Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8 Securing Networks en US

Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8
Securing networks
Configuring secured networks and network communication
Last Updated: 2019-08-20

Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8 Securing networks
Configuring secured networks and network communication
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Abstract
This title assists administrators with securing networks, connected machines, and network
communication against various attacks.
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
. . . . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK
PROVIDING . . . . . . . . . . . . ON
. . . .RED
. . . . .HAT
. . . . .DOCUMENTATION
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. . . . . . . . . . . . .
.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 1.. .USING
. . . . . . . SECURE
. . . . . . . . . COMMUNICATIONS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BETWEEN
. . . . . . . . . . . TWO
. . . . . .SYSTEMS
. . . . . . . . . . .WITH
. . . . . .OPENSSH
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1. THE SSH PROTOCOL 7
1.1.1. Reasons for using SSH 7
1.1.2. Main features 7
1.1.3. Protocol versions 8
1.1.4. Event sequence of an SSH connection 8
1.1.4.1. Transport layer 8
1.1.4.2. Authentication 9
1.1.4.3. Channels 10
1.2. SETTING UP OPENSSH USING CONFIGURATION FILES 10
1.3. STARTING AN OPENSSH SERVER 12
1.3.1. Configuring the OpenSSH server keys generation 13
1.4. REQUIRING SSH FOR REMOTE CONNECTIONS 13
1.5. USING KEY-BASED AUTHENTICATION 13
1.5.1. Generating key pairs 14
1.6. RELATED INFORMATION 17
. . . . . . . . . . . 2.
CHAPTER . . PLANNING
. . . . . . . . . . . . AND
. . . . . .IMPLEMENTING
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .TLS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
..............
2.1. SSL AND TLS PROTOCOLS 18
Additional resources 18
2.2. SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR TLS IN RHEL 8 18
2.2.1. Protocols 19
2.2.2. Cipher suites 19
2.2.3. Public key length 19
2.3. HARDENING TLS CONFIGURATION IN APPLICATIONS 20
2.3.1. Configuring the Apache HTTP server 20
2.3.2. Configuring the Nginx HTTP and proxy server 21
2.3.3. Configuring the Dovecot mail server 21
.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 3.
. . CONFIGURING
................A
. . VPN
. . . . . WITH
. . . . . . IPSEC
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
..............
3.1. LIBRESWAN AS AN IPSEC VPN IMPLEMENTATION 23
3.2. INSTALLING LIBRESWAN 24
Prerequisites 24
Procedure 24
3.3. CREATING A HOST-TO-HOST VPN 24
Procedure 24
3.4. CONFIGURING A SITE-TO-SITE VPN 25
Prerequisites 25
Procedure 26
3.5. CONFIGURING A REMOTE ACCESS VPN 26
3.6. CONFIGURING A MESH VPN 27
Prerequisites 28
Procedure 28
3.7. METHODS OF AUTHENTICATION USED IN LIBRESWAN 29
.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 4.
. . .CONFIGURING
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .MACSEC
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
..............
4.1. INTRODUCTION TO MACSEC 32
1
4.2. USING MACSEC WITH NMCLI TOOL 32

Prerequisites 32
Procedure 32
4.3. USING MACSEC WITH WPA_SUPPLICANT 32
Procedure 32
.CHAPTER
. . . . . . . . . . 5.
. . USING
. . . . . . . .AND
. . . . .CONFIGURING
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .FIREWALLS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
..............
5.1. GETTING STARTED WITH FIREWALLD 34
5.1.1. firewalld 34
5.1.2. Zones 34
5.1.3. Predefined services 35
5.2. INSTALLING THE FIREWALL-CONFIG GUI CONFIGURATION TOOL 36
Procedure 36
5.3. VIEWING THE CURRENT STATUS AND SETTINGS OF FIREWALLD 36
5.3.1. Viewing the current status of firewalld 36
Procedure 36
5.3.2. Viewing current firewalld settings 37
5.3.2.1. Viewing allowed services using GUI 37
5.3.2.2. Viewing firewalld settings using CLI 37
5.4. STARTING FIREWALLD 38
Procedure 38
5.5. STOPPING FIREWALLD 38
Procedure 39
5.6. RUNTIME AND PERMANENT SETTINGS 39
5.7. CONTROLLING NETWORK TRAFFIC USING FIREWALLD 40
5.7.1. Disabling all traffic in case of emergency using CLI 40
Procedure 40
5.7.2. Controlling traffic with predefined services using CLI 40
Procedure 40
5.7.3. Controlling traffic with predefined services using GUI 41
5.7.4. Adding new services 41
Procedure 41
5.7.5. Controlling ports using CLI 42
5.7.5.1. Opening a port 42
Procedure 42
5.7.5.2. Closing a port 43
Procedure 43
5.7.6. Opening ports using GUI 43
5.7.7. Controlling traffic with protocols using GUI 43
5.7.8. Opening source ports using GUI 44
5.8. WORKING WITH FIREWALLD ZONES 44
5.8.1. Listing zones 44
Procedure 44
5.8.2. Modifying firewalld settings for a certain zone 44
Procedure 44
5.8.3. Changing the default zone 44
Procedure 45
5.8.4. Assigning a network interface to a zone 45
2
Table of Contents
Procedure 45
5.8.5. Assigning a default zone to a network connection 45
Procedure 45
5.8.6. Creating a new zone 46
Procedure 46
5.8.7. Zone configuration files 46
5.8.8. Using zone targets to set default behavior for incoming traffic 47
Procedure 47
5.9. USING ZONES TO MANAGE INCOMING TRAFFIC DEPENDING ON A SOURCE 47
5.9.1. Using zones to manage incoming traffic depending on a source 47
5.9.2. Adding a source 47
Procedure 47
5.9.3. Removing a source 48
Procedure 48
5.9.4. Adding a source port 48
Procedure 48
5.9.5. Removing a source port 48
Procedure 48
5.9.6. Using zones and sources to allow a service for only a specific domain 48
Procedure 49
5.9.7. Configuring traffic accepted by a zone based on a protocol 49
5.9.7.1. Adding a protocol to a zone 49
Procedure 49
5.9.7.2. Removing a protocol from a zone 49
Procedure 50
5.10. CONFIGURING IP ADDRESS MASQUERADING 50
Procedure 50
5.11. PORT FORWARDING 50
5.11.1. Adding a port to redirect 50
Prerequisites 50
Procedure 51
5.11.2. Redirecting TCP port 80 to port 88 on the same machine 51
Procedure 51
5.11.3. Removing a redirected port 51
Procedure 51
5.11.4. Removing TCP port 80 forwarded to port 88 on the same machine 52
Procedure 52
5.12. MANAGING ICMP REQUESTS 52
5.12.1. Listing and blocking ICMP requests 52
5.12.2. Configuring the ICMP filter using GUI 54
5.13. SETTING AND CONTROLLING IP SETS USING FIREWALLD 54
5.13.1. Configuring IP set options using CLI 54
5.14. CONFIGURING FIREWALL LOCKDOWN 56
5.14.1. Configuring lockdown with using CLI 57
5.14.2. Configuring lockdown whitelist options using CLI 57
5.14.3. Configuring lockdown whitelist options using configuration files 59
5.15. LOG FOR DENIED PACKETS 59
Installed documentation 60
Online documentation 61
. . . . . . . . . . . 6.
CHAPTER . . .GETTING
. . . . . . . . . .STARTED
. . . . . . . . . . WITH
. . . . . . NFTABLES
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
..............
3
6.1. INTRODUCTION TO NFTABLES 62

6.2. CONVERTING IPTABLES TO NFTABLES 63
4
Table of Contents
5
PROVIDING FEEDBACK ON RED HAT DOCUMENTATION

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6
CHAPTER 1. USING SECURE COMMUNICATIONS BETWEEN TWO SYSTEMS WITH OPENSSH
CHAPTER 1. USING SECURE COMMUNICATIONS BETWEEN

