TRADITIONAL PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION

NATURALISM

INTRODUCTION

It is a philosophical position adopted by naturalists, who approach philosophy from purely scientific point of view.
They believe that nature alone represents the entire reality. There is nothing beyond/behind and other than
nature. 26

DEFINITIONS

“It is a system, whose salient characteristic is the exclusion of whatever is spiritual or indeed, whatever is
transcendental (super-natural) of experiences from our philosophy of nature and man” — George Hayward
Joyce.
“It is the doctrine that separates nature from God, subordinates spirit to matter and sets up unchangeable laws
as supreme” — James Ward.
“It is a philosophical generalisation of science; the application of the theories of science to the problems of
philosophy”— Ralph Barton Perry.

CHIEF EXPONENTS OF NATURALISM

Bacon, Comenius, Herbert Spencer, Huxely, Bernard Shaw, Rousseau JJ, George Hayward Jayce, James Ward,
Ralph Barton Perry, Darwin MC Dougall, Lamarck, Thomas Hobbs, Tagore.

MEANING

Naturalism is a doctrine that separates nature from God, subordinates spirit to matter and setup unchangeable
laws as supreme. According to naturalists, human life is a part of nature, it is a self-sufficient entity having its own
natural matter natural force and natural laws. It emphasizes on ‘matter and the physical world’. It does not
believe in spirituality and supernaturalism.

FORMS OF NATURALISM
Naturalism, as a philosophical doctrine has three distinct forms:

PHYSICAL NATURALISM

Nature is the reality, human life is wholly controlled and influenced by the eternal laws of nature, and it governs
the human life, since it is moulded by natural laws. Reality does not exist within the individual. It is rather outside
him, in the natural universe. Tagore calls, ‘nature’ as the ‘manuscript of god’ since human life is moulded and
controlled by external nature, it should be in accordance with the natural laws.

MECHANICAL NATURALISM

There is no spirit or soul, only matter is everything. Man is also matter, which is made up of atoms, empty space
and motion. It regards man is merely a machine, governed by mechanical laws, he/she has no creative capacity,
purpose or direction. This philosophy aims at training man as a good machine and keeping it in good working
condition.

Thomas Hobbs, an Englishman described nature as an aggregate of things outside our mind which is
moving in space.

BIOLOGICAL NATURALISM

Based on Darwin, Herbert Spencer's view, by the process of growth and development man was energist
indentifying reality as a force of energy. Man's natural endowments (emotional and temperament) are the real
springs of his/her behavior. If our behavior is according to our instincts, we feel happy, if not we feel unhappy and
disappointed. Education should try to sublimate these natural impulses for socially desirable ends.

DEVELOPMENT OF NATURALISM

Natural surroundings and freedom are the important factors for the growth and development of the child.

Thomas Hobbs, in 17th century described nature as an aggregate of things moving from one place to
another.

JJ Rousseau in his/her Emile describes the education of a child is close to nature. Nature yields all kinds of
good things, but the society of man grasps them and perverts them to evil ends. Herbert Spencer (19th century)
used the word ‘force’ to describe ‘reality’.

NATURALISM AND EDUCATION

Human nature develops according to the laws obeyed by heavenly bodies, as they move in their orbits. The duty
of education is to learn, what these laws are and how to use those laws. Educational materials should be the
facts and phenomenon of nature. Education makes the individual, a natural man.
27

Herbert Spencer's views, the educational objectives are: self preservation, securing the necessities of life,
raising children, citizenship and education for leisure.

Naturalism gives maximum freedom and central position to the child. Watch words in naturalism are: ‘Follow
nature’, ‘Back to nature’, ‘Maximum happiness’ and ‘Utmost freedom to children’, ‘Instincts are basis of
education’, ‘Senses are the gate ways of knowledge’. Naturalism believes that education should be according to
the nature of the child, it advocates creation of conditions in which the natural development of the child can take
place in a natural way. Textbooks, timetable, syllabus and even teachers are not so important for the learner,
According to Rousseau, there are three sources of education, i.e. nature, men and things. The nature consists of
natural development of organs and faculties, education from nature is to prepare a natural man.

Man is governed and directed by the laws of his/her own nature rather than those of social institutions. Thus
naturalism is a revolt against the stereotyped system of education.

NATURALISM AND EDUCATION PROCESS

Education must confirm to the natural process of physical growth and mental development. Pupil will be given
freedom to determine the form of the learning process, e.g. inductive methods of learning
Education should be a pleasurable activity for children and it engages the spontaneous self-activity of the child
Acquisition of knowledge is an important aspect of education related to body and mind. Punishment should be
based on the consequences of wrong deeds, but with sympathy, its frequency will be reduced.

NATURALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

Self-realization.
Self expression.
Self preservation.
Habit formation related to action and thought which are appropriate to the age.
Cultivation of self-restraint and sense of value (Herbert Spencer—biological school of naturalism).
Pleasure and pain are instincts of man are real guiding forces which are basis of the conduct of the child (MC
Daugall's view).
To make the child to adjust himself both physically and mentally to his/her environment and to the changing
circumstances in life (Lamarck's view).
Equip the individual to struggle for existence (Darwin's view) and ensure his/her survival (Herbert Spencer).
 Evolution of a better humanity through the transmission of not only physical traits, but also for the cultural
ones.
Education of the man as the ‘back of God's creation’. Education should aim at the evolution of a better
humanity through the transmission of not only physical traits, but also the cultural ones (Bernard Shaw's view).
Education is universal spirit, according to the nature of the child (Rousseau's view).
Development of individuality (Sir Percy Nussy's view).
Struggle for existence and survival of the fittest (Darwin's view).
Education should be according to the nature of the child's tenderness, capacities, instincts, likes and dislikes.
It should aim at providing full opportunity for the development of natural endowments of the child.
Perfect development of individuality will develop the child into a joyous, rational, balanced, useful and mature
person.

Thus naturalism ignores the spiritual side of the child's personality by omitting the development of his/her
will, conscience and morality.

