usefulness of every within institutions. Where quality is
particular learning outcome in devel- deemed to include teaching and learn-
oping qualifications; ing, it has the potential of influencing
They encourage lifelong learning and institutional priorities;
help students plan their careers and The quality assurance processes as en-
their learning; visaged in the Bologna Process deline-
They help students choose what to ate a clear role for students, thus being
learn based on their own life goals and a positive example in student inclusion
can become a significant aid to self- within decision-making processes in
directed learning; and institutions; and
If certified comparable to European or Quality assurance is aimed at creating
international qualifications frameworks, a quality culture within institutions
they can become a tool for both verti- which can lead to the enhancement of
cal and horizontal mobility of students the educational models used, includ-
by making qualifications readable and ing a move to a more student-centred
transferable. education.
Source: Dublin College University 61

is to try to include considerations relat- icies, leading to a re-orientation of inter-
ed to quality teaching, inclusion of stu- nal institutional policies aimed at ful-
dents in curriculum design and improve- filling the criteria that is set out by the
ment of teaching/learning methods in rankings.
the internal quality assurance guidelines Criteria for ranking institutions most
of a given institution. Going beyond the often involve an exclusive focus on re-
bare minimum as stipulated in the esg is search and technical aspects that are dis-
a must in order to enable quality assur- tinct from core educational activities.
ance to have an impact that extends be- Since teaching and learning do not pro-
yond bureaucratic procedures. vide strictly measurable parameters, it is
One major danger posed particularly often the case that they are sidelined or
by policy-makers who make an errone- represented through criteria which are
ous association with quality assurance, not fully relevant. This has the poten-
is in the form of rankings, typologies tial to cause much damage should these
and league tables. While these have been rankings increase their clout over quali-
dismissed by many stakeholders of the ty assurance as the process by which in-
academic community, their influence stitutions evaluate their results and set
still looms large in higher education pol- their goals.
10.2 Recognition of Prior Learning

One of the first premises that needs
to be overcome in order to apply scl ad- What is the Value that RPL brings to
equately is that by which higher educa- SCL?
tion institutions claim a monopoly on It can help students complement
learning. Learning, in terms of knowl- learning in the academic setting with
edge gained at the individual level, takes informal learning that takes place in
place in far more numerous settings than real-life situations, giving the learner
in the classroom, but is often only recog- more control over the way certain
nised when it happens in academic set- learning outcomes are attained;
tings. It facilitates successful completion of
Recognition of Prior Learning (rpl) higher education for students with a
is fairly widespread for employment or general background, such as those who
educational access purposes but is rare- start working upon finishing secondary
ly used to feed learning outcomes into education; and
the coherent set of qualifications that a Used in conjunction with ETCS and
student gains as a result of the learning qualification frameworks, it can
process. That is, if learning outcomes X, become a vital tool in supporting self-
Y and Z lead to competence W, most stu- directed learning.
dents in Europe need to attain all 3 out-
62
comes in their institution, rather than Overall, the best use of rpl in order
contribute by learning outcome Z from to help bring about functional scl can
external experiences. It is notewor- be by using it to recognise learning out-
thy that rpl is not intrinsically linked comes both for access to higher educa-
with the development of a comprehen- tion studies and for their contribution in
sive National Qualifications Framework, gaining various qualifications within the
though referring rpl to a specific level of educational system.
a given qualifications learning can prove
to be doubly-beneficial.
10.3 Mobility of Students and Staff

Mobility has proven to be a valuable It is important to discuss the experi-
experience for both students and staff. ences linked to a mobility period which
In fact, mobility of students and staff is students and teachers experience in a
one of the best tools to exchange exam- different institution. In order for mobil-
ples of good practice in teaching and ity to have a concrete impact on the in-
learning across Europe, allowing inno- stitutions involved, it is vital to observe,
vative teaching and learning methods report and discuss what is learnt dur-
to be analysed and applied in different ing one’s mobility period. Increased co-
contexts. Mobility is a complementary operation that follows exchange of good
tool to the scientific approach of report- practice also provides enhanced oppor-
ing and analysing approaches to teach-
ing and learning. One thus need not use Mobility and SCL
trial and error approaches in applying It is a good tool for exchanging exam-
different educational approaches with- ples of good practice between institu-
in institutions if working examples from tions and individuals, provided positive
other institutions can be studied by di- experiences are followed up and
rect contact. actually influence practices in teaching
In the scl approach, mobile students and learning;
also have the possibility to give input It gives learners the opportunity to
and feedback based on their mobility ex- study in different environments and
periences, in order to provide ideas as to helps them cope with different educa-
how educational practices can change tional methods and contexts; and
within their home institution. For the In and of itself, it develops various skills
people engaged in mobility programmes, complementary to those attained in
one added value is represented by the the educational process (e.g. language
opportunity to study in different envi- skills, capacity to work in different
ronments with different people and us- environments and inter-cultural com-
ing different methods. munication).
Source: Dublin College University 63