TWO SYSTEMS WITH OPENSSH
SSH (Secure Shell) is a protocol which facilitates secure communications between two systems using a
client-server architecture and allows users to log in to server host systems remotely. Unlike other
remote communication protocols, such as FTP or Telnet, SSH encrypts the login session, rendering the
connection difficult for intruders to collect unencrypted passwords.
The ssh program is designed to replace older, less secure terminal applications used to log in to remote
hosts, such as telnet or rsh. A related program called scp replaces older programs designed to copy
files between hosts, such as rcp. Because these older applications do not encrypt passwords transmitted
between the client and the server, avoid them whenever possible. Using secure methods to log in to
remote systems decreases the risks for both the client system and the remote host.
Red Hat Enterprise Linux includes the general OpenSSH package, openssh, as well as the OpenSSH
server, openssh-server, and client, openssh-clients, packages. Note, the OpenSSH packages require
the OpenSSL package openssl-libs, which installs several important cryptographic libraries, enabling
OpenSSH to provide encrypted communications.
1.1. THE SSH PROTOCOL
1.1.1. Reasons for using SSH

Potential intruders have a variety of tools at their disposal enabling them to disrupt, intercept, and re-
route network traffic in an effort to gain access to a system. In general terms, these threats can be
categorized as follows:
Interception of communication between two systems

The attacker can be somewhere on the network between the communicating parties, copying any
information passed between them. He may intercept and keep the information, or alter the
information and send it on to the intended recipient.
This attack is usually performed using a packet sniffer, a rather common network utility that captures
each packet flowing through the network, and analyzes its content.
Impersonation of a particular host

Attacker’s system is configured to pose as the intended recipient of a transmission. If this strategy
works, the user’s system remains unaware that it is communicating with the wrong host.
This attack can be performed using a technique known as DNS poisoning , or via so-called IP spoofing.
In the first case, the intruder uses a cracked DNS server to point client systems to a maliciously
duplicated host. In the second case, the intruder sends falsified network packets that appear to be
from a trusted host.
Both techniques intercept potentially sensitive information and, if the interception is made for hostile
reasons, the results can be disastrous. If SSH is used for remote shell login and file copying, these
security threats can be greatly diminished. This is because the SSH client and server use digital
signatures to verify their identity. Additionally, all communication between the client and server systems
is encrypted. Attempts to spoof the identity of either side of a communication does not work, since each
packet is encrypted using a key known only by the local and remote systems.
1.1.2. Main features

The SSH protocol provides the following safeguards:
7
No one can pose as the intended server

After an initial connection, the client can verify that it is connecting to the same server it had
connected to previously.
No one can capture the authentication information
The client transmits its authentication information to the server using strong, 128-bit encryption.
No one can intercept the communication
All data sent and received during a session is transferred using 128-bit encryption, making
intercepted transmissions extremely difficult to decrypt and read.
Additionally, it also offers the following options:
It provides secure means to use graphical applications over a network

Using a technique called X11 forwarding, the client can forward X11 (X Window System) applications
from the server.
It provides a way to secure otherwise insecure protocols
The SSH protocol encrypts everything it sends and receives. Using a technique called port
forwarding, an SSH server can become a conduit to securing otherwise insecure protocols, like POP,
and increasing overall system and data security.
It can be used to create a secure channel
The OpenSSH server and client can be configured to create a tunnel similar to a virtual private
network for traffic between server and client machines.
It supports the Kerberos authentication
OpenSSH servers and clients can be configured to authenticate using the GSSAPI (Generic Security
Services Application Program Interface) implementation of the Kerberos network authentication
protocol.
1.1.3. Protocol versions

Two varieties of SSH currently exist: version 1, and newer version 2. The OpenSSH suite under Red Hat
Enterprise Linux 8; uses SSH version 2, which has an enhanced key exchange algorithm not vulnerable
to the known exploit in version 1. In Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8, the OpenSSH suite does not support
version 1 connections.
1.1.4. Event sequence of an SSH connection
The following series of events help protect the integrity of SSH communication between two hosts.
1. A cryptographic handshake is made so that the client can verify that it is communicating with
the correct server.
2. The transport layer of the connection between the client and remote host is encrypted using a
symmetric cipher.
3. The client authenticates itself to the server.
4. The client interacts with the remote host over the encrypted connection.
1.1.4.1. Transport layer
The primary role of the transport layer is to facilitate safe and secure communication between the two
hosts at the time of authentication and during subsequent communication. The transport layer
8
accomplishes this by handling the encryption and decryption of data, and by providing integrity
protection of data packets as they are sent and received. The transport layer also provides compression,
speeding the transfer of information.
Once an SSH client contacts a server, key information is exchanged so that the two systems can
correctly construct the transport layer. The following steps occur during this exchange:
Keys are exchanged
The public key encryption algorithm is determined
The symmetric encryption algorithm is determined
The message authentication algorithm is determined
The hash algorithm is determined
During the key exchange, the server identifies itself to the client with a unique host key. If the client has
never communicated with this particular server before, the server’s host key is unknown to the client and
it does not connect. OpenSSH gets around this problem by accepting the server’s host key. This is done
after the user is notified and has both accepted and verified the new host key. In subsequent
connections, the server’s host key is checked against the saved version on the client, providing
confidence that the client is indeed communicating with the intended server. If, in the future, the host
key no longer matches, the user must remove the client’s saved version before a connection can occur.

WARNING
It is possible for an attacker to masquerade as an SSH server during the initial

contact since the local system does not know the difference between the intended
server and a false one set up by an attacker. To help prevent this, verify the integrity
of a new SSH server by contacting the server administrator before connecting for
the first time or in the event of a host key mismatch.
SSH is designed to work with almost any kind of public key algorithm or encoding format. After an initial
key exchange creates a hash value used for exchanges and a shared secret value, the two systems
immediately begin calculating new keys and algorithms to protect authentication and future data sent
over the connection.
After a certain amount of data has been transmitted using a given key and algorithm (the exact amount
depends on the SSH implementation), another key exchange occurs, generating another set of hash
values and a new shared secret value. Even if an attacker is able to determine the hash and shared secret
value, this information is only useful for a limited period of time.
1.1.4.2. Authentication
Once the transport layer has constructed a secure tunnel to pass information between the two systems,
the server tells the client the different authentication methods supported, such as using a private key-
encoded signature or typing a password. The client then tries to authenticate itself to the server using
one of these supported methods.
SSH servers and clients can be configured to allow different types of authentication, which gives each
9
side the optimal amount of control. The server can decide which encryption methods it supports based
on its security model, and the client can choose the order of authentication methods to attempt from
the available options.
1.1.4.3. Channels
After a successful authentication over the SSH transport layer, multiple channels are opened using a
technique called multiplexing[1]. Each of these channels handles communication for different terminal
sessions and for forwarded X11 sessions.
Both clients and servers can create a new channel. Each channel is then assigned a different number on
each end of the connection. When the client attempts to open a new channel, the clients sends the
channel number along with the request. This information is stored by the server and is used to direct
communication to that channel. This is done so that different types of sessions do not affect one
another and so that when a given session ends, its channel can be closed without disrupting the primary
SSH connection.
Channels also support flow-control, which allows them to send and receive data in an orderly fashion. In
this way, data is not sent over the channel until the client receives a message that the channel is open.
The client and server negotiate the characteristics of each channel automatically, depending on the
type of service the client requests and the way the user is connected to the network. This allows great
flexibility in handling different types of remote connections without having to change the basic
infrastructure of the protocol.
1.2. SETTING UP OPENSSH USING CONFIGURATION FILES

