http://www.auf.asn.au/groundschool/propeller.

html
AIRCRAFT BLADE:
This paper presents the failure analysis of the turbine disc of an aero engine, installed in a
certain type of aircraft. From the visual examination of the fractured surface, it was
possible to observe beach marks, typical of fatigue failure. A non-linear finite element
method was utilized to determine the stress state of the disc/blade segment under
operating conditions. High stress zones were found at the region of the lower fir-tree slot,
where the failure occurred. A computation were also performed with excessive rotational
speed. Attention of this study is devoted to the mechanisms of damage of the turbine disc
and also the critical high stress areas.

Engine and propeller

performance

Revision 17e — page content was last

changed November 16, 2008; consequent to
editing by RA-Aus member Dave Gardiner
Groundschool – Theory of Flight www.redlettuce.com.au

Module content

 5.1 Engine power output

 5.2 Propeller power output
 5.3 Propeller types
 5.4 Propeller theory

 Things that are handy to know

Engine power is the product of torque and engine speed. Two-stroke

engines favour engine speed to produce the power and are very
inefficient at other than high rpm; four-stroke engines use lower rpm
and higher torque. The efficiency of normally aspirated engines
decreases with altitude — but turbocharging helps considerably.

The propeller converts engine power into an aerodynamic force. The

portion of the force acting forward is the thrust power, and the portion
acting in the plane of rotation is the propeller torque. In unaccelerated
level flight, the propeller torque balances the engine torque while thrust
balances the aircraft's aerodynamic drag. The thrust conversion
efficiency depends on the propeller configuration and aircraft speed.
The simple fixed-pitch configuration is inefficient at most speeds. The
variable-pitch, constant-speed propeller is reasonably efficient at most
speeds.

5.1 Engine power output

Engine power equals the product of force and speed. Torque is the rotational
force acting about the engine crankshaft multiplied by the moment arm; i.e. it
is the product of the firing stroke in the cylinder and the radius of the crank to
which the connecting rod is attached. The bigger the cylinder the bigger the
rotational force — the 'bang'. Engine speed is measured in crankshaft
revolutions per minute [rpm].

In the 'Manoeuvring forces' module we discussed the power required for

various flight conditions, and looked at power required/power available
curves and the effect of altitude on power output. It may be appropriate to
review section 1.7 of that module.

Normally aspirated aero engines

The maximum power that can be developed, in the cylinders of a particular

piston engine, increases or decreases directly with the density of the air in
the intake manifold, and air density decreases as altitude increases — or
temperature increases. See the atmospheric density and the International
Standard Atmosphere sections in the 'Airspeed and the properties of air'
module. Thus, the full throttle power output of a normally aspirated engine
— one that relies solely on the ambient atmospheric density — decreases as
operating altitude increases. The diagram in section 1.7 shows how
maximum brake horse-power [bhp], delivered at full throttle in a normally
aspirated engine, decreases with altitude. A 100 hp engine operating at 65%
power will be delivering 65 hp.

Power produced is proportional to the air density at the intake manifold, the
cylinder displacement and compression ratio, the number of cylinders, and
the rpm. Of those items, only the air density at the intake manifold and the
engine rpm alter, or can be altered, during flight. (With a normally aspirated
engine and a propeller whose pitch is not variable in flight, the throttle
controls manifold pressure, which then determines rpm.) A traditional four-
stroke light aircraft engine, such as the Lycoming O-235, has an individual
cylinder displacement of 950 cc, a compression ratio of 7:1 and a maximum
design speed of 2600 rpm, at which its rated 110 bhp is produced — in sea-
level ISA conditions. The Rotax 912, the most common lightweight four-
cylinder aero-engine, utilises an individual cylinder displacement of only 300
cc, a compression ratio of 9:1, but doubles the maximum design speed to
5500 rpm to achieve its rated 100 bhp. The lightweight Jabiru 2200 utilises an
individual cylinder displacement of 550 cc, a compression ratio around 8:1
and a maximum design speed of 3300 rpm to achieve its rated 80 hp.

The three engines mentioned are all horizontally opposed, four-stroke and
four-cylinder; a popular configuration providing a fully balanced engine that
doesn't require crankshaft balance weights. Engines are often described in
terms of 'total capacity' (cylinder displacement by number of cylinders) in
litres or cubic centimetres. Thus, the Lycoming O-235 is 3.8 litres or 3800 cc
(235 cubic inches), the Rotax 912 is 1.2 litres and the Jabiru 2200 is 2.2
litres. Most engines used in ultralights tend to be around 30% lighter (in terms
of weight per rated hp) than the ubiquitous Lycoming and Continental piston
engines used in general aviation aircraft. Thus, they are cheaper to
manufacture but less robust, with a consequent shorter time between
overhaul [TBO].

Although aero-engines can quite happily operate continually at their rated

power, doing so is not good practice. It is uneconomical in terms of fuel
efficiency, but — more importantly — it may shorten engine life, if engine
operating temperatures and pressures are exceeded. Normally the maximum
— and optimum — power setting for continuous cruise operation is 75% of
rated power.

Turbocharging

The volumetric efficiency (i.e. the cylinder-filling capability) of an engine can

be improved by increasing the density of the fuel/air charge delivered to the
cylinders by compressing the air in the atmospheric intake manifold. This
process is supercharging and develops more torque at all engine speeds.
The compressor is usually a lightweight centrifugal impeller driven by a gas
turbine that utilises the otherwise wasted energy of the engine exhaust
gases. Such a system is a turbine-powered supercharger, usually described
as a turbocharger. An oilpressure-driven butterfly valve or waste gate is
incorporated within the exhaust manifold system, automatically adjusting —
according to the pressure within the intake manifold — to allow all, or a
portion, of the exhaust gases to bypass the turbine; thus continually
maintaining the system within the designed operating limits. There is a slight
penalty in that turbocharging also increases the temperature of the charge.
This consequently decreases the achievable density and possibly leads to
detonation, unless a charge cooling device — an intercooler — is
incorporated between the compressor and the cylinders.

