Vibrational and Rotational Spectroscopy of Diatomic Molecules

Spectroscopy is an important tool in the study of atoms and molecules, giving us an understanding
of their quantized energy levels. These energy levels can only be solved for analytically in the case
of the hydrogen atom; for more complex molecules we must use approximation methods to derive
a model for the energy levels of the system. In this paper we will examine the vibration-rotation
spectrum of a diatomic molecule, which can be approximated by modeling vibrations as a harmonic
oscillator and rotations as a rigid rotor. We will use these models to understand the features of the
vibration-rotation spectrum of HCl, allowing us to use the spectrum to learn about properties of the
molecule.
Keywords: Spectroscopy; Diatomic Molecules; Rotation; Vibration; Quantum Mechanics.

I. INTRODUCTION

Spectroscopy is the study of how matter interacts with

electromagnetic radiation. Atoms and molecules inter-
acting with light will sometimes emit photons at specific
frequencies; these frequencies depend on the energy level
separation for whatever transitions caused the photon
emission. We can use this to learn about the energy levels
of an atom or molecule.
However, the wavefunctions describing the energy levels
of atoms and molecules more complex than hydrogen FIG. 1: This is the vibration-rotation spectrum of HCl. The
cannot be solved analytically. A good starting point goal of this paper is to explain the physics behind the spectrum.
for analyzing and predicting energy levels is to consider This image was taken from [4].
the energy transitions between vibrational and rotational
states in diatomic molecules. These transitions are small
enough that the molecular orbitals of electrons don’t an energy transition with a change in energy equal to hν,
change [1]. where h is Planck’s constant.
Figure 1 shows the experimentally-obtained spectrum Since we are examining the transitions between energy
of transitions between the ground and first excited vibra- eigenstates, we will need to determine what energy transi-
tional states of HCl [4]. Contained in that spectrum is tions in our system are allowed. To determine the allowed
valuable information allowing us to find the bond length transitions, we will calculate the Einstein coefficient for
and stiffness of HCl [1]. In order to extract this infor- stimulated emission, Bab [2]. Consider a molecule with
mation, however, we must first understand where the states |ai and |bi with energies Ea and Eb , Ea < Eb . A
features of the spectrum come from. Our goal will be photon with energy equal to Eb − Ea will, half of the time,
to understand the physics behind Figure 1; with that cause the molecule to transition from state |bi down to
knowledge, we will be able to calculate the bond length state |ai, emitting another photon with energy Eb − Ea .
and stiffness of HCl from this spectrum. We can detect this second photon and measure its fre-
quency.
The coefficient Bab is proportional to the probability
II. SPECTROSCOPY BACKGROUND that a particular transition will occur. Einstein found
that
A typical spectroscopy experiment will involve a source 4π 2 2
of photons being directed through a chamber filled with Bab = |ha| d |bi| (1)
3h̄2
our molecule of interest in gaseous form. For pure rota-
tional spectroscopy, where the only transitions observed where d is the dipole moment [2]. We see that if ha| d |bi
are transitions between different rotational states, the pho- is zero, then that transition will never occur. Thus we
tons are typically in the microwave region of the electro- can determine the allowed energy transitions by identify-
magnetic spectrum. Infrared light is typical for vibration- ing the set of transitions with non-zero transition dipole
rotation transitions, which involve changing both the moments.
vibrational and rotational energy states [1].
In the experiment described above, the energy of pho-
tons that is emitted via stimulated emission from the III. SIMPLE MODELS OF VIBRATIONS AND
molecule are measured. Our HCl spectrum in Figure 1 is ROTATIONS
a plot of photon frequency vs. number of photons; a peak
at a particular frequency ν indicates that lots of photons The vibrations and rotations of a diatomic molecule can
were emitted with frequency ν, suggesting that there is be quite simply modeled using the harmonic oscillator
Vibrational and Rotational Spectroscopy of Diatomic Molecules 2