tunities for both staff and student mo-
bility.
10.4 The Social Dimension and SCL

One of the elements of the Bologna most certain to put some student groups
Process which is often sidelined and yet at a disadvantage.
which is the most necessary in order to The social dimension, if understood
implement scl in a genuine and effec- in a broad sense and if mindful of both
tive manner is a functional social dimen- social and educational aspects of stu-
sion in higher education. Students from dents’ lives, can have a positive impact
disadvantaged backgrounds often start on the inclusiveness of the educational
their higher education studies with se- process, adapting it to all different types
vere drawbacks and often need to be ex- of students, not just the ones who benefit
posed to different learning styles and from optimum secondary education and
teaching methods in order to succeed. adequate personal finances.
Students with work or family responsi-
bilities also require extra flexibility in The Link between the Social Dimen-
their learning paths and may need to sion and SCL
have their studies spread out over a long- This is needed in order to guarantee
er number of years in order to combine that no student starts his or her educa-
their ongoing commitments with their tion at a disadvantage;
studies in an effective way. This needs to go beyond measures of
Consideration of the social dimen- social support and also address the
sion is important so as to make flexible educational process. Students from
education available to those who have a disadvantaged backgrounds often
lot of time to devote to learning as well have the handicap of poorer secondary
to those who have limited time and re- education or a difficult family environ-
sources to support their studies. The so- ment which needs to be taken into con-
cial dimension needs to delve into the sideration in the planning of teaching
educational process itself, referring not methods to be used; and
only to access into higher education, but Offering adequate social support
also to successful progression through ensures that students can devote
all levels of higher education. One of the enough time to learning as opposed to
most important elements in this respect being conditioned with respect to the
is the adaptation of learning methods to time which they have available for their
different student groups. Using a single learning.
path to attain learning outcomes is al-
64
11 Sources for further Reading
BOLOGNA HANDBOOK website: http://www.bologna-handbook.com

BRANDES, D. and GINNIS, P. (1986) A Guide to Student-centred Learning. (Oxford,
Blackwell)
BRITISH HIGHER EDUCATION ACADEMY website: http://www.heacademy.ac.uk
DE GRAFF, E. and KOLMOS, A. (eds.) (2007) Management of Change: Implementation
of Problem-Based and Project-Based Learning in Engineering. (Rotterdam, Sense
Publishers)
EI (2010) Enhancing Quality: Academics’ Perceptions of the Bologna Process. (Brussels,
Education International)
EI, ESU (2010) Student-Centred Learning. An Insight into Theory and Practice. (Brussels,
Education International, European Students’ Union)
ENQA (2005) Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher
Education Area. (Helsinki, the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher
Education)
ENQA (2009) Assessment Matters: The Quality Assurance of Student Assessment
in Higher Education. Report of an International Working Group. (Helsinki, the
European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education)
ESU (2009) Bologna at the Finish Line. (Brussels, European Students’ Union)
EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2009) European Credit Transfer System Users’ Guide.
(Brussels, European Communities)
EUROPEAN STUDENTS’ UNION website: http://www.esu-online.org
EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY ASSOCIATION website: http://www.eua.be
GIBBS, G. (1995) Assessing Student-Centred Courses. (Oxford, Oxford Centre for Staff
Learning and Development)
HENRIKSEN, L.B., NØRREKLIT, L., JØRGENSEN, K. M., CHRISTENSEN, J. B. and O’DONNELL,
D. (2004) Dimension of Change—Conceptualising Reality in Organisational
Research. (Copenhagen, Copenhagen Business School)
KEMBER, D. (2008) ›Promoting Student-Centred Forms of Learning across an Entire
University‹. In: Higher Education, 58, pp.1-13.
LAVOIE, D. and ROSMAN, A.J. (2007) ›Using Active Student-Centred Learning-Based
Instructional Design to Develop Faculty and Improve Course Design, Delivery, and
Evaluation‹. In: Issues in Accounting Education, 22:1, pp.105-118.
LEA, S. J., STEPHENSON, D. and TROY, J. (2003) ›Higher Education Students’ Attitudes
to Student-Centred Learning: Beyond ›Educational Bulimia‹‹. In: Studies in Higher
Education, 28(3), pp. 321–334.
Sources for further Reading 65