For some information on mechanically powered supercharging, read this

magazine article.
 Turbocharging may be used to increase the sea-
level rated power of the engine, but the use of
that full throttle power at low altitudes would
normally be limited to short periods because of
engine temperature limitations. The big
advantage is the increase in power available at
altitude. The diagram plots the power achieved
(percentage of rated power) at full throttle, in ISA
standard conditions, for a normally aspirated
engine and the turbocharged version. The
turbocharged engine can maintain its rated power from sea-level up to the
'critical altitude', probably around 6000 or 7000 feet, after which it will
decrease. The waste gate would probably be fully open at sea-level and then
start closing as altitude increases — so that it would be fully closed at, and
above, the critical altitude.

Turbocharging raises the service ceiling of the aircraft. The service ceiling is
the ISA altitude at which the aircraft's best rate of climb (from an extended
climb starting at MTOW and unassisted by any atmospheric phenomena)
drops below 100 feet per minute — regarded as the minimum useful climb
rate. This should be the aircraft's ceiling quoted by the manufacturer.

The Rotax 914 series 115 hp turbocharged engines are often regarded as
just being suitable for ultralight aircraft. However, those engines power the
Predator RQ1/MQ1, unmanned aerial reconnaissance and surveillance
vehicles, used so successfully in the Afghanistan and Iraq campaigns of
recent years. The Predators have a maximum take-off weight around 1000
kg, cruise around 90 knots, normal mission duration around 20 hours — but
could operate for 40 hours — and service ceiling of 25 000 feet. They often
carried two 50 kg Hellfire missiles for attacking acquired targets — they also
need 5000 feet of paved runway for take-off.

Two-stroke aero engines

The lower power (say, up to 65 hp) engines used in ultralight aircraft are
usually two-stroke engines, although the half-VW four-stroke auto engine
conversions are around 40 hp. Two-strokes don't have very good volumetric
efficiency, and the engine is efficient only in a narrow rpm and throttle
opening range occurring at very high rpm. In fact, ultralight two-strokes tend
to run very roughly at speeds below 2500 rpm. The three most common two-
strokes are two-cylinder models with individual cylinder displacements
around 250 cc; they achieve their rated power at 6800 rpm. Power drops off
very quickly as rpm is reduced below that figure. Gearing or belt reduction is
used to improve the torque delivered to the propeller shaft while also
reducing the rpm to something more suitable for the propeller. The torque
increases because of the larger rotational radius of the driven gear.

The big advantage with two-stroke engines is their mechanical simplicity, and
consequent weight and cost saving, because they lack the camshaft and
associated valve train of the four-strokes. Some very small (15 hp) two-
strokes are used to power self-launching powered hang-gliders. Between
1999 and 2003, there were 98 engine failures reported to RA-Aus; 39 were
two-stroke engines and 59 were four-stroke. It is estimated at that time about
65% of the ultralight fleet, of some 1800–2000 aircraft, were equipped with
two-strokes. It would appear during that period the two-strokes were more
reliable than the lightweight four-stroke aero-engines, though the
development of lightweight four-strokes was then not as far along the
learning curve as two-stroke development.

5.2 Propeller power output

An aircraft engine supplies energy, in the form of rotational power, to the
propeller shaft. The propeller converts the rotational power to thrust power,
either pulling the aircraft along behind it (a tractor installation) or pushing the
aircraft in front of it (a pusher installation). The propeller accelerates a tube of
air, with much the same diameter as the propeller disc; i.e. it adds momentum
to the tube of air and the reaction force propels the aircraft forward. The
velocity of this accelerated airstream (the slipstream) has both rotational and
rearward components. Momentum = mass × velocity, so if the mass of air
passing through per second is increased by increasing the diameter of the
propeller, the rearward velocity imparted can be decreased but still produce
the same rearward or axial momentum. The rate at which axial momentum is
imparted to the air equates with thrust. Propeller efficiency is the ratio of the
thrust power (thrust × aircraft forward speed) output to the engine power
input.

The work done (the energy expended) by the propeller is the kinetic energy
imparted to the slipstream = ½mv² joules (if mass is in kilograms and v in
metres per second), so less energy is expended if the mass is increased and
the velocity decreased.

Using a simplified static thrust example, if m = 10 kg and v = 100 m/s, then

the momentum is 1000 kg·m/s and energy expended is ½ × 10 × 100² = 50
kJ. But if the values for m and v are interchanged (i.e. m = 100 kg and v = 10
m/s) the momentum will still be the same but the energy expended will be
decreased substantially; i.e. ½ × 100 × 10² = 5 kJ.
Thus, the most efficient system is to utilise the greatest propeller diameter
possible — limited by:
 the stress effects on the engine (the gyroscopic moments
increase exponentially with diameter; see below)
 ground clearance requirements in worst conditions (e.g.
heavy landing and deflated tyre)
 propeller blade strength
 blade tip speed. When a propeller is rotating, the speed at
any point on a blade is the product of the rpm and the
distance of that point from the hub, and thus the speed at the
propeller tip is the greatest. Compressibility constraints
dictate that the speed at the blade tips should not exceed
about Mach 0.85 — 560 knots or 290 m/s at sea-level. But
significant compressibility effects become evident at 250 m/s
and, if the propeller is close to the pilot, the noise may be
extremely uncomfortable. So, for comfort, tip speed is usually
in the range 200–240 m/s.