NATURALISM AND CURRICULUM

No fixed curriculum.
Every child is given the right to determine his/her own curriculum.
The child is expected to learn directly from nature through personal experiences.
Naturalists give prominence to subjects like gardening, agriculture, nature study, art, crafts, botany, geology,
geography and astronomy etc. as they are directly related to the nature of the child.
The subjects should be correlated with the play activity of the child and with28
the life around him.

NATURALISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Naturalists are not in favour of direct training through teacher or textbooks.

In the place of textbooks, they emphasize the value of ‘concrete objects’.
They advocate the direct experience of things and believe in the principle of ‘learning by doing’, e.g.
observation and experimental methods.
Direct methods are advised as to ensure the vocabulary of a student.
In the training of science and mathematics “Heuristic method” is emphasized in the place of ‘chalk and talk
procedure’.
Geography is through practical exercises, actual excursion and observation.
Play - way method is used to develop spirit of joyful, spontaneous and creative activity.
Dalton plan method is suggested, which gives freedom to the pupil to choose his/her own schedule of work.
They learn through observation and experiment, self-government and self-effort.
 Naturalists emphasizes ‘open air schools’ self-government in schools and establishment of co-education in
educational institutions.

Thus the centre of naturalism to the field of modern methodology of education is most outstanding and most
abiding.

NATURALISM AND THE TEACHER

Teacher can neither interfere with the activities of children nor can impose his/her own ideas and ideals, will
power upon them or a moulder of character formation. His/her place is ‘behind the scene’. He/she is a ‘spectator’
or an ‘observer’ of the child's development. He/she cannot impose any activity, restrictions or limitations for the
learner. He/she will allow the child, provided opportunity for free development of their own motives, growth and
development in an atmosphere of non-intervention and freedom. He/she does not expect undue respect from
his/her pupils nor does he/she pose as superior. He/she tries to understand the pupils and approves their
behavior. Teacher cannot dictate to pupils, what they have to do.

According to naturalistic concept, a teacher is only a setter of the stage, a supplier of materials and
opportunities. Teacher is a provider of an ideal environment and creator of conducive conditions to the natural
development of the students.

NATURALISM AND DISCIPLINE

Extreme discipline is not desirable, as it stands in the way of the child's natural development
Free discipline may be applicable, as naturalists give utmost freedom to the child to do and learn whatever
he/she likes, they do not advocate any sort of punishment for the child except that he/she is allowed to support
the natural consequences of his/her actions.

For regulating the conduct of students, naturalists have evolved the concept of student self-government in
tune with the demand of a democratic society.

WEAKNESSES OF NATURALISM IN EDUCATION

The simplicity of naturalistic educational practices may not be possible in urban areas.
Higher order of discipline may not be possible as textbooks and teachers are not playing crucial role and
leisure pace of learning through experience is taking place.
The physical nature alone is not the power which can be used to control and direct education or any other
human Endeavour. Nature alone cannot find peace or beauty, there is something higher, which can direct
man's purposes, strivings towards positive ends.
Lacks ideals, no place for spiritual values.
 No constructive suggestions to offer regarding a goal for educative effort thus it does not point to a higher end
in the educational process.

CONCLUSION

Education is based on psychology of the child and in accordance with his/her nature. Naturalists keep the child in
the forefront in the entire process of education. The teacher, school, curriculum, methods of training are not so
important as the child, who has to be educated. Naturalists want the school, to provide conducive environment,
which promotes the free development of the growing child. 29

APPLICATION OF NATURALISM IN NURSING EDUCATION

Nurse Educator can choose the teaching methods like projects method, demonstration, field trip etc. Teacher has
to give liberty for the learner to select the problem and work on it; teacher can facilitate total personality
development of the learner. Teacher will assist the student to utilize the leisure time in a productive manner in the
form of extracurricular and co-curricular activities like NCC, NSS, sports, games, participating in competitions
etc. Thus Educator facilitates learner's growth and development i.e., “sound mind in a sound body.”

IDEALISM

INTRODUCTION AND MEANING

The word, ‘idealism’ has been derived from ‘ideal’ or ‘ideas’. Ideals or higher values are much more significant in
human life than anything else. This philosophy seeks to explain man and universe in terms of spirit or mind. This
philosophical thought, is originated by the great Greek philosophers, Socrates and Plato. They conceived ideas
as the basis of their philosophy. Plato in his/her dialogues indicated the importance of mind and reason in the
experience of man. Idealism idolizes ‘mind and self’; it explains man and the universe in terms of ‘spirit’ or ‘mind’.
Man's spiritual nature is considered to be the very essence of his/her being.

EXPONENTS OF IDEALISM PHILOSOPHY

Plato, Socrates, Kant, Hegel, Berkley, Guru Nanak, Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi, Comenius, Kapila, Pestalozzi,
Schopenhauer, Freebel, Dayanannda, Rusk.

CHIEF ASSERTIONS OF IDEALISM

 Idealism believes in the ‘universal mind’ or ‘God’. He/she is the creator and he/she creates entire world. It is
the source of all human values. The goal of all human activities is the realization of ‘universal mind’ in his/her
own self.
It regards man as a ‘spiritual being’, superior to animals. Reality is found in the mind of man and in the
external world.
Main aim of human life is to achieve spiritual values i.e., truth, beauty and goodness. These values are
absolute, undying and permanent, with these terms, man rises higher and higher in the moral plane, till he/she
becomes one with the ‘universal mind’. These are all attributes of God.
God is the source of all knowledge and real knowledge is perceived in mind. According to idealists, knowledge
gained through mind is more important, than knowledge gained through the senses.
The world of ideas and values is more important than the world of matter. Idealism has full faith in eternal
values which never change. They can neither be created nor destroyed.
Man can express himself in language and communicate through various forms of art and culture. Man
expresses his/her spiritual aspirations through morality and religion.
Idealists maintain the distinctiveness and superiority of man's nature, not only from his/her spiritual capacities
but also seen in his/her power and control over the environment.
Man can change and manipulate the physical environment and shaping it according to his/her needs, he/she
has also the power of controlling the spiritual and cultural environment and values, it can be represented by
communication through art, culture, knowledge, morality and religion.
Reality is spiritual. It exists in ideas, purposes, intangible values and internal truths.