and the rigid rotor, respectively, two exactly-solvable for the transition from state v to v 0 . Since this is a three-
quantum systems. With this alone, a relatively accurate dimensional harmonic oscillator, we must consider the x,
understanding of the HCl spectrum can be reached. y, and z components of d. We will calculate di where
i can be replaced by x, y, and z. Using the harmonic
oscillator raising and lowering operators, we find
A. Vibrations Modeled as the Harmonic Oscillator
di,vv0 = hv| q x̂i |v 0 i
s
The potential felt by atoms in a diatomic molecule like h̄
HCl is not a perfect harmonic potential. Assuming the = hv| q(aˆi + aˆi † ) |v 0 i (8)
2µω
true potential is V (r) for some internuclear distance r, √ √
we can perform a Taylor expansion of V (r) about re , the ∝ v 0 hv|v 0 − 1i + v 0 + 1 hv|v 0 + 1i .
equilibrium distance:
We see from equation (8) that the dipole moment for all
V (r) = V (re )+V 0 (re ) (r−re )+V 00 (re ) (r−re )2 +· · · (2) dimensions only is non-zero when ∆v = v 0 − v = ±1. The
energy of photons, Eγ , emitted during allowed transitions
For small vibrations about equilibrium, we approximate from v + 1 to v is
V 0 (re ) = 0. We can also define V (re ) = 0 since we
only care about relative energies. For small vibrations Eγ = −(∆E) = Ev+1 − Ev = h̄ωe . (9)
(r − re  1), we can ignore terms with higher than second
Interestingly, we find that the photon energy does not
order in r. Thus, we arrive at V (r) ≈ V 00 (0)r2 ≡ 12 kr2 .
depend on v at all. This tells us that we should observe
From this we can imagine a simplified model of a di-
emitted photons only with energy h̄ωe , giving us a single
atomic molecule in which the two atoms are point masses
peak in our spectrum. However, this is not what we
with mass m1 and m2 connected by a spring with spring
observe in Figure 1. To understand where all the peaks
constant k. From classical mechanics, we find the differ-
come from, we must investigate how rotational transitions
ential equation describing their motion to be
add to our spectrum.
d2 x
 
k
= − x (3)
dt2 µ B. Rotations Modeled as the Rigid Rotor
where x is the distance between the two spheres and
We approximate the rotations of diatomic molecules by
m1 m2 considering two point masses kept a fixed distance apart,
µ= (4)
m1 + m2 r. This model is called the rigid rotor. From classical
physics, we know the energy of rotation is E = J 2 /(2I)
is the reduced mass of the system [1]. where J is the angular momentum and I is the moment
This suggests that, if we model the molecule vibra- of inertia. In our model, the two rotating point masses
tions as a harmonic oscillator, we should arrive at the with reduced mass µ will have I = µr2 .
Hamiltonian We adapt these equations to arrive at a Hamiltonian
 1/2 for the quantum mechanical rigid rotor, Ĥ = Jˆ2 /(2I).
p̂2 1 k
Ĥ = + µ ωe2 x̂2 , ωe = (5) The time independent Schrödinger equation is
2µ 2 µ
Jˆ2
Our energy eigenstates will therefore have energy |ψi = E |ψi (10)
2I
Ev = h̄ωe (v + 12 ), v = 0, 1, 2... (6) We see that the solutions for |ψi will be spherical harmon-
ics, which are eigenstates of Jˆ2 . Thus, the wavefunction
where we define v as the quantum vibrational number. for |ψi is
Note that ωe is dependent on the masses of the atoms, not
simply the masses of their bare nuclei; in these vibrational ψJM = YJM = √1 ΘJM (θ)eiM φ (11)
2π
models, the electrons are considered close to the nuclei
such that they vibrate along with the entire atom [3]. where ΘJM (θ) = PJM (cos θ) are Legendre polynomials. It
We see that the vibrational energy levels are equally is easy to find the energy levels, which we write as
spaced, each one h̄ωe above the previous level. In order
to determine the energy of photons emitted during energy Jˆ2 h̄2 J(J + 1)
|ψJM i = |ψJM i ≡ B J(J + 1) |ψJM i
transitions, we must first determine the allowed transi- 2I 2I
tions. From equation (1), we know that a non-zero change (12)
in dipole moment corresponds to an allowed transition.
We write where B = h̄2 /(2I) has units of energy. The quantum
numbers J = 0, 1, 2... and M = −J, ..., +J indicate that
dvv0 = hv| d |v 0 i (7) |ψJM i is an eigenstate of both Jˆ2 and Jˆz .
Vibrational and Rotational Spectroscopy of Diatomic Molecules 3