MOUST, J.H.C., Van BERKEL, H.J.M and SCHMIDT, H.G. (2005) ›Signs of Erosion: Reflec-
tions on three decades of problem-based learning at Maastricht University‹. In:
Higher Education, 50, pp.665-683.
O’NeiLL, G. and McMAHON, T. (2005) ›Student–Centred Learning: What does it mean for
Students and Lecturers‹? In: O’Neill, G., Moore, S., McMullin, B. (eds). Emerging Issues
in the Practice of University Learning and Teaching. (Dublin, AISHE)
ROGERS, C.R. (1983) Freedom to Learn for the 80s. (Columbus, OH: Charles Merrill)
SANTIAGO, P., TREMBLAY, K., BASRI, E., and ARNAL, E., (2008) Tertiary Education for the
Knowledge Society: OECD Thematic Review of Tertiary Education. Synthesis Report.
Vol.2. (Paris, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development)
UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE (2000) Leap Into … Student-Centred Learning. (Adelaide,
University of Adelaide)
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE DUBLIN CENTRE FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING website: http://
www.ucd.ie/teaching
UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW (2004) Student-Centred Learning. http://www.gla.ac.uk/
otherdepts/TLS/Project/Reports
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TIME FOR A NEW PARADIGM IN EDUCATION:

It is important that students bring a certain ragamuffin, barefoot irrev-

Student-Centered Learning Toolkit

Content Design & Typesetting

This publication is part of the project »Time

1 Principles and Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

4 Changing the Mindset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

7 Maintaining a Culture of SCL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

9 SCL and the Bologna Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

10 Source: Dublin College University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

11 Sources for further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

EACEA Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency

Principles and Definition 1

1.3 Principles Underlying SCL

Principles and Definition 3

1.4 A Workable Definition of SCL

Principles and Definition 5

2.2 Benefits For Students

75% Practical doing

90% Teach others

2.3 Benefits for Teachers

1. Consultation with Students [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No

Are there transparent procedures in place for students to be

Are students consulted when learning outcomes are de-

3. Quality Assurance [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No

Are both staff and students consulted during the institutional

Are study periods conducted by students in other institutions

5. The Social Dimension [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No

Are special support measures in place in order to help stu-

6. Teaching and Learning Methods [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No

Are the goals of the learning process agreed upon between

8. Learning Environment [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No

Do students have access to appropriate research and study

9. Professional Academic Development [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No

Does your institution have any guidelines on teaching and

4.2 The Policy Cycle

Changing the Mindset 15

fig. 2 The policy cycle in six steps

Evaluate the impact Identify roles for

Implement Identify drivers

Changing the Mindset 17

4.4 Step Two: Identifying Roles for Different Actors

Changing the Mindset 19

fig. 3 Example of Responsibility Charting for a Project Involving Four Actors

Responsi- Approval or Support or

Changing the Mindset 21

Identifying barriers to change is those who outrightly resist any change

Changing the Mindset 23

4.7 Step Five: Implementing the Change

4.8 Step Six: Evaluating the Impact of the Change

Changing the Mindset 25

fig. 6 The Learning Continuum

Teacher–Centred Learning ↔ Student–Centred Learning

Low student choice ↔ High student choice

In examining how this might look in uation. This includes a consideration of

5.3 Choice of Teaching and Learning Methods

Inside the Lecture Format Outside the Lecture Format

fig. 8 Possible Assessment Methods and their Objectives