IDEALISM IN EDUCATION

Educational idealists believe that man is born with spiritual self. He/she can realize his/her spirituality and
understand its true nature only through the agency of education. Education is expected to enlarge the
boundaries of the spiritual realm. Ideals of race and its cultural pattern are preserved, transmitted and modified
subsequently in the light of new situations.

INTELLECTUAL TRAINING

The world is based on natural laws that are eternal and unchanging, logical consequence, physical laws are
based on reason must be taught, as nature is simply the outer expression of an
30inner logical order.

UNIQUE NATURE OF MAN

In nature, man alone can understand logic order in existence through the power of his/her mind by reasoning and
self-discipline. It is provided by the family and school, acquires an effort of mind and will. Social habits can be
formulated with the process of rational development.
 IDEALISM AND AIMS IN EDUCATION

Idealism lays proper stress on the glory and grandeur of human life, which is the best creation of God. It has
provided human life with high aims.

EXALTATION OF HUMAN PERSONALITY

Education should lead to perfection in the individual. Human personality is of supreme value and constitutes the
noblest work of God. The aim of education should be the exaltation of the self, which implies self-realization. It is
the one i.e.specially associated with idealism, since man is a spiritual being, the divine in man should be unified
and brought to his/her consciousness by means of education.

SELF-REALIZATION

Duties to self
Cleanliness, neatness, moderation, satisfaction of all desires, self-control, self-sacrifice, punctuality, regularity,
avoidance of obscenity, profanity and immoral language
The function of education is to enable the individual to realize this unity within him and to establish a harmony
between his/her nature and the ultimate nature of universe. Indian idealism practices liberation, mukti or
nirvana as the ultimate aim of life.

SWAMI VIVEKANANDA EXPLAINED THE FOUR-FOLD PATH

Gnana (wisdom)
Bhakti (devotion)
Karma (action)
Yajna (meditation)
Idealist's aim at the full and complete training of man for manhood and not the development of some parts of
man.

ACQUISITION AND ENRICHMENT OF CULTURE ENVIRONMENT

Man himself is the creator of cultural environment. It is a product of man's creative activity. Idealists therefore,
emphasize that each child should enter into the cultural heritage of mankind which is free from the limitations of
the material environment. Man has to preserve the culture, what he/she has inherited and also make to
contribute the enrichment of that culture, so that the boundaries of spiritual realm will be enlarged. Education
must help the individual in this contribution. Education should aim at providing the mean of acquainting the
student with great achievements in art, literature, mathematics and sciences. Man should be able to invent,
create, produce new and beautiful ideas and objects of community and society. Education should emphasize,
encourage invention and creation as a part of culture.

DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL SENSE: POWERS AND RATIONALITY

Intellectual development requires training in logical understanding and perception.

When the child develops moral sense, he/she is able to distinguish between right and wrong. Education
should also develop the will power of the child, so that he/she may be able to follow the good and reject the evil.
This power of truth, beauty and goodness which are the higher moral values.

SELF-CULTURE

The pupil has to learn:

Polite behavior
Good manners
Self-control. 31

INDUSTRIOUSNESS

Reliability
Sincerity
Perseverance.

DUTIES TO OTHERS

The virtues of modest

Respect for the opinions of others
Cooperativeness
Liberality and generosity
Religious education.
 UNIVERSAL EDUCATION

Since all human beings are equally the children of God and are equal. In idealistic society, education should be
universal without any distinction of caste, creed, color or social status.

DEVELOPMENT OF INVENTIVE AND CREATIVE POWERS

Man should not accept his/her physical environment as unchangeable. He/she should modify the environment
according to his/her needs and mould it according to his/her own purposes through his/her inventive and creative
skill. Education must foster those inventive power of man to ensure his/her mastery over the material given to
him.

IDEALISM AND CURRICULUM

In idealism, the curriculum will be selected based upon ideas and ideals. It aims to develop a true sense of
appreciation of truth, goodness and beauty by which spiritual perfection will result. Spiritual act consists of moral,
intellectual and esthetic events.

The three acts are inspired by the three corresponding desires of the spirit i.e., knowledge (gnana); feeling
(bhakthi); and effort (karma); therefore the idealistic curriculum provides the training and cultivation of the
intellectual, moral, esthetic acts for intellectual advancement of the child.

Language, Literature, Science, Social Studies and Mathematics are included in the curriculum. For aesthetic
and moral development: Fine arts, Poetry, Ethics and Religion are provided.

Idealistic philosophy and education also insists on the creation of sound mind in a sound body. Therefore,
physical exercises, hygiene, gymnastic and athletics are also included in the curriculum.

Thus the idealistic curriculum comprises of physical, intellectual and spiritual acts which will enable a man to
develop completely.

IDEALISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Self activity, project method, play way methods can be adopted to gain knowledge. (Pestacozzi advocated)
Froebel developed ‘kindergarten method’.
Questioning, discussion, lecture method, single and group projects, imitation etc. also included as techniques
of idealism.

IDEALISM AND DISCIPLINE

 Strict discipline is essential for self-realization.
Teacher's guidance is necessary at every step.
As far as idealists are considered, freedom is not a means but it is an end.

IDEALISM AND TEACHER

Idealist teacher has attained self-realization. He/she is a practical man based on ideal and virtuous life. He/she
should live a life of contentment, contemplation, poverty and detachment. His/her personality is a source of
inspiration for his/her students to follow and to learn the acts like a friend, a philosopher and guide.
The teacher personifies reality for the students. The student understands and learns about the universe
through his/her teacher.
The teacher has to be a specialist in the knowledge in view of his/her students.
32

Good teacher commands the respect of students by virtue of his/her own, high standards of behavior and
conduct.
Teacher initiates the pupil into the life of the intellect, but he/she provides standards related to attitudes,
imitation. The social atmosphere of the school, pattern of speech, conduct and appearance encouraged in the
school provide attitude for limitation by the student.