For light aircraft engine/propeller systems, it is usual to restrict

propeller speed to less than 3500 rpm; so, the high rpm engines must
incorporate a gear-driven or belt-driven propeller speed reduction unit
[PSRU] between the crankshaft and the propeller shaft. The rotational
speed of the fixed-pitch propeller depends on the pitch of the blades,
the power supplied to the propeller and the aircraft velocity.

Propeller blade area is an important consideration in propeller design

and choice. Blade aspect ratio is usually maintained around 6–8; so,
with a limited propeller diameter, blade area can only be increased by
increasing the number of blades.

Matching engine and propeller

Propellers must be carefully matched with the characteristics of the

airframe, engine and reduction gear to which they are mated. The
engine must be neither underloaded nor overloaded. At best, a
mismatch could make the engine and aircraft incapable of delivering
its designed performance, or create the situation where the engine
cannot be opened up to full throttle because the lack of load (see the
following paragraph) would take the rpm beyond the red-line limit, or it
could result in crankshaft or crankcase fracture. At worst, a mismatch
could lead to torsional vibration or propeller blade destruction induced
by centrifugal force. This can readily cause the engine to dismount
from the airframe and lead to consequent total loss of the aircraft.
When discussing the power required curve it was noted that power
required is proportional to aircraft velocity cubed. Similarly, the power
delivered by a propeller varies in accordance with rpm cubed (if
everything else is kept constant). Thus, the load on the propeller may
be substantially increased just with a relatively minor further increase
in rpm when operating at high rpm, which can lead to loss of the
blades. Note that centrifugal forces on the blades change in
accordance with the rpm squared.

Note: The load on the engine is the propeller torque. When the aircraft
is stationary, with the engine throttle wide open, the propeller torque
and the static thrust generated (i.e. the efficiency of the engine and
the propeller combination) depend on the propeller pitch. If the pitch is
zero or slightly negative, the static thrust will be zero and the propeller
torque will be very low so that the engine will race — overspeed —
and lose power because of inefficient cylinder charging, etc.

On the other hand, if the pilot is able to set the prop to a more
negative pitch, then reverse thrust will be generated together with
sufficient torque to maintain constant engine rpm and the aircraft will
move backward.

If the pitch is 'fine' (low aoa), the propeller will generate near maximum
static thrust and sufficient torque to maintain high engine rpm, thus
delivering ample power to the propeller shaft. This is the ideal situation
to get the aircraft rolling for take-off and climb-out.

If the pitch is very 'coarse' (high aoa), then static thrust is low but
propeller torque is very high, which will slow the engine. This is the
worst situation for take-off — the aircraft will move forward sluggishly
and, hopefully, never reach take-off speed. For an interesting article
on ground testing of aircraft engines for power output, read "Testing
one, two three" in the July-August 2002 issue of 'Flight Safety
Australia' magazine.

When an aircraft with a fixed-pitch propeller is flying the back of the

power curve (i.e. an increasing thrust power output is needed as the
airspeed decreases), the propeller efficiency will decrease as airspeed
decreases, while the increasing propeller torque will be slowing the
engine power. Thus, it may be difficult to arrest any sink that develops
at low speeds — as might be experienced on the approach to a short-
field landing.

However, even with an apparently well-matched engine/propeller

combination, there may be a certain rpm range (or ranges) where the
frequency of a particular engine vibration resonates, with some natural
 frequency of the propeller, to produce an intrusive vibration and a
potentially damaging stress cycle. In such aircraft, that rpm range or
ranges is (or should be) indicated as a yellow, perhaps red, arc on the
face of the engine tachometer. Rpm settings within those ranges
should not be used.

Any gyroscopic moment induced depends on the rate of change in

aircraft pitch or yaw, and the rotational speed and moment of inertia of
the propeller. Its mass moment of inertia depends on propeller mass
and diameter. The gyroscopic loads are transferred to the airframe via
the engine crankshaft, crankcase and mountings. Under some
conditions, gyroscopic loads may lead to crankshaft/crankcase
failures. See 'The Fox story'.

The failure conditions usually identified are the use of a propeller of

excessive diameter (the moment of inertia increases exponentially
with diameter) possibly combined with an excessive 'overhung'
moment — the distance from the propeller cg to the engine. Excessive
gyroscopic loads may also be placed on the crankshaft/crankcase by
using brake, rudder and a burst of throttle to swing an aircraft rapidly
when taxiing.

The flight conditions that follow propeller blade failure cannot be

simulated in training, but an extreme out-of-balance condition (loss of
one blade for example) can very quickly shake the engine from its
mountings.

5.3 Propeller types

The following is a copy of a document authored by Marcus Graney and
published on the web site of the New Zealand manufacturer of
Airmaster propellers. I have added the notes presented in italic. ... JB

The most common type of propeller in sport aviation is the fixed-pitch

propeller. Although cheap, this is one of the crudest propulsion devices you
could use, and has been superseded by a variety of more advanced options,
now readily available on the market. But, how do you know how each type of
propeller operates and what advantages the different types offer? How are
you going to choose between the different types available for your aircraft,
especially considering that a more capable propeller is also more expensive?
There are four common families of propeller, which I will introduce to you.
They are fixed-pitch, ground-adjustable, inflight-adjustable and constant-
speed. The last two are both examples of variable-pitch propellers.

In order to appreciate the advantages which are characteristic of the different

families of propeller, we must first consider the most fundamental
characteristic of a propeller — the pitch. Pitch is important, as it is the manner
in which pitch is controlled that allows us to differentiate between one family
of propeller and another.

A useful analogy when considering the affect of pitch is that of an automobile

gearbox. By comparing a propeller's pitch to a gear ratio, and considering the
function of a gearbox, we will gain an appreciation of the different families of
propellers.

What is pitch?