As with vibrational transitions, we can derive the al- (A) (B)

3
lowed rotational transitions (i.e. the allowed values for

→
J=3

2
∆M and ∆J) by calculating the transition dipole moment:

=
J

J
dJM ;J 0 M 0 = hψJ,M | d |ψJ 0 ,M 0 i . (13)
J=2 2B
We can rewrite d in spherical coordinates as
J=1
d = d0 (sin θ cos φ ex + sin θ sin φ ey + cos θ ez ). (14)
J=0 Energy of detected photons
We use equations (11), (13), and (14) to find the transition
dipole moment:
FIG. 2: The diagram in (A) illustrates the rotation energy
Z φ=2π Z θ=π levels and possible transitions for emission of a photon. A
dJM ;J 0 M 0 = ∗
ψJM d ψJ 0 M 0 sin θ dθ dφ sketch of the corresponding spectrum is shown in (B). The
φ=0 θ=0 spacing between peaks is equal to 2B.
" ZZ
d0 0
= ex ei(M −M )φ ΘJM sin θ cos φ ΘJ 0 M 0 sin θ dθ dφ
2π convenience, we define the function G(v) to be the con-
ZZ
0 tribution to energy from vibrations; similarly F (J) is
+ ey ei(M −M )φ ΘJM sin θ sin φ ΘJ 0 M 0 sin θ dθ dφ defined to be the contribution to energy from rotations.
ZZ # Equations (6) and (10) give us
0
−M )φ
+ ez ei(M ΘJM cos θ ΘJ 0 M 0 sin θ dθ dφ .
G(v) = h̄ωe (v + 21 ), v = 0, 1, 2...
(17)
(15) F (J) = B J(J + 1), J = 0, 1, 2...

By evaluating these integrals, we find that they are non- First, we want to understand the relative scales of vi-
zero only when ∆M = 0, ±1 and ∆J = ±1; these are brational and rotational transitions. Experimental values
the only allowed pure rotational transitions, as shown in for B indicate it is much smaller than typical values for
Figure 2(A) [3]. vibrational energy level spacing [3]. Knowing this, we
Now that we know the allowed energy transitions, we deduce that emission of a photon would require that v
again calculate the energy of photons emitted during these decrease but would not restrict J to necessarily decrease.
transitions. From equation (12) we see that the energy is This is illustrated in Figure 3. Thus we consider the
dependent only on J, so we don’t have to consider how energy transitions for ∆v = −1 and ∆J = ±1
changes in M will affect the energy. The change in energy We note that most physical chemistry textbooks ex-
of rotational transitions from J + 1 to J is amine the energy transitions for absorption of a photon.
However, we will be doing our calculations to find the
Eγ = −(∆E) = EJ+1 − EJ energy of an emitted photon, since that is what physically
= B (J + 1)(J + 2) − B J(J + 1) (16) happens during a spectroscopy experiment. As a result,
= 2B (J + 1). some of our signs may be flipped compared to our ref-
erences (e.g. while it is standard to consider transitions
Unlike with vibrational energy transitions, the energy of where ∆v = +1, we will look at ∆v = −1).
an emitted photon is dependent on the starting value of We can calculate the possible photon energies for transi-
J. We will therefore observe photons with energies equal tions with ∆v = −1 and ∆J = ±1 just like we did before.
to 2B(J + 1). If we plot the energies of detected photons The energy of an emitted photon for ∆J = +1 is
as shown in Figure 2(B), we see that the spacing between
peaks is 2B. Eγ,+1 = −(∆E) = Ev,J − Ev−1,J+1
Now we begin to see something closer to the vibration- = G(v) + F (J) − G(v − 1) − F (J + 1) (18)
rotation spectrum shown in Figure 1 with several equally = h̄ω − 2B(J + 1)
spaced peaks. However, there are still features of Figure
1 that aren’t explained, including the gap in the middle and for ∆J = −1 is
where it seems to skip a peak. To explain this, we will
examine transitions where both v and J change. Eγ,−1 = −(∆E) = Ev,J − Ev−1,J−1
= G(v) + F (J) − G(v − 1) + F (J − 1) (19)
= h̄ω + 2BJ.
C. Combining Vibrations and Rotations
Like with the pure rotational spectrum shown in Figure
We will now consider the transitions between vibra- 2, we see that the energy of photons for these transitions
tional and rotational eigenstates simultaneously. For have a spacing of 2B. Interestingly, we have no spectral
Vibrational and Rotational Spectroscopy of Diatomic Molecules 4