WEAKNESS OF IDEALISM IN EDUCATION

Scientific research study does not support the idealistic view of a spiritual universe.
Ideals cannot be simplified.
The social order today discourages imitation of ideas, ideals, behaviors and the standards that governed the
lives of people of the older generation.
The emphasis on good manners, polite behavior, docility, modesty sums out of tune with the present day
world, where aggressiveness reiteration of demands, outspokenness and frankness are regarded as essential
qualities in a competitive society.
A polite, restrained manner may be mistaken for snobbery.
Docility and modesty would be dubbed as evidence of diffidence.
Overloaded information—selectivity in reading and learning has become a necessity.

IDEALISM AND NURSING EDUCATION

To promote Moral, Spiritual, Emotional, Social, Psychological, Intellectual and Physical components among
learners. Nurse Educator will introduce the principles of Idealism in teaching. In teaching method, like
Questioning, Discussion, Project method, Play method, Lecture and Demonstration, Learning through immitation
will be adapted based on the subject content, requirement of curriculum and felt needs of learners/organization.
To enhance knowledge, feeling, efforts, decision making, e.g. able to differentiate right and wrong and select the
right one; wisdom of the learner, the teacher will act as role model and guide and counselor.

REALISM

INTRODUCTION

VIEWPOINT

What is true and real in daily life is admissible; whose reality is not felt and unreal is inadmissible.

This doctrine is against spiritualism and opposes to idealism.

MEANING AND IMPORTANCE

Realism is an outcome of scientific development

By observation, experimentation and examination if it is found to be true, can be considered as real
Realism is directly related to man and society
Through realism, man is able to enjoy the comforts of society, after getting all the joys of life
Realism provides education, which is useful for life where man can enjoy his/her activities and comforts in
reality

SUPPORTERS OF REALISM

J Friedrich Herbart: He/she gave educational ideas on principles of realism and development of many-sided
interests among the children. He/she explained, scientific effort has to be made by the teachers, which interest is
for better welfare of the child and society. After indentifying this analysis, interests among the children should be
developed in the context of different circumstances of life.

Herbert Spencer: According to Herbert, education has to teach man to lead a complete life and live full happy
life. The learner has to engage in the following acts in a desired manner.

Self-preservation (care of health)

Earning a living (preparation for vocation)
Fulfilling responsibilities related to race preservation
Fulfilling citizen responsibilities
 Utilization of leisure time 33

Franklin Bobit (American educationalist): Education should be provided according to the reality of life. Human
responsibilities and obligations which are necessary to lead a happy life are:

Acts concerned with language

Acts concerned with hygiene
Citizenship acts
Ordinary social acts
Leisure acts
Acts of mental health
Religious act
Acts concerning race preservation
Vocational behavior activities

NATURE OF EDUCATION

Scientific attitude based on realistic principle, where the learner can extends his/her knowledge, which he/she
learnt through books can be developed.

Spiritual need has not considered as a real need of education.

AIMS OF EDUCATION

Through education man leads a happy and comfortable life.

It enables the man capable of earning by vocational form.
To develop the memory of the child.
To strengthen wisdom and power of decision-making.
To create the capacity against struggles with adverse situations arising while earning a living.
To meet the felt needs of individual (related to materialistic).
To make the man as ‘utilitarian’ with the usage of mother tongue, experiments, demonstration and tours etc.
Education will be provided according to the reality of life.
To develop the child capacity for success in the struggles of future life.

REALISM AND CURRICULUM

Science, Mathematics, Hygiene, Vocational activities etc. have been given prominence in the curriculum.
 REALISM AND NURSING EDUCATION

Nurse Educator will use project method, Demonstration, Field trip, Experimentation to promote observation,
intellectual, Examination and analyzing skills among learners. Realistic approach, learning by doing observation
etc. will be used.

PRAGMATISM

INTRODUCTION

It is derived from Greek word, ‘pragmatism’ which means ‘practice or action; active and efficient’. A pragmatist
lives in the world of facts rather than ideas or ideals. In American philosophy, ‘pragmatism’ means ‘utility’. William
James is the founder and father of this philosophy.

CHIEF EXPONENTS OF PRAGMATISM—WILLIAM JAMES, JOHN DEWEY, S. KIL

PATRICK, MARGARET H AND MEAD MEANING

Pragmatism is a matter of fact, treatment of things based solely on their practical utility. It is the element of utility
that has the greatest appeal for a pragmatist. For him, utility is truth and truth is utility. Pragmatism believes in
practical and utilitarian philosophy.

Pragmatism is a typical American philosophy. Americans experimented upon many new ideas and adopted
those which proved useful for them in solving their day-to-day problems. Consequently they built up a
‘Pragmatism of life’, based on their own experiments and experiences. This is 34
the pragmatic philosophy of life.

Man as a natural biological organism, schools become secular, scientific, practical, technical and scholarly
pursuits became an extension of problem solving. The experiences which are helpful for the learner and help for
direct training. It will be helpful for occupational activities.

PRINCIPLES OF PRAGMATISM

Man creates his/her own values during the course of act. There are no fixed values for all times.
Every truth is man-made product. There is nothing like absolute truth.
Pragmatism laid special stress on the value of experimentation. It stands for testing every statement by finding
out its practical implications. If these implications are desirable, the statement is accepted, otherwise it is
rejected.
True pragmatism is one, that helps in the solution of practical problems of life.
Pragmatism should have meaning and utility in the solution of human problems (John Dewey).
 Pragmatism should be practical and useful in influencing the conduct of life and not a passive enquiry or
contemplation.
The growth of human personality takes place because of interaction with the environment. Man tries to adjust
himself to his/her environment and this results in his/her growth. During the process of adjustment, man
adopts himself to his/her environment but he/she also tries to mould the environment according to his/her
needs, purposes and desires.
Pragmatism has deep faith in democracy, it is a Government by the people, of the people and for the people.
Through democracy only individual can realize the maximum development of his/her personality. This
development is possible only in social context.
Individual development also leads to the development of society.

