Repetition Structures: Programming Fundamentals 1

Chapter 5
REPETITION STRUCTURES
Programming Fundamentals 1
Chapter 5
n while loops
n Interactive while loops
n for loops
n Nested loops
n do-while Loops
n Structured programming with C++
n Arrays
n Structures
Overview
n C++ provides three different forms of repetition structures:
1. while structure
2. for structure
3. do-while structure
n Each of these structures requires a condition that must be

evaluated.
n The condition can be tested at either (1) the beginning or (2) the
end of the repeating section of code.
n If the test is at the beginning of the loop, the type of loop is a

pre-test loop.
n If the test is at the end of the loop, the type of loop is a post-
test loop.
Fixed count loop and variable condition loop
n In addition to where the condition is tested, repeating sections
of code are also classified.
n In a fixed count loop, the condition is used to keep track of how
many repetitions have occurred. In this kind of loops, a fixed
number of repetitions are performed, at which point the
repeating section of code is exited.
n In many situations, the exact number of repetitions are not

known in advance. In such cases, a variable condition loop is
used.
n In a variable condition loop, the tested condition does not
depend on a count being achieved, but rather on a variable that
can change interactively with each pass through the loop.
When a specified value is encountered, regardless of how
many iterations have occurred, repetitions stop.
while loops
The while statement is used
for repeating a statement or
series of statements as long
as a given conditional Enter the while statement
expression is evaluated to
true.
false
test the
condition ?
The syntax for the while true
statement:
Execute the
statement (s)
while( condition expression){ Exit the while

statement
statements;
}
Example 5.2.1
// This program prints out the numbers from 1 to 10

#include <iostream.h>
int main()
{
int count;
count = 1; // initialize count
while (count <= 10){
cout << count << " ";
count++; // increment count
}
return 0;
}
The output of the above program:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
In the above program, the loop incurs a counter-controlled
repetition. Counter-controlled repetition requires:
1) the name of a control variable (the variable count )
2) the initial value of the control variable ( count is
initialized
to 1 in this case
3) the condition that tests for the final value of the control
variable (i.e., whether looping should continue) ;
4) the increment (or decrement) by which the control
variable
is modified each time through the loop.
INTERACTIVE while LOOP
n Combining interactive data entry with the while statement
produces very adaptable and powerful programs.
Example 5.3.1
int main(){
int total, // sum of grades
gradeCounter, // number of grades entered
grade, // one grade
average; // average of grades
total = 0;
gradeCounter = 1; // prepare to loop
while ( gradeCounter <= 10 ) { // loop 10 times
cout << "Enter grade: "; // prompt for input
cin >> grade; // input grade
total = total + grade; // add grade to total
gradeCounter = gradeCounter + 1; // increment counter
}
// termination phase
average = total / 10; // integer division
cout << "Class average is " << average <<
endl;
return 0;
} The output of the above program:
Enter grade: 98
Enter grade: 76
Enter grade: 71
Enter grade: 87
Enter grade: 83
Enter grade: 90
Enter grade: 57
Enter grade: 79
Enter grade: 82
Enter grade: 94
Class average is 81
Sentinels
n In programming, data values used to indicate either the
start or end of a data series are called sentinels.
n The sentinels must be selected so as not to conflict with
legitimate data values.
Example 5.3.2
const int HIGHGRADE = 100; // sentinel value
int main()
{
float grade, total;
grade = 0;
total = 0;
cout << "\nTo stop entering grades, type in any number"
<< " greater than 100.\n\n";
cout << "Enter a grade: ";
cin >> grade;
while (grade <= HIGHGRADE)
{
total = total + grade;
cout << "Enter a grade: ";
cin >> grade;
}
cout << "\nThe total of the grades is " << total << endl;
return 0;
}
n In the above program, the sentinel is the value 100 for the entered
grade.
break statement
n The break statement causes an exit from the innermost
enclosing loop.
Example:
while( count <= 10)
{
cout << “Enter a number: “; cin >> num;
if (num > 76){
cout << “you lose!\n”;
break;
}
else
cout << “Keep on trucking!\n”;
count++;
}
//break jumps to here
continue Statements
n The continue statement halts a looping statement and restarts
the loop with a new iteration.
while( count < 30)