The OpenSSH suite uses two different sets of configuration files: those for client programs (that is, ssh,
scp, and sftp), and those for the server (the sshd daemon).
System-wide SSH configuration information is stored in the /etc/ssh/ directory. User-specific SSH
configuration information is stored in ~/.ssh/ within the user’s home directory.
Table 1.1. System-wide configuration files
File Description
/etc/ssh/moduli Contains Diffie-Hellman groups used for the Diffie-

Hellman key exchange which is critical for
constructing a secure transport layer. When keys are
exchanged at the beginning of an SSH session, a
shared, secret value is created which cannot be
determined by either party alone. This value is then
used to provide host authentication.
/etc/ssh/ssh_config The default SSH client configuration file. Note that it

is overridden by ~/.ssh/config if it exists.
/etc/ssh/sshd_config The configuration file for the sshd daemon.
/etc/ssh/ssh_host_ecdsa_key The ECDSA private key used by the sshd daemon.
/etc/ssh/ssh_host_ecdsa_key.pub The ECDSA public key used by the sshd daemon.
10
File Description
/etc/ssh/ssh_host_ed25519_key The Ed25519 private key used by the sshd daemon

for version 2 of the SSH protocol.
/etc/ssh/ssh_host_ed25519_key.pub The Ed25519 public key used by the sshd daemon

for version 2 of the SSH protocol.
/etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key The RSA private key used by the sshd daemon for
version 2 of the SSH protocol.
/etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key.pub The RSA public key used by the sshd daemon for
version 2 of the SSH protocol.
/etc/pam.d/sshd The PAM configuration file for the sshd daemon.
/etc/sysconfig/sshd Configuration file for the sshd service.
Table 1.2. User-specific configuration files
File Description
~/.ssh/authorized_keys Holds a list of authorized public keys for servers.

When the client connects to a server, the server
authenticates the client by checking its signed public
key stored within this file.
~/.ssh/id_ecdsa Contains the ECDSA private key of the user.
~/.ssh/id_ecdsa.pub The ECDSA public key of the user.
~/.ssh/id_ed25519 The Ed25519 private key used by ssh for version 2 of

the SSH protocol.
~/.ssh/id_ed25519.pub The Ed25519 public key used by ssh for version 2 of

the SSH protocol.
~/.ssh/id_rsa The RSA private key used by ssh for version 2 of the
SSH protocol.
~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub The RSA public key used by ssh for version 2 of the
SSH protocol.
~/.ssh/known_hosts Contains host keys of SSH servers accessed by the

user. This file is very important for ensuring that the
SSH client is connecting to the correct SSH server.
11

WARNING
If setting up an SSH server, do not turn off the Privilege Separation feature by
using the UsePrivilegeSeparation no directive in the /etc/ssh/sshd_config file.
Turning off Privilege Separation disables many security features and exposes the
server to potential security vulnerabilities and targeted attacks. For more
information about UsePrivilegeSeparation, see the sshd_config(5) manual page
or the What is the significance of UsePrivilegeSeparation directive in
/etc/ssh/sshd_config file and how to test it Red Hat Knowledgebase article.
For information about various directives that can be used in the SSH configuration files, see the
ssh_config(5) and sshd_config(5) manual pages.
1.3. STARTING AN OPENSSH SERVER

To run an OpenSSH server, install the openssh-server package. To start the sshd daemon in the
current session:
# systemctl start sshd.service
To stop the running sshd daemon in the current session:
# systemctl stop sshd.service
To start the daemon automatically at boot time:
# systemctl enable sshd.service

Created symlink from /etc/systemd/system/multi-user.target.wants/sshd.service to
/usr/lib/systemd/system/sshd.service.
The sshd daemon depends on the network.target target unit, which is sufficient for static configured
network interfaces and for default ListenAddress 0.0.0.0 options. To specify different addresses in the
ListenAddress directive and to use a slower dynamic network configuration, add dependency on the
network-online.target target unit to the sshd.service unit file. To achieve this, create the
/etc/systemd/system/sshd.service.d/local.conf file with the following options:
[Unit]
Wants=network-online.target
After=network-online.target
After this, reload the systemd manager configuration using the following command:
# systemctl daemon-reload
Note that if you reinstall the system, a new set of identification keys will be created. As a result, clients
who had connected to the system with any of the OpenSSH tools before the reinstall will see the
following message:
12
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
@: REMOTE HOST IDENTIFICATION HAS CHANGED! @
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
IT IS POSSIBLE THAT SOMEONE IS DOING SOMETHING NASTY!
Someone could be eavesdropping on you right now (man-in-the-middle attack)!
It is also possible that the RSA host key has just been changed.
To prevent this, you can backup the relevant files from the /etc/ssh/ directory. See Table 1.1, “System-
wide configuration files” for a complete list, and restore the files whenever you reinstall the system.
1.3.1. Configuring the OpenSSH server keys generation

OpenSSH creates RSA, ECDSA, and ED25519 server keys automatically if they are missing. Prior to
RHEL 8, administrators have configured the automatic host keys creation in the /etc/sysconfig/sshd
file when needed. To configure the host key creation in RHEL 8, use the [email protected]
instantiated service.
For example, the following commands disable the automatic RSA key creation and enable the automatic
DSA key creation on the OpenSSH server:
# systemctl mask [email protected]

# systemctl enable [email protected]

WARNING
Note that DSA keys are insecure due to only small key size supported and thus
deprecated.
1.4. REQUIRING SSH FOR REMOTE CONNECTIONS

To make SSH truly effective, using insecure connection protocols should be prohibited. Otherwise, a
user’s password may be protected using SSH for one session, only to be captured later while logging in
using Telnet. Some services to disable include telnet, rsh, rlogin, and vsftpd.
1.5. USING KEY-BASED AUTHENTICATION

To improve the system security even further, generate SSH key pairs and then enforce key-based
authentication by disabling password authentication. To do so, open the /etc/ssh/sshd_config
configuration file in a text editor such as vi or nano, and change the PasswordAuthentication option as
follows:
PasswordAuthentication no
On a system other than a new default installation, check that PubkeyAuthentication no has not been
set. If connected remotely, not using console or out-of-band access, testing the key-based login
process before disabling password authentication is advised.
13
To be able to use ssh, scp, or sftp to connect to the server from a client machine, generate an
authorization key pair by following the steps below. Note that keys must be generated for each user
separately.
To use key-based authentication with NFS-mounted home directories, enable the use_nfs_home_dirs
SELinux boolean first:
# setsebool -P use_nfs_home_dirs 1
IMPORTANT
If you complete the steps as root, only root is able to use the keys.
NOTE
If you reinstall your system and want to keep previously generated key pairs, backup the
~/.ssh/ directory. After reinstalling, copy it back to your home directory. This process can
be done for all users on your system, including root.
1.5.1. Generating key pairs

To generate an RSA key pair for version 2 of the SSH protocol, follow these steps:
1. Generate an RSA key pair by typing the following at a shell prompt:
$ ssh-keygen -t rsa
Generating public/private rsa key pair.
Enter file in which to save the key (/home/USER/.ssh/id_rsa):
2. Press Enter to confirm the default location, ~/.ssh/id_rsa, for the newly created key.
3. Enter a passphrase, and confirm it by entering it again when prompted to do so. For security
reasons, avoid using the same password as you use to log in to your account.
After this, you will be presented with a message similar to this:
Your identification has been saved in /home/USER/.ssh/id_rsa.