REVOLT AGAINST TRADITIONALISM AND ABSOLUTISM

Reality or truth works out in a practical situation whatever fulfils one's purpose and develops one's life is true.

Movement in education is preoccupied with change

Man shares his/her fundamental drives with other living creatures
Moral values e.g. truth, goodness, beauty etc. have evolved through social processes
Man has biologically unique features; the phenomenon of language gives him the power to reflect upon
experiences to indentify, criticize, evaluate and judge them
Man and his/her universal are natural; man is an organism struggling to satisfy his/her need and to perpetuate
himself in a natural world. The methods he/she has used in conserving life and satisfying his/her needs are
scientific or empirical
A new logic and concept of the nature of thought and enquiry.

FORMS OF PRAGMATISM

1. Humanistic pragmatism: Truth satisfies human nature and welfare as a whole. Whatever fulfils one's purpose,
desires and develops one's life is true.
2. Experimental pragmatism: Which can be verified or whatever work is the true.
3. Biological pragmatism: It stresses the human ability of adaptation to the environment and that of adapting the
environment to human needs.

PRAGMATISM IN EDUCATION

It is a practical and utilitarian school of pragmatism; It believes in imparting education with reference to human
needs. It enables the child to solve his/her daily problems and also to lead a better and happy life by creating
new values.

Education therefore must have its intellectual, moral, esthetic, social and physical aspects. Pragmatism is
the product of education, i.e. outcome of educational experiments.

Pragmatism of education is not an external application of readymade ideas to a system of practice. It is on

the other hand, a formulation of the problems of right mental and moral attitudes which should help a person to
meet the difficulties of contemporary social life—Dewey.

Pragmatism stands for progressive trends in education. According to pragmatism, activity lies at the centre
of all educative process, which is progressive and flexible. It stands for freedom
35and worth of the individual.

Pragmatism works on the principle of democracy and education is a social necessity. Pragmatists believe
that pragmatism is the product of educational practice and it has its effects on the various aspects of education.
Educated person should be in command of skills and knowledge to meet and master the new problems that
come in their lives.

EDUCATIONAL APPLICATIONS

The school becomes child centred, education will help the child to grow
Education is centred in the experience of the children and this sense of need experienced by the children
should be fulfilled
In the school, the child learns the activities by practicing it, so the school has to provide conducive
environment for the children. The child will learn most of the life things within the school. The teacher will act
as a guide or counsellor. The pupil actively participates in the planning of activities with the teacher
Cultivate creative interest among the child, intelligent cooperative effort is necessary
Child centred education is to build a future centred society.

PRAGMATISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

CREATION OF NEW VALUES

The pragmatist does not start with any fixed aims or scheme of values. The main task of the education is to put
the education into a position of developing values for himself. The man has to create the values in the light of
his/her own experience and felt needs. The child must learn, which values will fulfill and satisfy his/her needs and
wants in the environment, he/she has to create such environment for the child.

ACTIVITY AND EXPERIENCE

For the creation of new values, activity and experience are essential. Education should therefore provide
physical, intellectual, social, moral and esthetic acts as the media for the creation of values and for the
development and selection of what the child wants to learn to satisfy his/her own needs for the present as well as
for the future.

PERSONAL AND SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT

All the aspects are developed for meeting the individual and social needs of man, this will help him to cope with
the varied problems and situations in life successfully. Direct the impulses, interests and abilities towards the
satisfaction of the felt needs of the child in the environment.

RECONSTRUCTION OF EXPERIENCE

Pragmatists will provide a social setting for the development of cooperative and correlated learning in the school.
Pragmatism emphasises adaptation to environment construction and reconstruction of experience and
development of capacities to control the environment.

ALL-ROUND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

The learner through pragmatism will develop physically, mentally, socially, morally and esthetically.

PRAGMATISM AND CURRICULUM

ACTIVITY CURRICULUM

Pragmatists will not fix the curriculum in advance or in the beginning itself. Only an outline of the acts may be
kept in view in the beginning and curriculum can be evolved according to the requirement of the situations. Thus,
it will be a flexible and changing curriculum. While deciding it, the nature of the child and the multiple acts of life
must be taken into consideration.

The curriculum should be based on child's occupations and activities, his/her own experiences learnt by
doing the activities. The principle of integration and correlated activities should guide in curriculum construction.

UTILITARIAN CURRICULUM

It includes the subjects, which will impart knowledge and various types of skills, which the child needs in his/her
present as well as future life. The curriculum is to be governed by the child's natural interests and felt
needs during the successive stages of development. The experiences are provided
36 which give knowledge and
skills to the child. At the elementary stage reading, writing, arithmetic, nature study, drawing and handwork are
provided.

At a later stage, practical subjects like Languages, Social studies, Physical Sciences, Mathematics and
Hygiene are included in the curriculum. Agriculture for boys and Home Sciences for girls is prescribed. Training
in some craft or vocation also advocated.

PRINCIPLE OF INTEGRATION

While deciding the subjects of curriculum, the principle of integration is kept in view. Instead of dividing
knowledge into various subject fields, integrated knowledge around various problems of life is preferred.
Pragmatism emphasises only the utilitarian aspect, so it will neglect useful subjects like art and poetry.

PRAGMATISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING

1. Project method and practical oriented (learn—ing by doing):According to pragmatists, the method of teaching
are devised by the teacher in the light of real life situations. Education is not training or imparting knowledge,
but to encourage training through self effort and creative activity. Knowledge is not only obtained from books,
but also actually by doing the things.
2. Provision of real life situation and touching and handling of objects, tools and making things: Project methods
are carried out in natural settings. The child is given a real and purposeful task to carry out. Thus the child gets
knowledge and skills from the experience gained in accomplishment of that task.

Psychologically also these methods are effective because the child is always interested in doing things with
his/her own hands.

The school, the curriculum and the subject matter all are considered from the child's point of view.