J=3 IV. CORRECTIONS TO THE SIMPLE MODELS

There are several adjustments to be made to our models

J=2
above in order for them to more accurately explain the
J=1 vibration-rotation spectrum of HCl. We will first discuss
v=1 J=0
the physical motivations for two important corrections –
vibration-rotation dependence and centrifugal distortion
J=3
– and examine how they affect the HCl spectrum. We
will then derive them more rigorously in Section IV-C by
examining the Dunham potential.
J=2
J=1
v=0 J=0 A. Vibration-Rotation Dependence
P branch R branch
Our first correction comes from the fact that rotational
FIG. 3: This illustrates the vibration-rotation energy levels
energy levels depend on the vibrational energy level. We
and shows possible transitions for emission of a photon. For know that the energy levels of the rigid rotor are de-
the energy to decrease, we must have ∆v = −1, but J can pendent on the distance between the two atoms. This
increase or decrease by ±1. distance will change as the molecule vibrates with different
energies.
This results in a dependence on the vibrational quantum
peak at exactly h̄ωe as we did when only considering vibra- number, v, in F (J) from equation (17). We replace B
tional transitions. This is because there is no transition with
for ∆J = 0.
There now appear to be two groups of spectral peaks on Bv ≡ Be − αe (v + 12 ) (20)
either side of h̄ωe . One group is called the “P branch” and
where Be = h̄2 /(2I) and αe = Be2 /(h̄ωe ).
corresponds to ∆J = +1 transitions; the other is called
By calculating the energy level transitions, we will see
the “R branch” and corresponds to ∆J = −1 transitions.
that this correction helps to explain the difference in spac-
These results closely match the HCl spectrum we saw in
ing between peaks in the R and P branches. Consider the
Figure 1. An annotated version of the spectrum is shown
transition from v = 1 to v = 0. The ∆J = +1 transition,
in Figure 4.
corresponding to the P branch, will have spectral peaks
at
P branch R branch
Eγ,+1 = −(∆E) = E1,J − E0,J+1
= G(1) + Fv=1 (J) − G(0) − Fv=0 (J + 1)
0
1
2
J =
J =
J =

1 →
2 →
3 →

∆J = +1 ∆J = –1
2 →
1 →
0 →

= h̄ωe − 2B0 + (B1 − 3B0 )J + (B1 − B0 )J 2

J =
J =
J =
3
2
1

(21)
2B and the ∆J = −1 transition, corresponding to the R
branch, will have spectral lines at
Eγ,−1 = −(∆E) = E1,J − E0,J−1
= G(1) + Fv=1 (J − 1) − G(0) − Fv=0 (J) (22)
2
= h̄ωe + (B1 + B0 )J + (B1 − B0 )J .
When we substitute the expressions for B1 and B0 in
No peak at hωe equation (20), we find

FIG. 4: Here again is the vibration-rotation spectrum of HCl, Eγ,+1 = h̄ωe − 2Be + αe − 2Be J − αe J 2
annotated to show our results in analyzing the vibration- (23)
Eγ,−1 = h̄ωe − (2Be − 2αe )J − αe J 2 .
rotation energy transitions.
From equation (23) we see that, as J increases, the space
Notice there are still some aspects of the HCl spectrum between spectral peaks in the P branch (∆J = +1) is
that can’t be explained from what we have done so far. 2Be , while the spacing in the R branch (∆J = −1) is
For example, the spacing in the P branch is larger than in 2Be − 2αe . Thus, the spacing between peaks in the R
the R branch. In order to explain this, we will have to find branch is smaller than in the P branch. This explains the
more accurate models for the vibrational and rotational difference in spacing between the branches that we see in
energy eigenstates of a diatomic molecule. the HCl spectrum.
Vibrational and Rotational Spectroscopy of Diatomic Molecules 5