Propeller theory includes a variety of concepts that may at times be called

pitch. Pitch can refer to the blade angle with respect to a flat plane, the
distance that a propeller will advance through the air for each rotation or the
amount of "bite" that the blade has on the air. Essentially these concepts all
describe the same thing. To use our automobile analogy, pitch is like the gear
ratio of the gearbox. The important thing to note with pitch, is that it is
available in a wide variety of degrees, or 'amounts', much like different gear
ratios. To demonstrate, consider the following examples:

 A fine pitch propeller has a low blade angle, will try to move
forward a small distance through the air with each rotation,
and will take a 'small' bite of the air. It requires relatively low
power to rotate, allowing high propeller speed to be
developed, but achieving only limited airspeed. This is like
having a low gear in your automobile.

 A coarse pitch propeller has a high blade angle, will try to

advance a long distance through the air with each rotation,
and will take a big 'bite' of the air. It requires greater power to
rotate, limiting the propeller speed that can be developed, but
achieving high airspeeds. This is like having a high gear in
your automobile.

Pitch and the different families of propellers

As we saw above, pitch is a key element in the description of

propellers (along with other factors such as diameter and blade area).
When considering the four families of propellers it is useful to start with
the simple fixed-pitch propeller, and look at the enhancements in pitch
control that are gained as we progress through each family to the most
advanced, the constant-speed propeller.

Fixed-pitch propeller

With a fixed-pitch propeller, the pitch of the propeller is fixed from

manufacture. The performance of your aircraft is determined on the
day your propeller is fitted, and is going to be limited within the
constraints of the propeller. An analogy with an automobile is as
though you had only one gear. Often when choosing a fixed-pitch
propeller for your aircraft, manufacturers give you a choice of either a
climb or a cruise prop. A climb propeller has a relatively fine pitch and
a cruise propeller has a relatively coarse pitch. This is like a car
manufacturer giving you a choice of a low or a high gear. Either you
will be really slow off the mark, or your engine is going to have to be
red-lined to get anywhere at a reasonable speed.

Ground-adjustable propeller

Many propellers manufactured and sold for ultralight and experimental

aircraft are ground-adjustable. These propellers have the advantage of
being able to have their pitch set before each flight if required, taking
into account the type of flying you intend to do. More usually however
they are used as a low cost way to try out various pitches and settle on
the propeller pitch that best suits your aircraft and your style of flying.
This can be compared to having a gearbox in your car that you can
only change before you set out on your journey.

Variable-pitch propeller

With a variable-pitch propeller, you really have choices. To use the

automobile analogy again, your car now has a real gearbox that you
can change gear with on the go. (I hope that your car can do this at
least!) In addition, rather than being limited to 4 or 5 gears, you can
utilise any pitch along the continuum from maximum to minimum. The
pitch of the propeller may be controlled in flight to provide improved
performance in each phase of flight. Typically you would take-off in a
fine pitch (low gear) allowing your engine to develop reasonable revs,
before increasing the pitch (change up gears) as you accelerated to
your cruising speed. You'll end up with the propeller at a relatively
coarse pitch, (high gear) allowing the miles to pass beneath you at a
rapid rate, while your engine is gently ticking over at a comfortable
speed.
This feature of a variable-pitch propeller will provide you with
performance advantages, including:

 Reduced take-off roll and improved climb

performance. Fine pitch allows the engine to reach
maximum speed and hence maximum power at low
airspeeds. Vital for take-off, climb, and for a go-around
on landing.

 Improved fuel efficiency and greater range. Coarse

pitch allows the desired aircraft speed to be
maintained with a lower throttle setting and slower
propeller speed, so maintaining efficiency and
improving range.
 Higher top speed. Coarse pitch will ensure your
engine does not overspeed while the propeller
absorbs high power, producing a higher top speed.
 Steeper descent and shorter landing roll. With a fine
pitch and low throttle setting, a slow turning propeller
is able to add to the aircraft's drag, so slowing the
aircraft quicker on landing.

Variable-pitch propellers actually come in a variety of versions.

These different versions refer to the different ways that they are
controlled, and include:
 Two-position propeller.
 Inflight-adjustable propeller.
 Automatic propeller.
 Constant-speed propeller.

A couple of these are now of historic interest only, so lets

concentrate on the two most common options these
days; the inflight-adjustable operation and the constant-
speed propeller.

The inflight-adjustable propeller allows the pilot to

directly vary the pitch of the propeller to the desired
setting. Combined with the throttle control, this control
allows a wide variety of power settings to be achieved. A
range of airspeeds can be maintained while keeping the
engine speed within limits. While rare in larger aircraft,
the inflight-adjustable propeller is the most common type
of variable-pitch propeller that is encountered in sport
aviation.
When operated in manual mode, the Airmaster propeller
is an example of an inflight-adjustable propeller.

Constant-speed propeller

The constant-speed propeller is a special case of

variable pitch, which is considered in a family of its own,
and offers particular operating benefits.

With constant speed control, the pitch of the variable-

pitch propeller is changed automatically by a governor.
After the pilot sets the desired engine/propeller speed
with the propeller speed control, the governor acts to
keep the propeller speed at the same value. If the
governor detects the propeller speed increasing, it
increases the pitch a little to bring the speed back within
limits. If the governor detects the propeller speed
decreasing, it decreases the pitch a little to bring the
speed again back within limits. This operation may be
compared to an automatic gearbox in an automobile,
where the gears are changed automatically to keep the
engine operating at a reasonable speed.

(The governor or constant speed unit [CSU] may be an

electronic device that detects the rotational speed of a
slip-ring incorporated in the propeller hub, and controls
operation of a servomotor/leadscrew pitch change
actuator in the hub assembly. Or, it may be an hydraulic
fly-ball governor attached to the engine, using engine oil
to operate a hydraulic pitch change piston in the hub
assembly. In the first case, the cockpit control device is
likely to be knobs and switches. In the hydraulic system,
the governor is likely to be cable operated from a cockpit
lever — JB.)