Your public key has been saved in /home/USER/.ssh/id_rsa.pub.
The key fingerprint is:
SHA256:UNIgIT4wfhdQH/K7yqmjsbZnnyGDKiDviv492U5z78Y
[email protected]
The key's randomart image is:
+---[RSA 2048]----+
|o ..==o+. |
|.+ . .=oo |
| .o. ..o |
| ... .. |
| .S |
|o . . |
|o+ o .o+ .. |
|+.++=o*.o .E |
|BBBo+Bo. oo |
+----[SHA256]-----+
NOTE
14
NOTE
To get an MD5 key fingerprint, which was the default fingerprint in previous
versions, use the ssh-keygen command with the -E md5 option.
4. By default, the permissions of the ~/.ssh/ directory are set to rwx------ or 700 expressed in octal
notation. This is to ensure that only the USER can view the contents. If required, this can be
confirmed with the following command:
$ ls -ld ~/.ssh
drwx------. 2 USER USER 54 Nov 25 16:56 /home/USER/.ssh/
5. To copy the public key to a remote machine, issue a command in the following format:
ssh-copy-id user@hostname
This copies the most recently modified ~/.ssh/id*.pub public key if it is not yet installed.
Alternatively, specify the public key’s file name as follows:
ssh-copy-id -i ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub user@hostname
This copies the content of ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub into the ~/.ssh/authorized_keys file on the
machine to which you want to connect. If the file already exists, the keys are appended to its
end.
To generate an ECDSA key pair for version 2 of the SSH protocol, follow these steps:
1. Generate an ECDSA key pair by typing the following at a shell prompt:
$ ssh-keygen -t ecdsa
Generating public/private ecdsa key pair.
Enter file in which to save the key (/home/USER/.ssh/id_ecdsa):
2. Press Enter to confirm the default location, ~/.ssh/id_ecdsa, for the newly created key.
3. Enter a passphrase, and confirm it by entering it again when prompted to do so. For security
reasons, avoid using the same password as you use to log in to your account.
After this, you will be presented with a message similar to this:
Your identification has been saved in /home/USER/.ssh/id_ecdsa.

Your public key has been saved in /home/USER/.ssh/id_ecdsa.pub.
SHA256:8BhZageKrLXM99z5f/AM9aPo/KAUd8ZZFPcPFWqK6+M
[email protected]
+---[ECDSA 256]---+
| .. +=|
|...= o.o|
| + . * . o...|
| = . . * . + +..|
|. + . . So o * ..|
| . o . .+ = ..|
| o oo ..=. .|
15
| ooo...+ |
| .E++oo |
+----[SHA256]-----+
4. By default, the permissions of the ~/.ssh/ directory are set to rwx------ or 700 expressed in octal
notation. This is to ensure that only the USER can view the contents. If required, this can be
confirmed with the following command:
$ ls -ld ~/.ssh
$ ls -ld ~/.ssh/
drwx------. 2 USER USER 54 Nov 25 16:56 /home/USER/.ssh/
5. To copy the public key to a remote machine:
ssh-copy-id USER@hostname
This copies the most recently modified ~/.ssh/id*.pub public key if it is not yet installed.
Alternatively, specify the public key’s file name as follows:
ssh-copy-id -i ~/.ssh/id_ecdsa.pub USER@hostname
This copies the content of ~/.ssh/id_ecdsa.pub into the ~/.ssh/authorized_keys on the

machine to which you want to connect. If the file already exists, the keys are appended to its
end.
To generate an Ed25519 key pair for version 2 of the SSH protocol, use the -t ed25519 parameter:
$ ssh-keygen -t ed25519
Generating public/private ed25519 key pair.
Enter file in which to save the key (/home/USER/.ssh/id_ed25519):
Enter passphrase (empty for no passphrase):
Enter same passphrase again:
Your identification has been saved in /home/USER/.ssh/id_ed25519.
Your public key has been saved in /home/USER/.ssh/id_ed25519.pub.
SHA256:QAraxfuP5se1CnGTcn7FKLJ++G6dtkzOaw/a46KU5CQ [email protected]
+--[ED25519 256]--+
| ... . |
| o o.o |
|. . ... |
| . ..o |
| E.* S . o |
| =.X o.. |
| *=.o+o |
| o+.BOB. |
| o+B=*O=. |
+----[SHA256]-----+
The generated Ed25519 keys are handled in the same way as RSA or ECDSA keys.
IMPORTANT
16
IMPORTANT
The private key is for your personal use only, and it is important that you never give it to
anyone.
1.6. RELATED INFORMATION

For more information on how to configure or connect to an OpenSSH server on Red Hat Enterprise
Linux, see the resources listed below.
Installed Documentation
sshd(8) — The manual page for the sshd daemon documents available command-line options
and provides a complete list of supported configuration files and directories.
ssh(1) — The manual page for the ssh client application provides a complete list of available
command-line options and supported configuration files and directories.
scp(1) — The manual page for the scp utility provides a more detailed description of this utility
and its usage.
sftp(1) — The manual page for the sftp utility.
ssh-keygen(1) — The manual page for the ssh-keygen utility documents in detail how to use it
to generate, manage, and convert authentication keys used by ssh.
ssh_config(5) — The manual page named ssh_config documents available SSH client
configuration options.
sshd_config(5) — The manual page named sshd_config provides a full description of available
SSH daemon configuration options.
Online Documentation
OpenSSH Home Page — The OpenSSH home page containing further documentation,
frequently asked questions, links to the mailing lists, bug reports, and other useful resources.
OpenSSL Home Page — The OpenSSL home page containing further documentation,
frequently asked questions, links to the mailing lists, and other useful resources.
[1] A multiplexed connection consists of several signals being sent over a shared, common medium. With SSH,
different channels are sent over a common secure connection.
17
CHAPTER 2. PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTING TLS

TLS (Transport Layer Security) is a cryptographic protocol used to secure network communications.
When hardening system security settings by configuring preferred key-exchange protocols,
authentication methods, and encryption algorithms, it is necessary to bear in mind that the broader the
range of supported clients, the lower the resulting security. Conversely, strict security settings lead to
limited compatibility with clients, which can result in some users being locked out of the system. Be sure
to target the strictest available configuration and only relax it when it is required for compatibility
reasons.
2.1. SSL AND TLS PROTOCOLS

The Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) protocol was originally developed by Netscape Corporation to provide
a mechanism for secure communication over the Internet. Subsequently, the protocol was adopted by
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and renamed to Transport Layer Security (TLS).
The TLS protocol sits between an application protocol layer and a reliable transport layer, such as
TCP/IP. It is independent of the application protocol and can thus be layered underneath many different
protocols, for example: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and so on.
Protocol version Usage recommendation
SSL v2 Do not use. Has serious security vulnerabilities. Removed from the core crypto libraries
since RHEL 7.
SSL v3 Do not use. Has serious security vulnerabilities. Removed from the core crypto libraries
since RHEL 8.
TLS 1.0 Not recommended to use. Has known issues that cannot be mitigated in a way that
guarantees interoperability, and does not support modern cipher suites. Enabled only in
the LEGACY system-wide cryptographic policy profile.
TLS 1.1 Use for interoperability purposes where needed. Does not support modern cipher suites.
Enabled only in the LEGACY policy.
TLS 1.2 Supports the modern AEAD cipher suites. This version is enabled in all system-wide
crypto policies, but optional parts of this protocol contain vulnerabilities and TLS 1.2 also
allows outdated algorithms.
TLS 1.3 Recommended version. TLS 1.3 removes known problematic options, provides
additional privacy by encrypting more of the negotiation handshake and can be faster
thanks usage of more efficient modern cryptographic algorithms. TLS 1.3 is also
enabled in all system-wide crypto policies.
Additional resources
IETF: The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.3
2.2. SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR TLS IN RHEL 8