B. Centrifugal Distortion To find a more accurate model than before, we consider

higher order terms in the expansion of V (ξ). First, we
Our next correction to the simple model also comes rewrite our expansion of V (ξ) in equation (28) to make
from the fact that the bonds of diatomic molecules are not constants easier to keep track of:
perfectly rigid. The internuclear distance will vary with
rotational energy because the centrifugal force will pull V (ξ) = a0 ξ 2 (1 + a1 ξ + a2 ξ 2 + · · · ). (29)
the atoms father apart from each other as the molecule
rotates faster. This effect, known as centrifugal distortion, Since we want to look at the rotational transitions, we will
is accounted for by adding a term to F (J): examine Veff = V (ξ) + Vcent (ξ). We can expand Vcent (ξ),
defined in equation (27), as a Taylor series about ξ = 0
F (J) = BJ(J + 1) − D(J(J + 1))2 . (24) so that it matches the form of V (ξ). Combining this with
equation (29), we find
where D is the centrifugal distortion constant, with units
of energy. We will describe the derivation of this term in
Veff (ξ) = a0 ξ 2 (1 + a1 ξ + z2 ξ 2 + · · · )
detail in Section IV-C. (30)
We now examine how this affects our HCl spectrum. + Be J(J + 1)(1 − 2ξ + 3ξ 2 − 4ξ 4 + · · · )
The energy of a photon emitted due to a pure rotational
transition from J + 1 to J is now where Be = h̄2 /(2I) [5].
Now we can use the WKB semiclassical approximation
Eγ = F (J + 1) − F (J) = 2B(J + 1) − 4D(J + 1)3 . (25)
and the quantization condition for a “soft wall” potential
The spacing between peaks is no longer be 2B, but is to find the energy levels [3]. WKB theory tells us that
instead 2B − 12D − 24D J − 12D J 2 . As J gets large, the √ Z r2
spacing between peaks will decrease. This effect can be 2µ p
E − V (r)dr = (v + 21 )π (31)
seen in our HCl spectrum when the spacing of peaks near h̄ r1
the edges of Figure 1 are examined.
where r1 and r2 are the classical turning points of V (r)
at energy E [2]. In his paper The Energy Levels of
C. The Dunham Potential a Rotating Vibrator, Dunham solves this integral with
the potential in equation (30) through a series of Taylor
Now that we have an idea of what corrections need expansions and approximations. This long, but relatively
to be made, we shall delve into the math supporting straightforward calculation is discussed further in his
them. The Dunham potential considers the potential, paper [5]. He ultimately finds the energy levels to be
V (r), of a vibrating and rotating molecule, which varies given by
with the internuclear distance, r. Unlike in Section III- X
A, we will not approximate the potential as a harmonic EvJ = Yjk (v + 12 )j (J(J + 1))k (32)
oscillator. It is convenient to use a dimensionless variable, jk
ξ ≡ (r − re )/re , where re is the equilibrium internuclear
distance. where Yjk is a constant, different for every j and k. Dun-
We will consider how this potential fits into a Hamilto- ham calculated these constants in terms of a0 , a1 , ..., then
nian accounting for both vibrations and rotations. The expressed them in terms of common spectroscopy con-
Schrödinger equation, slightly rearranged, will read stants.
These results are often written in the following general-
d2 ψ 2mre2 Jˆ2
 
+ E − V (ξ) − ψ = 0 (26) ized form:
dξ 2 h̄2 2mre2 (1 + ξ)2
Fv (J) = Bv J(J + 1) − Dv (J(J + 1))2 + · · ·
where the last term, which is dependent on J, comes from (33)
the centrifugal force of rotations [5]; we will define this G(v) = h̄ωe (v + 21 ) − h̄ωe xe (v + 21 )2 + · · ·
term to be
where
J(J + 1)
Vcent = . (27)
2mre2 (1 + ξ)2 Bv = Be − αe (v + 12 ) + γe (v + 12 )2 + · · ·
(34)
We now expand V (ξ) as a Taylor series about ξ = 0 [5]: Dv = De + βe (v + 21 ) + · · ·

d2 V  2
 
dV  This confirms the claims in equations (20) and (24), and
V (ξ) = V (0) + ξ + ξ + ··· (28)
dξ 0 dξ 2 0 provides new higher order corrections. These higher order
 corrections correspond to physical phenomena beyond the
Like in Section III-A, dV
dξ 0 = 0 because ξ = 0 is at the
 scope of this paper [1]. With the mathematical support
minimum of the potential, and we define V (0) to be equal of the Dunham potential, we can feel confident in our
to zero since we only care about relative energies. understanding of the features of the HCl spectrum.
Vibrational and Rotational Spectroscopy of Diatomic Molecules 6