A constant-speed propeller will automatically deliver you

the advantages outlined above for variable-pitch
propellers, with almost no control required from the pilot.
Once a propeller/engine speed is selected, the pilot is
able to control the power purely with the throttle (actually
controlling the absolute pressure of the fuel/air mix in the
intake manifold [MAP] which then determines power
output) and the controller will act to keep the
propeller/engine speed at the selected setting.
While allowing the pilot to ignore the propeller for most of
the time, the pilot must still choose the most appropriate
engine/propeller speed for the different phases of flight.

 Take-off, go-around and landing. A high

speed setting is used when maximum
power is needed for a short time such as
on take-off. The high speed setting may
also be used to keep the propeller pitch
low during approach and landing, to
provide the desired drag and be ready
for a go-around should it be required.

 Climb and high speed cruise. A medium

speed setting is used when high power is
needed on a continuous basis, such as
during an extended climb, or high speed
cruise.
 Economic cruise. A low speed setting is
used for a comfortable cruise with a low
engine speed. This operation produces
low fuel consumption and longer range,
while the advantages of low noise and
low engine wear are also enjoyed.

When operated in automatic mode, the Airmaster

propeller is an example of a constant-speed
propeller.

Special pitch modes

As well as the ability to vary the pitch of the

propeller to optimise the aircraft performance,
some variable-pitch propellers have some other
special modes of operation that can be very useful
in certain circumstances:

 Feather. A feathering propeller

can alter the pitch of the blades
up to almost 90 degrees. That is,
the blade pitch is changed so that
they have their leading edge
pointing right into the direction of
flight, offering minimum resistance
 to the airflow. This mode allows
the propeller rotation to be
stopped, without adding excessive
drag to the aircraft. Feather may
be used to improve the
performance of the aircraft after
the failure of an engine, but more
usually in light aircraft it is used in
motor glider applications. Here the
engine is used to gain altitude,
before the engine is switched off,
the propeller feathered, and then
gliding flight commenced.

 Reverse. A reversing pitch

propeller can alter the pitch of the
blades to a negative angle. That
is, the blade pitch is changed so
that they have their leading edge
pointing slightly opposite to the
direction of flight. This mode
allows reverse thrust to be
developed by the propeller. In
larger commuter and transport
aircraft this feature is often used
to slow the aircraft rapidly after
landing, but in sport aircraft it is
more usually used to enhance
manoeuvring on the ground. A
popular application is in
seaplanes, where the ability to
manoeuvre backwards, and
sometimes to reduce the thrust to
nothing, is especially useful.

Summary

This overview was designed to assist the

understanding of how the ability to control
propeller pitch is used to categorise the
different families of propeller design. More
importantly it has illustrated that as we
progress from one design family to another,
we realise significant improvements in
 performance, effectiveness and efficiency.

While a family of propellers that offers

better performance is likely to be more
expensive to purchase, you can expect that
over time the efficiency of a higher
performance propeller will produce savings
that will offset the initial cost. In addition
your flying will be a more relaxed and
enjoyable experience!

When deciding what type of propeller to

buy for your aircraft, you have to weigh up
the relative advantages and costs. To help,
we can summarise the most common
families of propellers, and make a simple
comparison of their respective advantages
in cost and capability.

Conclusion

If performance, economy and enjoyment

are your goals, Constant Speed is the
choice you should make.

Read the FAQs on the Airmaster site.

Marcus Graney
Aeronautical Engineer
November 2000

5.4 Propeller theory

 The forces

Propeller blades are constructed using aerofoil

sections to produce an aerodynamic force, in a
similar manner to a wing. Consequently, the
blades are subject to the same aerodynamics —
induced drag, parasite drag, wingtip vortices,
lift/drag ratios at varying aoa, pressure distribution
changing with aoa, etc. There is a difference in
application because, in flight, the propeller has
rotational velocity added to the forward velocity.
Thus, the flight path of any blade section is a
spiral — a helical flight path.

The diagram at left represents a blade section in flight and rotating about the
shaft axis. Because of the different application, it doesn't serve much purpose
to express the resultant aerodynamic force as we would for a wing; i.e. with
the components acting perpendicular (lift) and parallel (drag) to that helical
flight path, as in the upper figure. So, we resolve the aerodynamic force into
the component acting forward and aligned with the aircraft's longitudinal axis
as the thrust force, and that acting parallel to the direction of rotation as the
propeller torque force.

As you see in the lower figure the component of the 'lift' acting in the
rotational plane has now been added to the 'drag' to produce the 'propeller
torque force' vector. The remaining forward-acting portion of 'lift' is then the
thrust. That is why propeller efficiency is usually no greater than 80–85%; not
all the 'lift' can be used as thrust, and the propeller torque force consumes
quite a bit of the shaft horsepower. The propeller torque and the engine
torque will be in balance when the engine is operating at constant rpm in
flight.

Centrifugal force imposes considerable tensile stress while trying to pull the
blades from the hub. Torque reaction applies bending stress to the blades in
the reverse direction of rotation while the thrust force tends to bend the outer
sections of the blades forward. The centrifugal twisting moment tends to twist
the blades to a decreased (finer) pitch and the aerodynamic twisting moment
(similar to the wing pitching moment) tends to twist the blades to a coarser
pitch. The air inflow at the face of the propeller disc also affects propeller
dynamics.
 Blade angle and pitch

Although all parts of the propeller, from the hub to

the blade tips, have the same forward velocity,
the rotational velocity — and thus the helical path
of any blade station — will depend on its distance
from the hub centre. Consequently, unless
adjusted, the angle of attack will vary along the
length of the blade. Propellers operate most
efficiently when the aoa at each blade station is
consistent (and, for propeller efficiency, that
giving the best lift/drag ratio) over most of the
blade, so a twist is built into the blades to achieve a more or less uniform
aoa.