In RHEL 8, cryptography-related considerations are significantly simplified thanks to the system-wide
18
crypto policies. The DEFAULT crypto policy allows only TLS 1.2 and 1.3. To allow your system to
negotiate connections using the earlier versions of TLS, you need to either opt out from following crypto
policies in an application or switch to the LEGACY policy with the update-crypto-policies command.
See Using system-wide cryptographic policies for more information.
The default settings provided by libraries included in RHEL 8 are secure enough for most deployments.
The TLS implementations use secure algorithms where possible while not preventing connections from
or to legacy clients or servers. Apply hardened settings in environments with strict security requirements
where legacy clients or servers that do not support secure algorithms or protocols are not expected or
allowed to connect.
The most straightforward way to harden your TLS configuration is switching the system-wide
cryptographic policy level to FUTURE using the update-crypto-policies --set FUTURE command.
If you decide to not follow RHEL system-wide crypto policies, use the following recommendations for
preferred protocols, cipher suites, and key lengths on your custom configuration:
2.2.1. Protocols
The latest version of TLS provides the best security mechanism. Unless you have a compelling reason to
include support for older versions of TLS, allow your systems to negotiate connections using at least
TLS version 1.2. Note that despite that RHEL 8 supports TLS version 1.3, not all features of this protocol
are fully supported by RHEL 8 component. For example, the 0-RTT (Zero Round Trip Time) feature,
which reduces connection latency, is not yet fully supported by Apache or Nginx web servers.
2.2.2. Cipher suites

Modern, more secure cipher suites should be preferred to old, insecure ones. Always disable the use of
eNULL and aNULL cipher suites, which do not offer any encryption or authentication at all. If at all
possible, ciphers suites based on RC4 or HMAC-MD5, which have serious shortcomings, should also be
disabled. The same applies to the so-called export cipher suites, which have been intentionally made
weaker, and thus are easy to break.
While not immediately insecure, cipher suites that offer less than 128 bits of security should not be
considered for their short useful life. Algorithms that use 128 bits of security or more can be expected to
be unbreakable for at least several years, and are thus strongly recommended. Note that while 3DES
ciphers advertise the use of 168 bits, they actually offer 112 bits of security.
Always give preference to cipher suites that support (perfect) forward secrecy (PFS), which ensures the
confidentiality of encrypted data even in case the server key is compromised. This rules out the fast
RSA key exchange, but allows for the use of ECDHE and DHE. Of the two, ECDHE is the faster and
therefore the preferred choice.
You should also give preference to AEAD ciphers, such as AES-GCM, before CBC-mode ciphers as they
are not vulnerable to padding oracle attacks. Additionally, in many cases, AES-GCM is faster than AES in
CBC mode, especially when the hardware has cryptographic accelerators for AES.
Note also that when using the ECDHE key exchange with ECDSA certificates, the transaction is even
faster than pure RSA key exchange. To provide support for legacy clients, you can install two pairs of
certificates and keys on a server: one with ECDSA keys (for new clients) and one with RSA keys (for
legacy ones).
2.2.3. Public key length
When using RSA keys, always prefer key lengths of at least 3072 bits signed by at least SHA-256, which
19
When using RSA keys, always prefer key lengths of at least 3072 bits signed by at least SHA-256, which
is sufficiently large for true 128 bits of security.

WARNING
The security of your system is only as strong as the weakest link in the chain. For
example, a strong cipher alone does not guarantee good security. The keys and the
certificates are just as important, as well as the hash functions and keys used by the
Certification Authority (CA) to sign your keys.
System-wide crypto policies in RHEL 8 .
update-crypto-policies(8) man page
2.3. HARDENING TLS CONFIGURATION IN APPLICATIONS

In Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8, system-wide crypto policies provide a convenient way to ensure that your
applications using cryptographic libraries do not allow known insecure protocols, ciphers, or algorithms.
If you want to harden your TLS-related configuration with your customized cryptographic settings, you
can use the cryptographic configuration options described in this section, and override the system-wide
crypto policies just in the minimum required amount.
Regardless of the configuration you choose to use, always make sure to mandate that your server
application enforces server-side cipher order , so that the cipher suite to be used is determined by the
order you configure.
2.3.1. Configuring the Apache HTTP server
The Apache HTTP Server can use both OpenSSL and NSS libraries for its TLS needs. Red Hat
Enterprise Linux 8 provides the mod_ssl functionality through eponymous packages:
# yum install mod_ssl
The mod_ssl package installs the /etc/httpd/conf.d/ssl.conf configuration file, which can be used to
modify the TLS-related settings of the Apache HTTP Server.
Install the httpd-manual package to obtain complete documentation for the Apache HTTP Server,
including TLS configuration. The directives available in the /etc/httpd/conf.d/ssl.conf configuration file
are described in detail in /usr/share/httpd/manual/mod/mod_ssl.html. Examples of various settings are
in /usr/share/httpd/manual/ssl/ssl_howto.html.
When modifying the settings in the /etc/httpd/conf.d/ssl.conf configuration file, be sure to consider the
following three directives at the minimum:
SSLProtocol
Use this directive to specify the version of TLS or SSL you want to allow.
20
SSLCipherSuite
Use this directive to specify your preferred cipher suite or disable the ones you want to disallow.
SSLHonorCipherOrder
Uncomment and set this directive to on to ensure that the connecting clients adhere to the order of
ciphers you specified.
For example, to use only the TLS 1.2 and 1.3 protocol:
SSLProtocol all -SSLv3 -TLSv1 -TLSv1.1
2.3.2. Configuring the Nginx HTTP and proxy server
To enable TLS 1.3 support in Nginx, add the TLSv1.3 value to the ssl_protocols option in the server
section of the /etc/nginx/nginx.conf configuration file:
server {
listen 443 ssl http2;
listen [::]:443 ssl http2;
....
ssl_protocols TLSv1.2 TLSv1.3;
ssl_ciphers
....
}
2.3.3. Configuring the Dovecot mail server

To configure your installation of the Dovecot mail server to use TLS, modify the
/etc/dovecot/conf.d/10-ssl.conf configuration file. You can find an explanation of some of the basic
configuration directives available in that file in the
/usr/share/doc/dovecot/wiki/SSL.DovecotConfiguration.txt file, which is installed along with the
standard installation of Dovecot.
When modifying the settings in the /etc/dovecot/conf.d/10-ssl.conf configuration file, be sure to

consider the following three directives at the minimum:
ssl_protocols
Use this directive to specify the version of TLS or SSL you want to allow or disable.
ssl_cipher_list
Use this directive to specify your preferred cipher suites or disable the ones you want to disallow.
ssl_prefer_server_ciphers
Uncomment and set this directive to yes to ensure that the connecting clients adhere to the order of
ciphers you specified.
For example, the following line in /etc/dovecot/conf.d/10-ssl.conf allows only TLS 1.1 and later:
ssl_protocols = !SSLv2 !SSLv3 !TLSv1
For more information about TLS configuration and related topics, see the resources listed below.
config(5) man page describes the format of the /etc/ssl/openssl.conf configuration file.
21
ciphers(1) man page includes a list of available OpenSSL keywords and cipher strings.
Recommendations for Secure Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport
Layer Security (DTLS)
Mozilla SSL Configuration Generator can help to create configuration files for Apache or
Nginx with secure settings that disable known vulnerable protocols, ciphers, and hashing
algorithms.
SSL Server Test verifies that your configuration meets modern security requirements.
22
CHAPTER 3. CONFIGURING A VPN WITH IPSEC

In Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8, a virtual private network (VPN) can be configured using the IPsec
protocol, which is supported by the Libreswan application.
3.1. LIBRESWAN AS AN IPSEC VPN IMPLEMENTATION

In Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8, a Virtual Private Network (VPN) can be configured using the IPsec
protocol, which is supported by the Libreswan application. Libreswan is a continuation of the
Openswan application, and many examples from the Openswan documentation are interchangeable
with Libreswan.
The IPsec protocol for a VPN is configured using the Internet Key Exchange ( IKE) protocol. The terms
IPsec and IKE are used interchangeably. An IPsec VPN is also called an IKE VPN, IKEv2 VPN, XAUTH
VPN, Cisco VPN or IKE/IPsec VPN. A variant of an IPsec VPN that also uses the Level 2 Tunneling
Protocol (L2TP) is usually called an L2TP/IPsec VPN, which requires the Optional channel xl2tpd
application.
Libreswan is an open-source, user-space IKE implementation. IKE v1 and v2 are implemented as a user-
level daemon. The IKE protocol is also encrypted. The IPsec protocol is implemented by the Linux
kernel, and Libreswan configures the kernel to add and remove VPN tunnel configurations.
The IKE protocol uses UDP port 500 and 4500. The IPsec protocol consists of two protocols:
Encapsulated Security Payload (ESP), which has protocol number 50.
Authenticated Header (AH), which has protocol number 51.
The AH protocol is not recommended for use. Users of AH are recommended to migrate to ESP with
null encryption.
The IPsec protocol provides two modes of operation:
Tunnel Mode (the default)
Transport Mode.
You can configure the kernel with IPsec without IKE. This is called Manual Keying. You can also
configure manual keying using the ip xfrm commands, however, this is strongly discouraged for security
reasons. Libreswan interfaces with the Linux kernel using netlink. Packet encryption and decryption
happen in the Linux kernel.
Libreswan uses the Network Security Services ( NSS) cryptographic library. Both Libreswan and NSS
are certified for use with the Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) Publication 140-2.
IMPORTANT
IKE/IPsec VPNs, implemented by Libreswan and the Linux kernel, is the only VPN
technology recommended for use in Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8. Do not use any other
VPN technology without understanding the risks of doing so.
In Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8, Libreswan follows system-wide cryptographic policies by default. This
ensures that Libreswan uses secure settings for current threat models including IKEv2 as a default
protocol. See Using system-wide crypto policies for more information.
Libreswan does not use the terms "source" and "destination" or "server" and "client" because IKE/IPsec
23
Libreswan does not use the terms "source" and "destination" or "server" and "client" because IKE/IPsec
are peer to peer protocols. Instead, it uses the terms "left" and "right" to refer to end points (the hosts).
This also allows you to use the same configuration on both end points in most cases. However,
administrators usually choose to always use "left" for the local host and "right" for the remote host. ://
included in configuring-a-vpn-with-ipsec
3.2. INSTALLING LIBRESWAN

This procedure describes the steps for installing and starting the Libreswan IPsec/IKE VPN
implementation.
Prerequisites
The AppStream repository is enabled.
Procedure
1. Install the libreswan packages:
# yum install libreswan
2. If you are re-installing Libreswan, remove its old database files:
# systemctl stop ipsec

# rm /etc/ipsec.d/*db
To initialize the NSS database for Libreswan in FIPS mode, you have to enable password
protection for it:
certutil -N -d sql:/etc/ipsec.d
3. Start the ipsec service, and enable the service to be started automatically on boot:
# systemctl start ipsec

# systemctl enable ipsec
4. Configure the firewall to allow 500 and 4500/UDP ports for the IKE, ESP, and AH protocols by
adding the ipsec service:
# firewall-cmd --add-service="ipsec"
# firewall-cmd --runtime-to-permanent
3.3. CREATING A HOST-TO-HOST VPN

To configure Libreswan to create a host-to-host IPsec VPN between two hosts referred to as left and
right, enter the following commands on both of the hosts:
Procedure
1. Generate an RSA key pair on each host:
# ipsec newhostkey --output /etc/ipsec.d/hostkey.secrets
2. The previous step returned the generated key’s ckaid. Use that ckaid with the following
24
2. The previous step returned the generated key’s ckaid. Use that ckaid with the following
command on left, for example:
# ipsec showhostkey --left --ckaid 2d3ea57b61c9419dfd6cf43a1eb6cb306c0e857d
The output of the previous command generated the leftrsasigkey= line required for the
configuration. Do the same on the second host (right):
# ipsec showhostkey --right --ckaid a9e1f6ce9ecd3608c24e8f701318383f41798f03
3. In the /etc/ipsec.d/ directory, create a new my_host-to-host.conf file. Write the RSA host keys
from the output of the ipsec showhostkey commands in the previous step to the new file. For
example:
conn mytunnel
leftid=@west
left=192.1.2.23
leftrsasigkey=0sAQOrlo+hOafUZDlCQmXFrje/oZm [...] W2n417C/4urYHQkCvuIQ==
rightid=@east
right=192.1.2.45
rightrsasigkey=0sAQO3fwC6nSSGgt64DWiYZzuHbc4 [...] D/v8t5YTQ==
authby=rsasig
4. Start ipsec:
# ipsec setup start
5. Load the connection:
# ipsec auto --add mytunnel
6. Establish the tunnel:
# ipsec auto --up mytunnel
7. To automatically start the tunnel when the ipsec service is started, add the following line to the
connection definition:
auto=start
3.4. CONFIGURING A SITE-TO-SITE VPN

To create a site-to-site IPsec VPN, by joining two networks, an IPsec tunnel between the two hosts, is
created. The hosts thus act as the end points, which are configured to permit traffic from one or more
subnets to pass through. Therefore you can think of the host as gateways to the remote portion of the
network.
The configuration of the site-to-site VPN only differs from the host-to-host VPN in that one or more
networks or subnets must be specified in the configuration file.
Prerequisites
A host-to-host VPN is already configured.
25
Procedure
1. Copy the file with the configuration of your host-to-host VPN to a new file, for example:
# cp /etc/ipsec.d/my_host-to-host.conf /etc/ipsec.d/my_site-to-site.conf
2. Add the subnet configuration to the file created in the previous step, for example:
conn mysubnet
also=mytunnel
leftsubnet=192.0.1.0/24
rightsubnet=192.0.2.0/24
auto=start
conn mysubnet6
also=mytunnel
leftsubnet=2001:db8:0:1::/64
rightsubnet=2001:db8:0:2::/64
auto=start
# the following part of the configuration file is the same for both host-to-host and site-to-site
connections:
conn mytunnel
leftid=@west
left=192.1.2.23
leftrsasigkey=0sAQOrlo+hOafUZDlCQmXFrje/oZm [...] W2n417C/4urYHQkCvuIQ==
rightid=@east
right=192.1.2.45
rightrsasigkey=0sAQO3fwC6nSSGgt64DWiYZzuHbc4 [...] D/v8t5YTQ==
authby=rsasig
3.5. CONFIGURING A REMOTE ACCESS VPN

Road warriors are traveling users with mobile clients with a dynamically assigned IP address, such as
laptops. The mobile clients authenticate using certificates.
The following example shows configuration for IKEv2, and it avoids using the IKEv1 XAUTH protocol.
On the server:
conn roadwarriors
ikev2=insist
# Support (roaming) MOBIKE clients (RFC 4555)
mobike=yes
fragmentation=yes
left=1.2.3.4
# if access to the LAN is given, enable this, otherwise use 0.0.0.0/0
# leftsubnet=10.10.0.0/16
leftcert=gw.example.com
leftid=%fromcert
leftxauthserver=yes
leftmodecfgserver=yes
right=%any
26
# trust our own Certificate Agency

rightca=%same
# pick an IP address pool to assign to remote users
# 100.64.0.0/16 prevents RFC1918 clashes when remote users are behind NAT
rightaddresspool=100.64.13.100-100.64.13.254
# if you want remote clients to use some local DNS zones and servers
modecfgdns="1.2.3.4, 5.6.7.8"
modecfgdomains="internal.company.com, corp"
rightxauthclient=yes
rightmodecfgclient=yes
authby=rsasig
# optionally, run the client X.509 ID through pam to allow/deny client
# pam-authorize=yes
# load connection, don't initiate
auto=add
# kill vanished roadwarriors
dpddelay=1m
dpdtimeout=5m
dpdaction=%clear
On the mobile client, the road warrior’s device, use a slight variation of the previous configuration:
conn to-vpn-server
ikev2=insist
# pick up our dynamic IP
left=%defaultroute
leftcert=myname.example.com
leftid=%fromcert
leftmodecfgclient=yes
# right can also be a DNS hostname
right=1.2.3.4
# if access to the remote LAN is required, enable this, otherwise use 0.0.0.0/0
# rightsubnet=10.10.0.0/16
rightsubnet=0.0.0.0/0
fragmentation=yes
# trust our own Certificate Agency
rightca=%same
authby=rsasig
# allow narrowing to the server’s suggested assigned IP and remote subnet
narrowing=yes
# Support (roaming) MOBIKE clients (RFC 4555)
mobike=yes
# Initiate connection
auto=start
3.6. CONFIGURING A MESH VPN