Six stages in this method:

Providing a real situation

Selection of the project
Planning
Execution of plan
The evaluation
Judgment of its utility

3. Discussion, questioning and inquiry: Methods also considered in philosophy of pragmatism.

PRAGMATISM AND DISCIPLINE

Purposeful and cooperative acts carried in a free and happy environment are conducive to good discipline
Thus, they go a long way in the training of character and the establishment of self-discipline
Self discipline is not exposed control by an external authority
‘Pragmatism also emphasizes on social discipline through participation in cooperative acts in the school
society
Social discipline enables the child to have the virtues like toleration, mutual respect, sympathy, self-control,
initiative, service of humanity and originality.

PRAGMATISM AND THE TEACHER

The teacher will create real life situation in which some problems may emerge and the child is interested in the
solution of those problems
The teacher will keep the pupil in the position of a discoverer and experimenter
Teacher will not impose anything in the child. The child will decide his/her own goals, aims and purposes
independently.

STRENGTHS OF PRAGMATISM IN EDUCATION

The student will learn the skills and meet his/her needs, prepared himself to live in society
The student will try to meet the immediate felt needs
The child learns the activities by doing. He/she will develop his/her qualities, abilities, thinking, reasoning,
judgment based on either individual or social behavior
Both teacher and student should explore in the adventure of seeking knowledge
37

The pragmatic approach is based upon recognition of technological and industrialized felt needs
Applicable in American settings.

WEAKNESSES OF PRAGMATISM

It does not give raise the question of the ultimate reality behind the things
Artificiality in situation
Problem solving activity may be pleasurable and challenging for the learners, but it may have little or no
relationship with problems that occur in real life situations
The teacher may be unable to cope with the demands of teaching
Humanities, cultural acts have no place
Teacher will act as information officer only. No faith in eternal truth, which is a stable body of knowledge
Many gaps and deficiencies in the learning approach has been observed
 Denial of spiritual, cultural values are unpalatable
Less practiced in Indian settings.

CONCLUSION

Pragmatism emphasizes on child's individuality, his/her needs, interests and aptitudes. Principles of learning
by doing, activity and experience, it stresses on integration of knowledge and relating the curriculum to real life
situation, project method
The teacher has to provide opportunities for act and to have the experience both in school and play ground
The teacher is a friend and a helper
The teacher should be alert, well informed and able to discuss the facts, subject matter with students

PRAGMATISM AND NURSING EDUCATION

Nursing Educator will create a real life situation in which the learner will indentify and select some problem based
on his/her interest and specialization. He/she will does experimentation of discover by doing certain activities or
research skills, work on that problem, integrate and correlation of activities and the facts analyses, concludes the
findings, communicate its results. The teaching methods like project method, experimentation, demonstration,
scientific enquiry etc. will be used. The learner will use self efforts, skill development, creative activities performs
activity, observes and analyzes the situation. The learner will enhance intellectual, moral, esthetic, mental, social,
moral, physical and clinical skills. Thus pragmatism has practical utility, provides cooperative and corelated
learning experiences, construction and re-construction of experiences which will enhance clinical skills,
experimentation skills among learners. Teachers will function as a guide, resource person and counselor.

MODERN CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

The world and its values are continuously changing, the educational system also changes from time to time.
Each one philosophy has its own contributions and limitations; no one philosophy is complete in itself and can be
applied successfully in all situations. Education has to be flexible and dynamic. It has to adopt, to the changing
conditions and environment throughout the ages.
 EXISTENTIALISM

INTRODUCTION

It is the youngest philosophy, described as modern 20th century philosophy, however a wide general recognition
in educational field is not yet received.

DEFINITION

A modern philosophy which is primarily built upon the work of the contemporary scholars of the 20th century.

MEANING

This philosophy views man as, participating in a world of things and events, human existence is the nature of
man to exist, to stand out into reality, to participate in being, to be present to all.
38

CHIEF EXPONENTS

Soren Kierkegaard (Danish philosopher); Jan Paul Satre (French writer); Karl Jaspers (German philosopher);
Paul T; Reinhold Niebuhr.

According to Soren Kierkegaard (founder of existentialism), it is ultimate aim of man in life is ‘to be that which
is truly, man must accept the existence of God, is by faith, nor by reasoning’.

Later the thinkers did not consider God to be a necessity.

Jean Paul Satre, argued that human life has no purpose, existence is ultimate and that we must choose, by
choosing, we become ourselves.

ASSUMPTIONS

1. The centre of existence is man rather than truth, laws, principles or essence: The recognition of the individual
existence, man makes himself through choices among many alternatives in the environment.

Man is characterized by decisions, will and choice; certain uniqueness and mastery about the human
person.

2. The uniqueness and mystery of man: The uniqueness of man comes from his/her emotions, feelings,
perception and thinking. Man is the maker and master of culture. Man imposes a meaning on his/her universe.
3. Man is not alone in the world: Man is a social being, he/she is gregariousness in nature, and he/she cannot
live in a state of anarchy. Life is seen as a gift and mystery. Man is free to choose commitments in life, he/she
is the product of the choices. Man's existence is more important than his/her essence.
4. Man cannot accept the ready-made concepts of existence forced upon him: Man is free agent capable of
shaping his/her own life and choosing his/her own destiny. We cannot treat people as machines.
5. Self-knowledge: Self - knowledge is the key to all truth and knowledge. ‘know thyself’ is the basic premise of
this philosophy.
6. Freedom and responsibility: Based on freedom and responsibility, man can create his/her own values.
7. Man is not complete: Man has to meet the challenges in the changing society. He/she has to accomplish all
tasks and activities.