The blade angle is the angle the chord line of the aerofoil makes with the
propeller's rotational plane and is expressed in degrees. Because of the twist,
the blade angle will vary throughout its length. So, normally the standard
blade angle is measured at the blade station, 75% of the distance from the
hub centre to the blade tip. The angle between the aerofoil chord line and the
helical flight path (the relative airflow) at the blade station is the angle of
attack and the angle between the helical flight path and the rotational plane is
the angle of advance or helix angle. The aoa and helix angle vary with
rotational and forward velocity.

The basic dimensions of propellers for light aircraft are usually stated in the
form of number of blades, and diameter and pitch with values in inches; e.g.
3-blade 64" × 38". The pitch referred to is the geometric pitch that is
calculated for any blade station, but usually the station at 75% radius.

Geometric pitch = the circumference (2πr) of the propeller disc at the blade
station multiplied by the tangent of the blade angle. Thus, it is the distance
the propeller — and aircraft — would advance during one revolution of the
propeller if the blade section followed a path extrapolated along the blade
angle.
e.g. For a blade station 24 inches from the hub centre (0.75r) and a 14° blade
angle, the circumference = 2 × 3.14 × 24 = 150 inches, and tangent 14° =
0.25. Thus, the geometric pitch is 150 × 0.25 = 38 inches. Propellers are
usually designed so that all blade stations have much the same geometric
pitch.

Designers may establish the ideal pitch of a propeller, which is the

theoretical advance per revolution that would cause the blade aerofoil to be
at the zero lift aoa; thus, it would generate no thrust and, ignoring drag, is the
theoretical maximum achievable aircraft speed.

The velocity that the propeller imparts to the air flowing through its disc is the
slipstream. Slip used to be described as the difference between the velocity
of the air behind the propeller (i.e. accelerated by the propeller) and that of
the aircraft. Nowadays, slip has several interpretations, most being
aerodynamically unsatisfactory, but you might consider it to be the difference,
expressed as a percentage, between the ideal pitch and the advance per
revolution when the the propeller is working at maximum efficiency in
converting engine power to thrust power. Slip in itself is not a measure of
propeller efficiency; as stated previously, propeller efficiency is the ratio of the
thrust power (thrust × aircraft velocity) output to the engine power input.

Pitch and velocity

The performance of aircraft fitted with fixed-pitch or ground-adjustable

propellers is very much dependent on the chosen blade angle. Fixed-pitch
propellers limit the rpm developed by the engine at low forward velocity, such
as occurs during the take-off ground roll;
they may also allow the engine rpm to
exceed red-line maximum when the load
on the engine is reduced, such as occurs
in a shallow dive. Fixed-pitch propellers
operate at best efficiency at one
combination of shaft power and airspeed.
Blade angle is usually chosen to produce
maximum performance at a particular flight
condition, for example:
• Vy climb; i.e. a climb propeller
• Vc cruise; i.e. a cruise propeller.
The climb propeller is usually chosen when the aircraft normally operates
from a restricted airfield or in high density altitude conditions. The climb
propeller will produce maximum efficiency at full throttle around the best rate
of climb airspeed and will perform fairly well at take-off. But during the initial
take-off acceleration, even the climb propeller may restrict the engine rpm to
less than 75% power. The cruise propeller will achieve maximum efficiency at
75% power at airspeeds around the design cruising speed but aircraft take-
off and climb performance will not be the optimum. The cruise propeller
usually has a little more pitch than the standard propeller fitted to the aircraft.
A high-speed propeller might be fitted when the aircraft is intended to be
operating at, or above, rated power for short periods — in speed competition,
for example.

A variable-pitch constant-speed propeller allows the engine to develop

maximum rated power and rpm during the ground roll, and to develop full
power throughout its normal rpm range. With a constant-speed propeller, the
pilot controls the inlet manifold absolute pressure [MAP] with the throttle lever
and the engine rpm with the rpm control lever or knob/switches. (MAP is the
pressure of the air/fuel mixture being delivered to the cylinders and is usually
measured in inches of mercury [in/Hg] rather than hectopascals. Standard
sea-level barometric pressure is 29.92 in/Hg or 1013.2 hPa.) The aircraft
flight manual usually provides the pilot with several combinations of rpm/MAP
to achieve a particular power setting. For example, in one particular aircraft,
the recommended combinations for 65% power at sea-level are 2100 rpm +
26 in/Hg MAP, or 2200 rpm + 25 in/Hg, or 2300 rpm + 24 in/Hg, or 2400 rpm
+ 23 in/Hg. So, you can use low rpm and high MAP, or high rpm and low
MAP, to achieve exactly the same power output. The 2100 rpm/26 in/Hg low
rpm/high MAP combination probably gives more efficient cylinder charging
and better combustion plus less friction. The high MAP also acts as a cushion
in the cylinders, reducing engine stress. Obviously, if a constant-speed
propeller is fitted to an aircraft then an intake manifold pressure gauge —
marked with the allowable engine operating ranges — must be fitted,
otherwise excessive manifold pressure (which raises the cylinder
compression pressure) may overstress the
engine. Variable-pitch in-flight adjustable
propellers also necessitate fitment of a
manifold absolute pressure gauge.

