Automata - What is it?: ∑ including λ

Automata – What is it?
The term "Automata" is derived from the Greek word "αὐτόματα" which means "self-
acting". An automaton (Automata in plural) is an abstract self-propelled computing
device which follows a predetermined sequence of operations automatically.
An automaton with a finite number of states is called a Finite Automaton (FA)
or Finite State Machine (FSM).
Formal definition of a Finite Automaton

An automaton can be represented by a 5-tuple (Q, ∑, δ, q0, F), where −
 Q is a finite set of states.
 ∑ is a finite set of symbols, called the alphabet of the automaton.
 δ is the transition function.
 q0 is the initial state from where any input is processed (q0 ∈ Q).
 F is a set of final state/states of Q (F ⊆ Q).
Related Terminologies
Alphabet
 Definition − An alphabet is any finite set of symbols.
 Example − ∑ = {a, b, c, d} is an alphabet set where ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, and ‘d’ are symbols.
String
 Definition − A string is a finite sequence of symbols taken from ∑.
 Example − ‘cabcad’ is a valid string on the alphabet set ∑ = {a, b, c, d}
Length of a String
 Definition − It is the number of symbols present in a string. (Denoted by |S|).
 Examples −
o If S = ‘cabcad’, |S|= 6
o If |S|= 0, it is called an empty string (Denoted by λ or ε)
Kleene Star
 Definition − The Kleene star, ∑*, is a unary operator on a set of symbols or strings, ∑, that gives the
infinite set of all possible strings of all possible lengths over ∑ including λ.
 Representation − ∑* = ∑0 ∪ ∑1 ∪ ∑2 ∪……. where ∑p is the set of all possible strings of length p.

 Example − If ∑ = {a, b}, ∑* = {λ, a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb,………..}
Kleene Closure / Plus

 Definition − The set ∑+ is the infinite set of all possible strings of all possible lengths over ∑ excluding
λ.
 Representation − ∑+ = ∑1 ∪ ∑2 ∪ ∑3 ∪…….
∑+ = ∑* − { λ }
 Example − If ∑ = { a, b } , ∑+ = { a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb,………..}
Language
 Definition − A language is a subset of ∑* for some alphabet ∑. It can be finite or infinite.
 Example − If the language takes all possible strings of length 2 over ∑ = {a, b}, then L = { ab, aa, ba,
bb }
Finite Automaton can be classified into two types −
 Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA)

 Non-deterministic Finite Automaton (NDFA / NFA)
Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA)

In DFA, for each input symbol, one can determine the state to which the machine will
move. Hence, it is called Deterministic Automaton. As it has a finite number of
states, the machine is called Deterministic Finite Machine or Deterministic Finite
Automaton.
Formal Definition of a DFA

A DFA can be represented by a 5-tuple (Q, ∑, δ, q0, F) where −
 ∑ is a finite set of symbols called the alphabet.
 δ is the transition function where δ: Q × ∑ → Q
Graphical Representation of a DFA

A DFA is represented by digraphs called state diagram.
 The vertices represent the states.

 The arcs labeled with an input alphabet show the transitions.
 The initial state is denoted by an empty single incoming arc.
 The final state is indicated by double circles.
Example
Let a deterministic finite automaton be →
 Q = {a, b, c},
 ∑ = {0, 1},
 q0 = {a},
 F = {c}, and
Transition function δ as shown by the following table −
Present State Next State for Input 0 Next State for Input 1
a a b
b c a
c b c
Its graphical representation would be as follows −
In NDFA, for a particular input symbol, the machine can move to any combination of
the states in the machine. In other words, the exact state to which the machine moves
cannot be determined. Hence, it is called Non-deterministic Automaton. As it has
finite number of states, the machine is called Non-deterministic Finite
Machine or Non-deterministic Finite Automaton.
Formal Definition of an NDFA

An NDFA can be represented by a 5-tuple (Q, ∑, δ, q0, F) where −
 ∑ is a finite set of symbols called the alphabets.
 δ is the transition function where δ: Q × ∑ → 2Q

(Here the power set of Q (2Q) has been taken because in case of NDFA, from a state, transition can
occur to any combination of Q states)
Graphical Representation of an NDFA: (same as DFA)

An NDFA is represented by digraphs called state diagram.
 The vertices represent the states.

 The arcs labeled with an input alphabet show the transitions.
 The initial state is denoted by an empty single incoming arc.
 The final state is indicated by double circles.
Example
Let a non-deterministic finite automaton be →
 Q = {a, b, c}
 ∑ = {0, 1}
 q0 = {a}
 F = {c}
The transition function δ as shown below −
Present State Next State for Input 0 Next State for Input 1
a a, b b
b c a, c
c b, c c
Its graphical representation would be as follows −

DFA vs
NDFA
The following table lists the differences between DFA and NDFA.
DFA NDFA
The transition from a state is to a single particular The transition from a state can be to multiple
next state for each input symbol. Hence it is next states for each input symbol. Hence it is
called deterministic. called non-deterministic.
Empty string transitions are not seen in DFA. NDFA permits empty string transitions.
Backtracking is allowed in DFA In NDFA, backtracking is not always possible.
Requires more space. Requires less space.
A string is accepted by a DFA, if it transits to a A string is accepted by a NDFA, if at least

final state. one of all possible transitions ends in a final
state.

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Automata – What is it?

Formal definition of a Finite Automaton

 ∑ is a finite set of symbols, called the alphabet of the automaton.

 δ is the transition function.

 F is a set of final state/states of Q (F ⊆ Q).

 Example − ‘cabcad’ is a valid string on the alphabet set ∑ = {a, b, c, d}

 Representation − ∑* = ∑0 ∪ ∑1 ∪ ∑2 ∪……. where ∑p is the set of all possible strings of length p.

Kleene Closure / Plus

 Example − If ∑ = { a, b } , ∑+ = { a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb,………..}

Finite Automaton can be classified into two types −

 Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA)

Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA)

Formal Definition of a DFA

 ∑ is a finite set of symbols called the alphabet.

 δ is the transition function where δ: Q × ∑ → Q

 F is a set of final state/states of Q (F ⊆ Q).

Graphical Representation of a DFA

 The vertices represent the states.

Transition function δ as shown by the following table −

Its graphical representation would be as follows −

Formal Definition of an NDFA

 δ is the transition function where δ: Q × ∑ → 2Q

 F is a set of final state/states of Q (F ⊆ Q).

Graphical Representation of an NDFA: (same as DFA)

 The vertices represent the states.

The transition function δ as shown below −

Its graphical representation would be as follows −

Backtracking is allowed in DFA In NDFA, backtracking is not always possible.

Requires more space. Requires less space.

A string is accepted by a DFA, if it transits to a A string is accepted by a NDFA, if at least

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