{
cout << “Enter a grade: “;
cin >> grade;
if (grade < 0 || grade > 100)
continue;
count++;
}
n In the above program, invalid grades are simply ignored and

only valid grades are added to the total.
The null statement
n All statements must be terminated by a semicolon. A semicolon
with nothing preceding it is also a valid statement, called the
null statement. Thus, the statement
;
is a null statement.
n Example:
if (a > 0)
b = 7;
else ;
n The null statement is a do-nothing statement.
for LOOPS
n The for statement is used for repeating a statement or series of
statements as long as a given conditional expression evaluates
to true.
n One of the main differences between while statement and for

statement is that in addition to a condition, you can also
include code in the for statement
- to initialize a counter variable and
- changes its value with each iteration
n The syntax of the for statement:
for ( initialization expression; condition; update statement){

statement(s);
}
Enter the for statement
Initialization expression
false
test the
condition ?
true
Execute the
statement (s)
Exit the for

statement
Execute the update
statement
Example 5.4.1
// This program prints the even number from 2 to 20
int main()
{
int count;
for (count = 2; count <= 20; count = count + 2)
cout << count << " ";
return 0;
}
2 4 6 8 12 14 16 18 20
Example 5.4.2 In this example, we have to solve the problem:
A person invests $1000.00 in a saving account with 5 percent
interest. Assuming that all interest is left on deposit in the
account, calculate and print the amount of money in the account
at the end of each year for 10 years. Use the following formula
for determining these amounts:
a = p(1 + r)n
where p is the original amount invested, r is the annual interest rate
and n is the number of years and a is the amount on deposit at
the end of the nth year.
#include <iomanip.h>
#include <math.h>
int main()
{
double amount,
principal = 1000.0, rate = 0.05;
cout << "Year” << setw(21)
<< "Amount on deposit" << endl;
cout << setiosflags(ios::fixed | ios::showpoint) <<
setprecision(2);
for (int year = 1; year <= 10; year++)
{
amount = principal*pow(1.0 + rate, year);
cout << setw(4) << year << setw(21) << amount << endl;
}
return 0; The output of the above program:
}
Year Amount on deposit
1 1050.00
2 1102.50
3 1157.62
4 1215.51
5 1276.28
6 1340.10
7 1407.10
8 1477.46
9 1551.33
10 1628.89
NESTED LOOPS
n In many situations, it is convenient to use a loop contained
within another loop. Such loops are called nested loops.
n Example 5.4.1
int main()
{
const int MAXI = 5;
const int MAXJ = 4;
int i, j;
for(i = 1; i <= MAXI; i++) // start of outer loop
{
cout << "\ni is now " << i << endl;
for(j = 1; j <= MAXJ; j++) // start of inner loop
cout << " j = " << j; // end of inner loop
} // end of outer loop
cout << endl;
return 0;
}
i is now 1
j=1 j=2 j=3 j=4
i is now 2
j=1 j=2 j=3 j=4
i is now 3
j=1 j=2 j=3 j=4
i is now 4
j=1 j=2 j=3 j=4
i is now 5
j=1 j=2 j=3 j=4
do-while LOOPS Enter the do-while
statement
Execute the
statement (s)
false
test the
condition ?
true
n do..while statement is used

to create post-test loops.
n The syntax: Exit the do-while
statement
do {
statements;
} while (conditional expression);
Example of do while loop
do {
cout<< “\nEnter an identification number:”;
cin >> idNum;
} while (idNum < 1000 | | idNum> 1999);
n Here, a request for a new id-number is repeated until