The windmilling propeller

The angle of attack of a fixed-pitch

propeller, and thus its thrust, depends on
the forward speed of the aircraft and the
rotational velocity. Following a non-
catastrophic engine failure, the pilot tends
to lower the nose so that forward airspeed
is maintained while at the same time the
rotational velocity of the engine/propeller is
winding down. As the forward velocity
remains more or less unchanged while the
rotational velocity is decreasing, the angle
of attack must be continually decreasing.
At some particular rpm, the angle of attack
will become negative to the point where
the lift component becomes negative
(reverses) and the propeller autorotates; in
effect, driving the dead engine as an air
pump. This acts as greatly increased aerodynamic drag, which adversely
affects the aircraft's L/D ratio and thus glide angles. The drag (including the
reversed lift) is greater than that of a stationary propeller. The engine rotation
may cause additional mechanical problems if oil supply is affected.

If the forward speed is increased, windmilling will increase. If forward speed

is decreased, windmilling will decrease. Thus, the windmilling might be
stopped by temporarily reducing airspeed probably to near stall — so that the
reversed lift is decreased to the point where the engine airpump torque and
friction will stop rotation. This is not something that should be attempted
without ample height.

Should the PSRU fail in flight, the propeller is thereby disconnected from the
engine and may 'freewheel' rather than 'windmill'.

In the diagram, the upper figure shows the forces associated with a section of
a propeller blade operating normally. The lower figure shows the forces and
the negative aoa associated with the propeller now windmilling at the same
forward velocity.

A variable-pitch propeller may have a feathering facility, which turns the

blades to the minimum drag position (i.e. the blades are more or less aligned
fore and aft) and thus stops windmilling when the engine is no longer
producing power. Such a feature is not usually fitted to a single-engine
aircraft, but a few recreational aircraft are designed with wide span, high
aspect ratio wings that provide L/D ratios around 30:1, and thus have
excellent soaring capability. Such aircraft are usually fitted with a feathering
propeller.

Some motor-gliders are designed with the engine/propeller unit mounted on a

retractable pylon, so that when good atmospheric lift conditions exist the
engine plus propeller can be stopped and stowed within the fuselage. See
the TST-3 Alpin.

The runaway propeller

As a propeller system increases in complexity, then the possibilities for

malfunction increase. A problem associated with constant-speed propellers is
governor failure during flight which, in most installations, will cause the
propeller blades to default to their fine pitch limit. This greatly reduces the
load on the power plant, and the engine will immediately overspeed,
particularly if in a shallow dive. Depending on the fine pitch limit setting, the
rpm of an overspeeding engine — sometimes referred to as a 'runaway prop'
— may quickly go way past red-line rpm and, unless immediate corrective
action is taken, the engine is likely to self-destruct and/or the propeller blades
break away from the hub due to the increased centrifugal force.
The corrective action is to immediately close the throttle and reduce to
minimum flight speed by pulling the nose up. (But see 'Recovery from flight at
excessive speed'.) Once everything is settled down, fly slowly, consistent with
the fine pitch setting, to a suitable airfield using minimum throttle movements.
(The constant-speed propeller fitted to a competition aerobatic aircraft
usually defaults to their coarse pitch limit to prevent overspeeding, but an
immediate landing is required.)

Propeller theory is complex and not appropriate to this Flight Theory guide,
but the outline above at least introduces some of the everyday terms
encountered.

The next module in this Flight Theory guide examines the tailplane stability
and control surfaces.

Things that are handy to know

 The term 'brake horsepower' is a measure of the power

delivered at the engine output shaft; measured by means of a
dynamometer or similar braking device. The term 'shaft
horsepower' [shp] is a measure of the engine power available
at the propeller shaft. Generally it is the same as bhp but if
the coupling is not direct drive — a propeller speed reduction
unit [PSRU] is interposed between the crankshaft output and
the propeller shaft as in the Rotax 912 — the shp will be a
little less than bhp because of the power loss in driving the
belt or gear driven PSRU.

 The use of the horsepower term for piston aero engines has
successfully withstood metrication. To convert horsepower to
watts multiply by 745.7 or by 0.75 to convert to kilowatts.
When torque is expressed in newton metres, and engine
speed in radians per second, power will be in watts.
 The stoichiometric (chemically correct) air/fuel mixture
produces complete combustion of all the fuel and all the
oxygen in the cylinder charge — and also the highest
temperatures, which may be detrimental to the engine
metallurgy. The stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for gasoline fuels
is 14.7:1 by weight.
 Spark ignition engines provide best power with an air
deficiency of 5–15% from stoichiometric — i.e. about 12–13:1
(rich) — and provide minimum fuel consumption with around
10% excess air; i.e. about 16:1 (lean).
This indicates that the engine, at sea-level and using a
stoichiometric mixture, would process about 8500 litres of air
per litre of fuel. (Avgas weighs 0.71 kg per litre, and air at
sea-level weighs 1.225 kg per 1000 litres.) The leaned
mixture for best economy cruise is around 16:1 (9000 litres of
air), and for maximum engine rich mixture performance,
around 12:1 (7000 litres of air).
The Rotax 912 1.2 litre engine produces 75% power at 5000
rpm, and with a firing cycle every second revolution it would
process 1.2 x 5000/2 = 3000 litres of air/fuel mixture per
minute. The fuel used would be 3000/9000 = 0.33
litres/minute or around 20 litres/hour, at sea-level.

 Most four-stroke, normally aspirated, aero-engines between

80 and 400 hp have a specific fuel consumption close to 0.19
kg or 0.27 litres, per horsepower per hour (or 0.42 lbs/hp/hr).
Then the Jabiru's engine, rated at 80 hp, but using only 65%
for the 97 knot cruise, would consume 80 × 0.65 × 0.27 = 14
litres over 100 air nautical miles, or 7 air nautical miles per
litre. Note that you can create a little rule of thumb here that
is applicable to most four-stroke engines — "the fuel burn, at
'performance cruise speed', is about one-fifth of the rated
engine horsepower — in litres per hour." Thus, fuel burn for
the Jabiru cruising at 75% power is 80/5 = 16 litres/hour.
Two-stroke engines have to use a richer mixture to run cooler
so, for such engines, add about 10% to the calculated result.