A mesh VPN network, which is also known as an any-to-any VPN, is a network where all nodes
communicate using IPsec. The configuration allows for exceptions for nodes that cannot use IPsec.
The mesh VPN network can be configured in two ways:
To require IPsec.
To prefer IPsec but allow a fallback to clear-text communication.
27
Authentication between the nodes can be based on X.509 certificates or on DNS Security Extensions
(DNSSEC).
The following procedure uses X.509 certificates. These certificates can be generated using any kind of
Certificate Authority (CA) management system, such as the Dogtag Certificate System. Dogtag
assumes that the certificates for each node are available in the PKCS #12 format (.p12 files), which
contain the private key, the node certificate, and the Root CA certificate used to validate other nodes'
X.509 certificates.
Each node has an identical configuration with the exception of its X.509 certificate. This allows for
adding new nodes without reconfiguring any of the existing nodes in the network. The PKCS #12 files
require a "friendly name", for which we use the name "node" so that the configuration files referencing
the friendly name can be identical for all nodes.
Prerequisites
Libreswan is installed, and the ipsec service is started on each node.
Procedure
1. On each node, import PKCS #12 files. This step requires the password used to generate the
PKCS #12 files:
# ipsec import nodeXXX.p12
2. Create the following three connection definitions for the IPsec required (private), IPsec
optional (private-or-clear), and No IPsec (clear) profiles:
# /etc/ipsec.d/mesh.conf
conn clear
auto=ondemand
type=passthrough
authby=never
left=%defaultroute
right=%group
conn private
auto=ondemand
type=transport
authby=rsasig
failureshunt=drop
negotiationshunt=drop
# left
left=%defaultroute
leftcert=nodeXXXX
leftid=%fromcert
leftrsasigkey=%cert
# right
rightrsasigkey=%cert
rightid=%fromcert
right=%opportunisticgroup
conn private-or-clear
auto=ondemand
type=transport
authby=rsasig
28
failureshunt=passthrough
negotiationshunt=passthrough
# left
left=%defaultroute
leftcert=nodeXXXX
leftid=%fromcert
leftrsasigkey=%cert
# right
rightrsasigkey=%cert
rightid=%fromcert
right=%opportunisticgroup
3. Add the IP address of the network in the proper category. For example, if all nodes reside in the
10.15.0.0/16 network, and all nodes should mandate IPsec encryption:
# echo "10.15.0.0/16" >> /etc/ipsec.d/policies/private
4. To allow certain nodes, for example, 10.15.34.0/24, to work with and without IPsec, add those
nodes to the private-or-clear group using:
# echo "10.15.34.0/24" >> /etc/ipsec.d/policies/private-or-clear
5. To define a host, for example, 10.15.1.2, that is not capable of IPsec into the clear group, use:
# echo "10.15.1.2/32" >> /etc/ipsec.d/policies/clear
The files in the /etc/ipsec.d/policies directory can be created from a template for each new
node, or can be provisioned using Puppet or Ansible.
Note that every node has the same list of exceptions or different traffic flow expectations. Two
nodes, therefore, might not be able to communicate because one requires IPsec and the other
cannot use IPsec.
6. Restart the node to add it to the configured mesh:
# systemctl restart ipsec
7. Once you finish with the addition of nodes, a ping command is sufficient to open an IPsec
tunnel. To see which tunnels a node has opened:
# ipsec trafficstatus
3.7. METHODS OF AUTHENTICATION USED IN LIBRESWAN

You can use the following methods for authentication of end points:
Pre-Shared Keys (PSK) is the simplest authentication method. PSKs should consist of random
characters and have a length of at least 20 characters. In FIPS mode, PSKs need to comply to a
minimum strength requirement depending on the integrity algorithm used. It is recommended
not to use PSKs shorter than 64 random characters.
Raw RSA keys are commonly used for static host-to-host or subnet-to-subnet IPsec
configurations. The hosts are manually configured with each other’s public RSA key. This
method does not scale well when dozens or more hosts all need to setup IPsec tunnels to each
29
other.
X.509 certificates are commonly used for large-scale deployments where there are many hosts
that need to connect to a common IPsec gateway. A central certificate authority (CA) is used to
sign RSA certificates for hosts or users. This central CA is responsible for relaying trust,
including the revocations of individual hosts or users.
NULL authentication is used to gain mesh encryption without authentication. It protects against
passive attacks but does not protect against active attacks. However, since IKEv2 allows
asymmetrical authentication methods, NULL authentication can also be used for internet scale
opportunistic IPsec, where clients authenticate the server, but servers do not authenticate the
client. This model is similar to secure websites using TLS.
Protection against quantum computers

In addition to these authentication methods, you can use the Postquantum Preshared Keys (PPK)
method to protect against possible attacks by quantum computers. Individual clients or groups of clients
can use their own PPK by specifying a (PPKID) that corresponds to an out-of-band configured
PreShared Key.
Using IKEv1 with PreShared Keys provided protection against quantum attackers. The redesign of
IKEv2 does not offer this protection natively. Libreswan offers the use of Postquantum Preshared Keys
(PPK) to protect IKEv2 connections against quantum attacks.
To enable optional PPK support, add ppk=yes to the connection definition. To require PPK, add
ppk=insist. Then, each client can be given a PPK ID with a secret value that is communicated out-of-
band (and preferably quantum safe). The PPK’s should be very strong in randomness and not be based
on dictionary words. The PPK ID and PPK data itself are stored in ipsec.secrets, for example:
@west @east : PPKS "user1" "thestringismeanttobearandomstr"
The PPKS option refers to static PPKs. An experimental function uses one-time-pad based Dynamic
PPKs. Upon each connection, a new part of a one-time pad is used as the PPK. When used, that part of
the dynamic PPK inside the file is overwritten with zeroes to prevent re-use. If there is no more one-
time-pad material left, the connection fails. See the ipsec.secrets(5) man page for more information.

WARNING
The implementation of dynamic PPKs is provided as a Technology Preview, and this

functionality should be used with caution.

The following resources provide additional information regarding Libreswan and the ipsec daemon.
Installed documentation
ipsec(8) man page — Describes command options for ipsec.
ipsec.conf(5) man page — Contains information on configuring ipsec.
30
ipsec.secrets(5) man page — Describes the format of the ipsec.secrets file.
ipsec_auto(8) man page — Describes the use of the auto command-line client for manipulating
Libreswan IPsec connections established using automatic exchanges of keys.
ipsec_rsasigkey(8) man page — Describes the tool used to generate RSA signature keys.
/usr/share/doc/libreswan-version/
Online documentation
https://libreswan.org
The website of the upstream project.
https://libreswan.org/wiki
The Libreswan Project Wiki.
https://libreswan.org/man/
All Libreswan man pages.
31
CHAPTER 4. CONFIGURING MACSEC

The following section provides information on how to configure Media Control Access Security
(MACsec), which is an 802.1AE IEEE standard security technology for secure communication in all traffic
on Ethernet links.
4.1. INTRODUCTION TO MACSEC