a valid number is entered.
n A refined version of the above program:
do {
cout<< “\nEnter an identification number:”;
cin >> idNum;
if (idNum < 1000 || idNum > 1999)
{
cout << “An invalid number was just entered\n”;
cout << “Please reenter an ID number /n”;
}
else break;
} while (true);
STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING WITH C++
n The goto Statement
n In C++, goto statement – an unconditional branch, is just a

legacy code from C language.
n The effect of the goto statement is a change in the flow of
control of the program to the first statement after the label
specified in the goto statement.
n Example:
n Note: The goto statement
start: // label can lead to programs that
if (cout > 10) go to end; are more difficult to debug,
… maintain, and modify.
…
go to start;
end: cout << endl;
Structured Programming
n During the 1960s, it became clear that the
indiscriminate use of transfers of control through
goto statements was the root of much difficulty
experienced by programmer groups.
n The notion of so-called structured programming
became almost synonymous with “goto elimination.”
n Bohm and Jacopini’s work demonstrated that all

programs could be written in terms of only three
control structures:
- sequence structure
- selection structure
- repetition structure
statement 1
A sequence structure
statement 2
§ The sequence structure is built into C++.

§ Unless directed otherwise, the computer executes
C++ statements one after the other in the order in
which they are written.
n C++ provides three types of selection structures:
- if statement (single-selection structure)
- if-else statement (double-selection structure)
- switch statement. (multiple-selection structure)
n C++ provides three types of repetition structures:

- while statement
- do-while statement
- for statement
n So C++ has only seven control structures: sequence,

three types of selection and three types of repetition.
Building programs in good style
n Each C++ program is formed by combining as many of each
type of control structures as appropriate for the algorithm the
program implements.
n We will see that each control structure has only one entry point
and one exit point. These single-entry/single-exit control
structures make it easy to build programs.
n One way to build program is to connect the exit point of one

control structure to the entry point of the next. This way is
called control-structure-stacking.
n Another way is to place one control structure inside another

control structure. This way is called control-structure-nesting.
Indentation
n Consistent applying reasonable indentation
conventions throughout your programs greatly
improves program readability. We suggest a fixed-
size tab of about ¼ inch or three blanks per indent.
For example, we indent both body statements of an

if..else structure as in the following statement:
if (grade >= 60)
cout << “Passed”;
else
cout << “Failed”;
Top-down Stepwise Refinement
n Using good control structures to build programs is
one of the main principles of structured
programming. Another principle of structured
programming is top-down, stepwise refinement.
n Example: Consider the following problem:
Develop a class-averaging program that will process
an arbitrary number of grades each time the program
is run.
We begin with a pseudocode representation of the top:

Determine the class average for the exam
First Refinement
n Now we begin the refinement process. We divide the