EXISTENTIALISM AND EDUCATION

George Kneller has written ‘existentialism and education’.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

Becoming a human being, as one who lives and makes decisions about what he/she will do. Human existence
and the value includes knowing oneself, social relationship and biological development etc.
Trainers have to provide healthy atmosphere and environment for the children to find sense of securing
encouragement, trustworthiness and acceptance.
Children have to relieve from emotional stress, e.g. intense competition, harsh discipline, fear of failure.
Each individual has to grow to understand his/her own needs and values and take charge of the experiences
for changing them.
Self-evaluation is the end of learning process. Education has to make the child to have free growing
environment, fearless, understanding individuals.
Classroom atmosphere has to prepare young people to become active, trust worthy and responsible.
All school subjects should present situations for the development of human beings.
The teacher should facilitate development of originality and creativity by providing necessary material and
equipment.
The teacher is in a position to foster individual growth and he/she is the foreground and is the centre of
attention.
The teacher is very active and welcomes challenges to his/her ideas from the students.
The democratic ideals must pervade the school environment in which the students has to grow.
Concern and respect for the individual student should be the main concern of the school.
Mechanization and impersonality are to be counteracted in schools. 39
 LIMITATIONS IN EXISTENTIALISM

Educational methods applied are said to be impractical.

Time and effort consuming.
The concepts like ‘being’ ‘meaning’ existence’ ‘person’ are ambiguous and not clear.

EXISTENTIALISM AND NURSING EDUCATION

Nurse educator has to promote creativity among learners, teacher has to keep hard efforts to improve social
aspect of health in learners. Teacher will provide conducive environment in teaching, learning situations which
endorse the mental psychological and social aspects in development of learners.

PROGRESSIVISM

INTRODUCTION

It is an American philosophy, which is a revolt against the ‘formal/conventional/traditional’ system of education. It

became popular, in 1929 the economic depression of USA adversely affected the educational system of the
country.

MEANING

Education is centred around for the present life itself. The development of an individual and the society is only
possible, when education facilitates the growth of every phase of the child.

EXPONENTS

John Dewey; William James; G Thomas Lawrence; William Kilpatric. A large number of schools in Europe and
USA were started this philosophy

AIMS OF EDUCATION

To develop the personality of an individual through providing a democratic environment in the educational
institutions.
 PROGRESSIVISM AND CURRICULUM

It should be based on the actual giving environment of the child. It must reflect his/her daily life.

CURRICULUM INCLUDES

Political; Moral; Social; Vocational; Intellectual; Mathematics; General science, Languages; Integration of
experiences.

PROGRESSIVISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Project method—active participation of the pupils in learning

Socialized methods—to bring all the individuals into a group system of interaction
Conferences
Consultation
Demonstrations and reform demonstrations.

PROGRESSIVISM AND THE TEACHER

The human elements, human beings are given more importance. The teacher has to meet the needs of learner
as good human being.

The teacher, who is vital in education process and having richer, superior experience and can analyse the
present situation. Teacher will act as a stage setter, guide and coordinator but he/she is not total authority, just
he/she guides the situation.

PROGRESSIVISM AND THE SCHOOL

School is a cooperative enterprise, it provide conducive environment for democratic

40 growth of the child.

PROGRESSIVISM AND NURSING EDUCATION

Nurse Educator will act as a guide, coordinator in teaching-learning activities. Provides democratic environment
in Nursing Educational Institutions. The teaching methods like Project method, Demonstration method,
Discussion, Conference, Consultation, Sociometry, Sociogram etc. will be used. Education is centered around
the Social, Intellectual and skill development among learners.
 BEHAVIORISM

INTRODUCTION

Person's behavior is the result of environmental conditioning. Man is a passive recipient, who reacts to external
stimuli, he/she has no will or decision of his/her own or the capacity to take spontaneous action.

PRINCIPLES

According to Skinner, each individual is having an ‘ego’, ‘mind’ centre of consciousness which enable him to
choose any course of action, that he/she wanted to do. Individual's actions are predetermined by his/her heredity
or immediate surroundings.

Man is not separate from his/her surrounding environment

Human behavior is controlled with creativity
Reflexes and other patterns of behavior evolve and change as they increases the chances of survival of the
species.

TECHNIQUES/METHODS OF TEACHING

Law of effect Reinforcement

Reward Shaping

Modeling Programmed behavior

Token economy Classical conditioning

Extinction Reciprocal inhibition

Desensitization Cognitive learning

Flooding Aversion

Response prevention and restraint Self-control technique

Contingency management Assertiveness training

Negative practice Contact

Time-out Punishment

Satiation Relaxation technique

Operant conditioning
 EDUCATIONAL APPLICATIONS

Systematic applications of principles of learning aims at changing maladaptive behavior with adaptive behavior.

Learning is governed by man's action and reaction to various media (oral, written, machine).

Learning occurs as a personal achievement through interaction between the learner and environment.

ADVANTAGES

Man tries to understand, predict, influence and control human behavior with rapidity.
Individualized instruction
Auto instruction
Self corrective
Reinforcement provided by correct answers is a source of encouragement to the slow learners.

LIMITATIONS

It requires technical proficiency

Goals are not kept in mind, in controlling human behavior
The concepts of freedom, capacity to choose, worthiness of individual will be
41completely lost.

BEHAVIORISM AND NURSING EDUCATION

Nurse Educator will utilize the skills and Behavior Modification techniques to promote the emotional health
among learners. Systematic application of principles of learning will be adopted by teacher. The learners will
easily adapts to any situations by utilizing the techniques and creates conducive environment to enhance their
learning.

HUMANISM

Man is an end, not a means

PRINCIPLES
The humanist emphasis is on literature.

He has to overcome the conflicts in his/her own time.

DIRECTIONS

Respect for language

Ancient cultures
Intellectuals for literary scholarship

HUMANISM ATTITUDE IS REFLECTED IN CERTAIN VALUE SYSTEMS

Values are of the highest quality, benefit will occur

Fall/decline in moral, esthetic standards, values results in violence and barbarism (undisciplined behavior,
crude tastes and rude manners)
Values are intellectual abstractions, eternal and unchanging
Values are fundamental measures of human experience
Human problems are problems of values
Literature portrays man in historical circumstances and reflects moral decisions, civilized behavior
Absolute and eternal values are inexpressible

THE ROLE OF EDUCATION IN HUMANISM

Children must be taught to respect language, a sense of language perfection

Children must be trained in modern literary standards of academics

CURRICULUM

Music, Literature; central concern is respect for intellectual values and traditions.