V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION peaks. We know that B = h̄2 /(2I) = h̄2 /(2µr2 ). By
plugging in our estimate for B and the known values for
From the calculations above, we have successfully h̄ and the masses of hydrogen and chlorine, we can find
achieved an understanding of where the peaks in the HCl r, the average bond length. As shown in Figure 5(B), we
spectrum in Figure 1 come from. The spectrum is of a estimated that 4B ≈ h · (0.12 × 101 3 Hz). From this we
transition from v = 1 to v = 0, and each peak corresponds find the bond length, r, to be approximately 0.13 nm [4].
to a different transition between rotational energy eigen- A more accurate way to find the bond length would be
states. With this knowledge, we can use the spectrum to to use a pure rotational spectrum like the one illustrated
explore many interesting molecular properties. in Figure 2, where the vibrational energy level does not
For example, if we can find a value for ωe , we can change. In this situation, there are fewer corrections to
find the bond “stiffness”, k by using the formula ωe = B that need to be made and we can get a more accurate
(k/µ)1/2 . We found in Section III-C that the energy measure for B and for bond length. Nevertheless, our
corresponding to h̄ωe is halfway between the two peaks estimate from the vibration-rotation spectrum comes very
closest to the center of the spectrum in Figure 4. If we close to the value often obtained from a pure rotational
estimate the positions of those two center peaks to be spectrum, r = 0.127 nm [4].
8.60 × 101 3 Hz and 8.72 × 101 3 Hz, we can conclude that Of course, there is still more to uncover from our HCl
h̄ωe ≈ h · (8.66 × 101 3 Hz), where h is Planck’s constant, spectrum in Figure 1. We did not discuss the physical
as shown in Figure 5(A). By plugging in the known values meaning behind differences in peak intensities. Addition-
for h̄, h, and the masses of hydrogen and chlorine, we find ally, there are affects not directly relevant to the spectrum
the bond stiffness to be k ≈ 481N . Despite our rough in Figure 1 that are still important areas of study. For
estimates, this is quite close to the accepted value for HCl example, one could study vibrational transitions other
bond stiffness [4]. than v = 1 to v = 0 and observe effects like vibrational
overtones [1].
(A) (B) Finally, one can go beyond diatomic molecules to study
hωe ≈ h·(8.66 × 1013 Hz) 4B ≈ h·(0.12 × 1013 Hz) the vibration-rotation spectra of polyatomic molecules.
Polyatomic molecules have different selection rules, allow-
ing for transitions where ∆J = 0; this gives rise to a “Q
branch” which appears in between the P and R branches
in the spectrum [3].
hωe Through spectroscopy, we are able to observe scores
of properties of diatomic molecules and beyond, giving
us a window through which to study their fundamental
quantum structures. Spectroscopy allows us to test our
models and, as we did in this paper, to use experimental
data to correct our models to arrive at ever more precise
predictions.

FIG. 5: In (A) we estimated the value of ωe by estimating

the midway point between the two peaks in the HCl spectrum
closest to the center. In (B) we estimated B by approximating Acknowledgments
the space between those two peaks to be 4B.
I would like to thank X and X for reviewing this paper
Additionally, we can calculate the bond length of HCl and providing lots of helpful feedback, as well as X and
from this spectrum. We assume that the spacing between X. I would also like to thank X and X for the interesting
the two peaks shown in Figure 5(B) is approximately and enlightening conversations about spectroscopy I have
equal to 4B, two times the spacing between rotational had with them.

[1] D. A. McQuarrie and J. D. Simon, Physical Chemistry: A [4] Hyperphysics, “Vibration-Rotation Spectrum of HCl”
Molecular Approach, 2nd ed. (University Science Books, (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/
1997). molecule/vibrot.html)
[2] D. J. Griffiths, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, 2nd [5] Dunham, J. L., Phys. Rev. “The Energy Levels of a Rotat-
ed. (Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004). ing Vibrator” (41, 721, 1932).
[3] P. F. Bernath, Spectra of Atoms and Molecules, 3rd ed.
(Oxford University Press, New York New York, 2016).