top into a series of smaller tasks and list these in the
order in which they need to be performed. This
results in the following first refinement.
First Refinement:
Initialize variables
Input, sum and count the exam grades
Calculate and print the class average.
Here only the sequence structure has been used.
Second Refinement
n To proceed to the next level of refinement, we need
some variables and a repetition structure.
n We need a running total of the numbers, a count of
how many numbers have been processed, a variable
to receive each grade as it is input and a variable to
hold the average.
n We need a loop to calculate the total of the grades
before deriving the average.
n Because we do not know in advance how many
grades are to be processed, we will use sentinel-
controlled repetition.
n The program will test for the sentinel value after
each grade is input and terminate the loop when the
sentinel value is entered by the user.
n Now we come to the pseudo-code of the second
refinement.
Second Refinement:
Input the first grade(possibly the sentinel)
While the user has not as yet entered the sentinel
Add this grade into the running total
Add one to the grade counter
Input the next grade(possibly the sentinel)
Calculate and print the class average
Third refinement
n The pseudocode statement
Calculate and print the class average
can be refined as follows:
If the counter is not equal to zero
set the average to the total divided by the counter
print the average
else
Print “No grades were entered”.
n Notice that we are being careful here to test for the
possibility of division by zero.
n Now we come to the pseudocode of the third refinement
Third Refinement:
Initialize total to zero
Initialize counter to zero
Input the first grade
While the user has not as yet entered the sentinel
Add this grade into the running total
Add one to the grade counter
Input the next grade
If the counter is not equal to zero
set the average to the total divided by the counter
print the average
else
Print “No grades were entered”.
The final C++ program
n Final step: After coding, we come to the following C++ program.
int main()
{
int total, gradeCounter, grade;
double average; // number with decimal point for average
// initialization phase
total = 0;
gradeCounter = 0;
// processing phase
cout << "Enter grade, -1 to end: ";
cin >> grade;
while ( grade != -1 ) {
gradeCounter = gradeCounter + 1;
cout << "Enter grade, -1 to end: ";
cin >> grade;
}
// termination phase
if ( gradeCounter != 0 ) {
average = double ( total ) / gradeCounter;
cout << "Class average is " << setprecision( 2 )
<< setiosflags( ios::fixed | ios::showpoint )
<< average << endl;
}
else
cout << "No grades were entered" << endl;
return 0;
}
ARRAYS
§ An array is an advanced data type that contains a set
of data represented by a single variable name.
§ An element is an individual piece of data contained in
an array.
§ The following figure shows an integer array called c.
c[0] = 4; c[1] = 4, c[2] = 8, etc.
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
4 4 8
Array Declaration
n The syntax for declaring an array is
type name[elements];
n Array names follow the same naming conventions as

variable names and other identifiers.
n Example:
int arMyArray[3];
char arStudentGrade[5];
§ The first declaration tells the compiler to reserve 3

elements for integer array arMyArray.
Subscript
n The numbering of elements within an array starts with an index
number of 0.
n An index number is an element’s numeric position within an

array. It is also called a subsript.
n Example:
StudentGrade[0] refers to the 1st element in the StudentGrade

array.
StudentGrade[1] refers to the 2nd element in the StudentGrade
array.
StudentGrade[2] refers to the 3rd element in the StudentGrade
array.
StudentGrade[3] refers to the 4th element in the StudentGrade
array.
StudentGrade[4] refers to the 5fth element in the StudentGrade
array.
A example of array
Example 5.8.1
int main(){
char arStudentGrade[5]= {‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘D’, ‘F’};
for (int i = 0; i <5; i++)
cout << arStudentGrade[i];
return 0;
}
The output is:

A
B
C
D
F
Example 5.8.2
// Compute the sum of the elements of the array
int main()
{
const int arraySize = 12;
int a[ arraySize ] = { 1, 3, 5, 4, 7, 2, 99, 16, 45, 67, 89, 45 };
int total = 0;
for ( int i = 0; i < arraySize; i++ )
total += a[ i ];
cout << "Total of array element values is " << total << endl;
return 0 ;
}
The output of the above program is as follows :
Total of array element values is 383
Multi-Dimensional Arrays
n C++ allows arrays of any type, including arrays of arrays. With
two bracket pairs we obtain a two-dimensional array.
n The idea can be iterated to obtain arrays of higher dimension.
With each bracket pair we add another dimension.
n Some examples of array declarations
int a[1000]; // a one-dimensional array

int b[3][5]; // a two-dimensional array
int c[7][9][2]; // a three-dimensional array
In these above examples, b has 3 ´ 5 elements, and c has

7 ´ 9 ´ 2 elements.
A two-dimensional array
n Starting at the base address of the array, all the array
elements are stored contiguously in memory.
n For the array b, we can think of the array elements
arranged as follows:
col 1 col2 col3 col4 col5
row 1 b[0][0] b[0][1] b[0][2] b[0][3] b[0][4]

row 2 b[1][0] b[1][1] b[1][2] b[1][3] b[1][4]
row 3 b[2][0] b[2][1] b[2][2] b[2][3] b[2][4]
Example 5.8.3 This program checks if a matrix is symmetric or not.
for(i= 0; i<N; i++){