Helicopter BLADE:

The centrifugal loads arising from the mass of the rotated blades are usually the
most critical loads acting on a turbine disc. This load was determined through
.... [12] L. Witek, Failure analysis of turbine disc of an aero engine, Eng Fail Anal
13 (1) (2006). ... There are three types of "Articles in Press": ...
Metal castings, having either an equiaxed, columnar grain, or single crystal
microstructure, are widely used in the turbine section of modem gas turbine engines.
Frequently, these castings are used as turbine blades, and they are subjected to some of
the most severe operating conditions of all parts used in the engine. Because of the
demands placed upon these parts, and the critical nature they play in the overall
performance of the engine, the parts are fabricated from alloys called superalloys, which
have an optimum balance of mechanical strength and resistance to oxidation and hot
corrosion. The mechanical strength characteristics which are required of turbine section
components include creep strength and resistance to thermal fatigue.

Turbine blades have an airfoil portion and a root portion; typically, the root portion has a
fir-tree design. The blades are assembled to a turbine disk which has slots appropriately
machined to allow the root portion of the blade to slide into the slot. A variety of designs
are utilized to prevent the blade from sliding out of the disk slot during operation of the
engine.

As indicated above, the airfoil portion of the blade is exposed to the most rigorous
combination of temperature and stress conditions during engine operation; creep strength
is a major design requirement for the airfoil portion of the blade. Insufficient creep
strength can cause catastrophic failure during use in the engine.

While somewhat shielded from the elements during engine operation, the root portion of
the blade also experiences a combination of stress and elevated temperature conditions
that can cause cracking in the attachment area of the blade root. These cracks can also
cause the blade to fail. The stresses that result in crack formation are primarily associated
with low and high cycle fatigue. Attachment strength is a major design requirement of the
root portion of the blade.

The engineering difficulties of achieving an optimum combination of high temperature

creep strength and lower temperature attachment properties in a turbine blade are well
known to those skilled in the art. The difficulties exist because alloy compositions and
casting processes that are well adapted for producing desirable levels of creep strength
for the airfoil portion of the part do not usually produce desirable attachment properties
for the root portion of the part. In particular, the compositions and fine grain sizes that are
required for superior attachment strength produce components that have marginal creep
strength; conversely, the compositions and casting processes that are required for superior
creep strength produce pans that have marginal attachment properties for advanced high
stress applications.

One way that the attachment strength of cast blades made of creep resistant materials can
be improved is by peening the root with either glass or steel shot. The peened blade root
has better resistance to the formation of fatigue cracks than the unpeened blade root,
because peening forms residual compressive stresses at the surface of the root, providing
it with better resistance to crack initiation. However, as engineers attempt to design
engines with increased thrust and performance capabilities, the temperatures in the
turbine section become higher; if these are sufficiently high, they can accelerate the rate
at which the compressive stresses (due to peening) are annealed from the blade root.
Furthermore, to achieve and improve performance, engineers increase rotors speeds,
which raise stress levels in the root and reduce blade root attachment life.

Another way that engineers have tried to improve the attachment strength of blades made
of creep resistant materials is the bi-cast process. In the first step of this process, the
airfoil portion of a turbine blade is fabricated from an alloy in such a manner to optimize
creep strength. Then, molten metal of a different composition is cast around the airfoil
portion in such a manner to produce a finer grained root structure having better
attachment properties. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,008,052. Bi-cast components have,
unfortunately, not achieved commercial success due to the inability of the process to
produce a high-integrity bond joint between the airfoil and root portions. In particular, it
is very difficult to control the cleanliness of the interface between the airfoil and root
portions, and to control the complicated melting and solidification processes at that
interface. It is also very difficult to inspect the quality of the interface itself. Finally, the
casting processes are unable to produce grain sizes in the root area that are truly free
enough for optimum attachment properties; grain sizes are generally no smaller than 250-
625 microns (10-25 mils).

A variation of the bi-cast process involves diffusion bonding separately fabricated airfoil
and root portions to each other, as shown in U.S. Pat. No. 4,592,120. This patent
describes a method for diffusion bonding an airfoil portion fabricated from a single
crystal alloy having desirable creep strength, such as CMSX2, to a root portion fabricated
from a powder metal disk alloy having desirable attachment strength, such as Astroloy.
The two components are bonded together using a boron-enriched bonding alloy and a
bonding temperature of 1,205° C. (2,200° F.). Like the aforementioned bi-cast process,
the diffusion bonding process has not achieved widespread commercial success for many
of the same reasons recited above. A further deficiency of the diffusion bonding process
is that the elevated bonding temperatures can cause grain growth of the fine Astroloy
grains, thereby decreasing the attachment strength of the root. The process also
introduces a potentially undesirable element, in this case, boron, into the casting.

As a result of the inadequacies of these prior art processes, the gas turbine engine
industry continues to search for ways to improve the fatigue strength of the turbine blade
root while retaining optimum creep strength in the airfoil.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

According to this invention, a blade for the turbine section of a gas turbine engine is
characterized by a thin zone of fine grains at the surface of the blade root, each grain
having an average size of about 5 microns (0.2 mils) or less; the grains in said zone have
a high strength composition different from the composition of the remainder of the blade,
and are comprised of γ' phase particles in a γ phase matrix.

The presence of the thin zone of fine grains of a high strength composition at the blade
root surface produces a component that has excellent attachment strength, i.e., excellent
resistance to the initiation of fatigue cracks during use of the part in a modem turbine
engine. At the same time, the blade has superior creep strength at the airfoil portion of the
blade, because that portion of the blade is fabricated using the compositions and
processes that optimize creep strength. The thickness of the zone of grains is no greater
than about 1,250 microns (50 mils).