TEACHER

The teacher is expected to be well-read, well-trained in humanities subjects and superior attainment.
 HUMANISM AND NURSING EDUCATION

Nurse educator will keep sincere efforts for the promotion of linguistic development among learners. Nurses has
to work in varied community settings, deal with people and their problems. The learners has to understand the
language, which the patient is speaking, so only inclusion of languages in the curriculum has given weightage
such that the learners will able to understand the client's problems; indentify the needs, implements nursing
process and meets the needs or clients in a systematic way by utilizing the theoritical knowledge and practical
skills comprehensively. The teacher will act as a guide role-model and supporter for learners.

EXPERIMENTALISM

Experimentalists reject the laissez-faire individualism and permissiveness. They accept a naturalistic point of
view, but they want the control and utilization of nature - not submission to nature. It accepts the perspective of
evolution.

IDEAS OF SOCIOLOGY ADAPTED BY EXPERIMENTALISTS (ACCORDING TO JOHN

DEWEY)

Man is a social being and product of his/her environment 42

Learning depends on environment

Experimentalists ask people of the world, to appreciate and respect one another culture and to recognize that
differences merely reflect environment circumstances
Technology means progress in social development and social advance
The goal of man is not only to survive but also to live a good life, economic well-being which is a motive for
psychological and social behavior. The school is social institution, democratic philosophy of education has to
be represented

EXPERIMENTALISM AND NURSING EDUCATION

Nurse educator will utilize scientific, systematic enquiry in meting the felt needs and demand needs of the client.
They will promote skills among learners, e.g. scientific skills, interaction and interpersonal skills. In community
health nursing practice, nurses will utilizes the resources in community and implement promotive, preventive,
curative and educative activities will be implemented. Experimentalism philosophy, principles will be adapted
both hospital and community clinical settings.

ECLECTICISM
 INTRODUCTION

To familiarize with different philosophies, draw the best and essential points inspiration from all of them and make
into one harmonious whole and build one's own philosophy of education. It is known as, the ‘eclectic tendency’ in
education.

All the philosophies are oriented towards philosophy of life. it differs how one thinks about life; their own views
related to life, different educationists formulated different philosophies. Some gave importance to spiritual and
mental aspects of life, while others gave emphasis to the physical and social aspects. Man is a complex being
with physical, mental, psychological, spiritual and social aspects of life. There should be a happy and
harmonious life in various aspects related to life. A holistic philosophy of education which would help for the total
development of the individual, is useful. No school of philosophy meets the entire requirements of varied
situations in life. No system of education can be exclusively based on a particular school of philosophy. Infact, no
educator is exclusively idealist, naturalist or pragmatist. For the modern educationists, it will be beneficial and
effective, if they make a thorough study of these different schools of philosophy and then rearrange and relate
the essential principles into one harmonious whole and thus build their own theory of the education with the best
material. This would be basis for ‘eclectic tendency’ in education.

DEFINITION

“The synthesis or harmonious blend of the diverse philosophies of education. It is the process of pulling out and
putting together of the useful and essential aspects of various philosophies of education.”

MEANING

The fusion or synthesis of different philosophies of education

The harmonization of principles underlying various tendencies and rationalization of educational practices -
Munroe's view
The process of putting together the common views of different philosophies into comprehensive whole

NEED

No philosophy is complete in itself. It cannot be applied successfully in all situations

To find unity in diversity through eclectic approach
To meet the changing needs and demands in the world and cultivate change in behavior, no need for the
learners to stick to one dogma, ideology or philosophy
Indian philosophers have always recognized the value of adjustment in the midst of conflicting ideologies.
They always try to resolve the difficulties through peaceful and consistence means. So in Indian culture and
 civilization, we find deeprooted eclecticism and fusion 43

There is a diversity of thinking in all aspects of human culture and civilization. The educator tries to discover
some unity of thought in this diversity
Uniform tendency or holistic approach is needed for Indian culture and its civilization
The abilities and the talents of youth are properly channelized and utilized, the eclectic tendency is needed
To promote good citizenship, equality of opportunity, universality in education, eclectic tendency is essential.

AREAS OF AGREEMENT OR THE ECLECTIC TENDENCY AT WORK IN EDUCATION

Idealism stresses spirituality and absolute values; naturalism emphasizes the matter in man; pragmatism is
regarded as a sort of compromise between spiritualism and materialism

The naturalistic philosophy moulds the individual in natural and physical environment; it follows natural
environment and prepares the child to adapt himself to it. Idealism wishes the individual to fit him in the present
day individualized and mechanized world, it goes to the extreme in the concept of changing the environment. To
make the learner perfect with creative values and adjusting to the changing demands of eclectic tendency in
society, education has started. The respect for the child as an individual and placing him at the centre of the
educational process, which is a common feature in most modern philosophies of education.

MEETING GROUND OF ALL PHILOSOPHIES

1. Respect for child's personality: Dignity and respect the child's personality. Child is the centre of educative
process, the philosophies will mould the child according to their own view point.
2. Powerful force of mind: Mind is powerful force in the life of man.
Idealists regard mind as a creator of its objects and a discoverer of its own laws. The mind and spirit together
form reality—naturalists believe in the impact of environment on mind. The external world within the
environment influences the mind and intellect. Pragmatists view the mind is a functional behavior.
3. Free discipline: Discipline is only a means and not end in itself. Self-government is acceptable of all, as a
powerful means of inculcating discipline.
4. Individual and social development: Social efficiency and individual development are important aim of
education.
Health; Command of fundamental processes; Worthy home membership; Vocation; Citizenship; Worthy use of
leisure; Ethical character; Enjoyment in freedom; Integrating personality.
5. Curriculum: Unity of mind and heart of people among divergent traditions of the country. Life centred
curriculum for providing total experiences.
Humanities, Language skills, Mathematics, Arts, Practical arts and Crafts, History, Geography, Sciences,
Logic, Grammar, essential skills, desirable attitudes and social virtues are included in various curricula.