#include<iostream.h> for (j = 0; j < N; j++)
if(a[i][j] != a[j][i]){
#include<iomanip.h>
symmetr = false;
const int N = 3; break;
void main( ) }
{ if(!symmetr)
int i, j; break;
}
int a[N][N]; if(symmetr)
bool symmetr = true; cout<<"\nThe matrix is symmetric“
for ( i=0; i< N; ++i) << endl;
for (j=0; j<N; ++j) else
cin >> a[i][j]; cout<<"\nThe matrix is not symmetric“
<< endl;
return 0;
}
Strings and String Built-in Functions
n In C++ we often use character arrays to represent strings. A
string is an array of characters ending in a null character (‘\0’).
n A string may be assigned in a declaration to a character array.
The declaration
char strg[] = “C++”;
n initializes a variable to the string “C++”. The declaration creates

a 4-element array strg containing the characters ‘C’, ‘+’, ‘+’ and
‘\0’. The null character (\0) marks the end of the text string.
n The above declaration determines the size of the array
automatically based on the number of initializers provided in
the initializer list.
n C++ does not provide built-in operations for strings. In C++, you
must use a string built-in functions to manipulate char variables.
Some commonly used string functions are listed in Table 5.1.
Tabe 5.1 Common string functions
Function Description
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
strcat() Append one string to another
strchr() Find the first occurrence of a specified character in a
string
strcmp() Compare two strings
strcpy() Replaces the contents of one string with the
contents of another
strlen() Returns the length of a string
n The strcpy() function copies a literal string or the contents of a
char variable into another char variable using the syntax:
strcpy(destination, source);
where destination represents the char variable to which you

want to assign a new value to and the source variable
represents a literal string or the char variable contains the
string you want to assign to the destination.
n The strcat() function combines two strings using the syntax:
strcat(destination, source);
where destination represents the char variable whose string

you want to combine with another string. When you execute
strcat(), the string represented by the source argument is
appended to the string contained in the destination variable.
Example:
char FirstName[25];
char LastName[25];
char FullName[50];
strcpy(FirstName, “Mike”);
strcpy(LastName, “Thomson”);
strcpy(FullName, FirstName);
strcat(FullName, “ “);
strcat(FullName, LastName);
n Two strings may be compared for equality using the strcmp()

function. When two strings are compared, their individual
characters are compared a pair at a time. If no differences are
found, the strings are equal; if a difference is found, the string with
the first lower character is considered the smaller string.
n The function listed in Table 5.1 are contained in the string.h

header file. To use the functions, you must add the statement
#include<string.h> to your program.
Example 5.8.4
#include<iostream.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
{
char FirstName[25];
char LastName[25];
char FullName[50];
strcpy(FirstName, "Mike");
strcpy(LastName, "Thomson");
strcpy(FullName, FirstName);
strcat(FullName, " ");
strcat(FullName, LastName);
cout << FullName << endl;
int n;
n = strcmp(FirstName, LastName);
if(n<0)
cout<< FirstName << " is less than "<< LastName<<endl;
else if(n ==0)
cout<< FirstName << " is equal to “
<< LastName<<endl;
else
cout<< FirstName << " is greater than “
<< LastName<<endl;
return 0;
}
The output of the program:
Mike Thomson
Mike is less than Thomson
STRUCTURES
n A structure, or struct, is an advanced, user-defined data type
that uses a single variable name to store multiple pieces of
related information.
n The individual pieces of information stored in a structure are

referred to as elements, field, or members.
n You define a structure using the syntax:
struct struct_name{
data_type field_name;
data_type field_name;
……..
} variable_name;
To access a field inside a structure
n Example:
struct emloyee{
char firstname[25];
char lastname[25];
long salary;
};
n To access the field inside a structure variable, you append a

period to the variable name, followed by the field name using
the syntax:
variable.field;
n When you use a period to access a structure fields, the period

is referred to as the member selection operator.
Example 5.9.1
struct Date // this is a global declaration
{
int month;
int day;
int year;
};
int main(){
Date birth; // birth is a variable belonging to Date type
birth.month = 12;
birth.day = 28;
birth.year = 1982;
cout << "\nMy birth date is "
<< birth.month << '/‘ << birth.day << '/'
<< birth.year % 100 << endl;
return 0;
}
Arrays of Structures
n The real power of structures is realized when the same
structure is used for lists of data.
n Declaring an array of structures is the same as declaring an

array of any other variable type.
n Example 5.9.2:
The following program uses array of employee records. Each of
employee record is a structure named PayRecord. The program
displays the first five employee records.
const int MAXNAME = 20; // maximum characters in a name
struct PayRecord // this is a global declaration
{
long id;
char name[MAXNAME];
float rate;
};
int main()
{
const int NUMRECS = 5; // maximum number of records
int i;
PayRecord employee[NUMRECS] = {
{ 32479, "Abrams, B.", 6.72 },
{ 33623, "Bohm, P.", 7.54},
{ 34145, "Donaldson, S.", 5.56},
{ 35987, "Ernst, T.", 5.43 },
{ 36203, "Gwodz, K.", 8.72 } };
cout << endl; // start on a new line
cout << setiosflags(ios::left);
// left justify the output
for ( i = 0; i < NUMRECS; i++)
cout << setw(7) << employee[i].id
<< setw(15) << employee[i].name
<< setw(6) << employee[i].rate << endl;
return 0;
}
The output of the program is:
32479 Abrams, B. 6.72

33623 Bohm, P. 7.54
34145 Donaldson, S. 5.56
35987 Ernst, T. 5.43
36203 Gwodz, K 8.72

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Chapter 5

n Each of these structures requires a condition that must be

n If the test is at the beginning of the loop, the type of loop is a

n In many situations, the exact number of repetitions are not

while( condition expression){ Exit the while

// This program prints out the numbers from 1 to 10

while( count < 30)

n In the above program, invalid grades are simply ignored and

n The null statement is a do-nothing statement.

n One of the main differences between while statement and for

n The syntax of the for statement:

for ( initialization expression; condition; update statement){

Exit the for

The output of the above program:

The output of the above program:

n do..while statement is used

n Here, a request for a new id-number is repeated until

n In C++, goto statement – an unconditional branch, is just a

n Bohm and Jacopini’s work demonstrated that all

§ The sequence structure is built into C++.

n C++ provides three types of repetition structures:

n So C++ has only seven control structures: sequence,

n One way to build program is to connect the exit point of one

n Another way is to place one control structure inside another

For example, we indent both body statements of an

We begin with a pseudocode representation of the top:

n Now we begin the refinement process. We divide the

Here only the sequence structure has been used.

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

n Array names follow the same naming conventions as

§ The first declaration tells the compiler to reserve 3

n An index number is an element’s numeric position within an

StudentGrade[0] refers to the 1st element in the StudentGrade

The output is:

The output of the above program is as follows :

Total of array element values is 383

n Some examples of array declarations

int a[1000]; // a one-dimensional array

In these above examples, b has 3 ´ 5 elements, and c has

col 1 col2 col3 col4 col5

row 1 b[0][0] b[0][1] b[0][2] b[0][3] b[0][4]

for(i= 0; i<N; i++){

char strg[] = “C++”;

n initializes a variable to the string “C++”. The declaration creates

Tabe 5.1 Common string functions

where destination represents the char variable to which you

n The strcat() function combines two strings using the syntax:

where destination represents the char variable whose string

n Two strings may be compared for equality using the strcmp()

n The function listed in Table 5.1 are contained in the string.h

The output of the program:

n The individual pieces of information stored in a structure are

n You define a structure using the syntax:

n To access the field inside a structure variable, you append a

n When you use a period to access a structure fields, the period

n Declaring an array of structures is the same as declaring an

The output of the program is:

32479 Abrams, B. 6.72