Media Access Control Security (MACsec, IEEE 802.1AE) encrypts and authenticates all traffic in LANs
with the GCM-AES-128 algorithm. MACsec can protect not only IP but also Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP), Neighbor Discovery (ND), or DHCP. While IPsec operates on the network layer (layer 3)
and SSL or TLS on the application layer (layer 7), MACsec operates in the data link layer (layer 2).
Combine MACsec with security protocols for other networking layers to take advantage of different
security features that these standards provide.
4.2. USING MACSEC WITH NMCLI TOOL

This procedure shows how to configure MACsec with nmcli tool.
Prerequisites
The NetworkManager must be running.
You already have a 16-byte hexadecimal CAK ($MKA_CAK) and a 32-byte hexadecimal CKN
($MKA_CKN).
Procedure
~]# nmcli connection add type macsec \

con-name test-macsec+ ifname macsec0 \
connection.autoconnect no \
macsec.parent eth0 macsec.mode psk \
macsec.mka-cak $MKA_CAK \
macsec.mka-ckn $MKA_CKN
~]# nmcli connection up test-macsec+
After this step, the macsec0 device is configured and can be used for networking.
4.3. USING MACSEC WITH WPA_SUPPLICANT

This procedure shows how to enable MACsec with a switch that performs authentication using a pre-
shared Connectivity Association Key/CAK Name (CAK/CKN) pair.
Procedure
1. Create a CAK/CKN pair. For example, the following command generates a 16-byte key in
hexadecimal notation:
~]$ dd if=/dev/urandom count=16 bs=1 2> /dev/null | hexdump -e '1/2 "%02x"'
2. Create the wpa_supplicant.conf configuration file and add the following lines to it:
ctrl_interface=/var/run/wpa_supplicant
32
CHAPTER 4. CONFIGURING MACSEC
eapol_version=3
ap_scan=0
fast_reauth=1
network={
key_mgmt=NONE
eapol_flags=0
macsec_policy=1
mka_cak=0011... # 16 bytes hexadecimal

mka_ckn=2233... # 32 bytes hexadecimal
}
Use the values from the previous step to complete the mka_cak and mka_ckn lines in the
wpa_supplicant.conf configuration file.
For more information, see the wpa_supplicant.conf(5) man page.
3. Assuming you are using eth0 to connect to your network, start wpa_supplicant using the
following command:
~]# wpa_supplicant -i eth0 -Dmacsec_linux -c wpa_supplicant.conf

For more details, see the What’s new in MACsec: setting up MACsec using wpa_supplicant and
(optionally) NetworkManager article. In addition, see the MACsec: a different solution to encrypt
network traffic article for more information about the architecture of a MACsec network, use case
scenarios, and configuration examples.
33
CHAPTER 5. USING AND CONFIGURING FIREWALLS

A firewall is a way to protect machines from any unwanted traffic from outside. It enables users to
control incoming network traffic on host machines by defining a set of firewall rules. These rules are used
to sort the incoming traffic and either block it or allow through.
5.1. GETTING STARTED WITH FIREWALLD
5.1.1. firewalld
firewalld is a firewall service daemon that provides a dynamic customizable host-based firewall with a D-
Bus interface. Being dynamic, it enables creating, changing, and deleting the rules without the necessity
to restart the firewall daemon each time the rules are changed.
firewalld uses the concepts of zones and services, that simplify the traffic management. Zones are
predefined sets of rules. Network interfaces and sources can be assigned to a zone. The traffic allowed
depends on the network your computer is connected to and the security level this network is assigned.
Firewall services are predefined rules that cover all necessary settings to allow incoming traffic for a
specific service and they apply within a zone.
Services use one or more ports or addresses for network communication. Firewalls filter communication
based on ports. To allow network traffic for a service, its ports must be open. firewalld blocks all traffic
on ports that are not explicitly set as open. Some zones, such as trusted, allow all traffic by default.
firewalld(1) man page
5.1.2. Zones
⁠firewalld can be used to separate networks into different zones according to the level of trust that the
user has decided to place on the interfaces and traffic within that network. A connection can only be
part of one zone, but a zone can be used for many network connections.
NetworkManager notifies firewalld of the zone of an interface. You can assign zones to interfaces with:
NetworkManager
firewall-config tool
firewall-cmd command-line tool
The RHEL web console
The latter three can only edit the appropriate NetworkManager configuration files. If you change the
zone of the interface using the web console, firewall-cmd or firewall-config, the request is forwarded
to NetworkManager and is not handled by ⁠ firewalld.
The predefined zones are stored in the /usr/lib/firewalld/zones/ directory and can be instantly applied
to any available network interface. These files are copied to the /etc/firewalld/zones/ directory only
after they are modified. The default settings of the predefined zones are as follows:
block
Any incoming network connections are rejected with an icmp-host-prohibited message for IPv4 and
34
Any incoming network connections are rejected with an icmp-host-prohibited message for IPv4 and
icmp6-adm-prohibited for IPv6. Only network connections initiated from within the system are
possible.
dmz
For computers in your demilitarized zone that are publicly-accessible with limited access to your
internal network. Only selected incoming connections are accepted.
drop
Any incoming network packets are dropped without any notification. Only outgoing network
connections are possible.
external
For use on external networks with masquerading enabled, especially for routers. You do not trust the
other computers on the network to not harm your computer. Only selected incoming connections are
accepted.
home
For use at home when you mostly trust the other computers on the network. Only selected incoming
connections are accepted.
internal
For use on internal networks when you mostly trust the other computers on the network. Only
selected incoming connections are accepted.
public
For use in public areas where you do not trust other computers on the network. Only selected
incoming connections are accepted.
trusted
All network connections are accepted.
work
For use at work where you mostly trust the other computers on the network. Only selected incoming
connections are accepted.
One of these zones is set as the default zone. When interface connections are added to
NetworkManager, they are assigned to the default zone. On installation, the default zone in firewalld is
set to be the public zone. The default zone can be changed.
NOTE
The network zone names have been chosen to be self-explanatory and to allow users to
quickly make a reasonable decision. To avoid any security problems, review the default
zone configuration and disable any unnecessary services according to your needs and risk
assessments.
` firewalld.zone(5) man page
5.1.3. Predefined services

A service can be a list of local ports, protocols, source ports, and destinations, as well as a list of firewall
helper modules automatically loaded if a service is enabled. Using services saves users time because
they can achieve several tasks, such as opening ports, defining protocols, enabling packet forwarding
and more, in a single step, rather than setting up everything one after another.
Service configuration options and generic file information are described in the firewalld.service(5) man
35
page. The services are specified by means of individual XML configuration files, which are named in the
following format: service-name.xml. Protocol names are preferred over service or application names in
firewalld.
Services can be added and removed using the graphical firewall-config tool, firewall-cmd, and firewall-
offline-cmd.
Alternatively, you can edit the XML files in the /etc/firewalld/services/ directory. If a service is not
added or changed by the user, then no corresponding XML file is found in /etc/firewalld/services/. The
files in the /usr/lib/firewalld/services/ directory can be used as templates if you want to add or change a
service.
firewalld.service(5) man page
5.2. INSTALLING THE FIREWALL-CONFIG GUI CONFIGURATION TOOL

To use the firewall-config GUI configuration tool, install the firewall-config package.
Procedure
1. Enter the following command as root:
# yum install firewall-config
Alternatively, in GNOME, use the Super key and type `Software to launch the Software
Sources application. Type firewall to the search box, which appears after selecting the search
button in the top-right corner. Select the Firewall item from the search results, and click on the
Install button.
2. To run firewall-config, use either the firewall-config command or press the Super key to enter
the Activities Overview, type firewall, and press Enter.
5.3. VIEWING THE CURRENT STATUS AND SETTINGS OF FIREWALLD
5.3.1. Viewing the current status of firewalld
The firewall service, firewalld, is installed on the system by default. Use the firewalld CLI interface to
check that the service is running.
Procedure
1. To see the status of the service:
# firewall-cmd --state
2. For more information about the service status, use the systemctl status sub-command:
# systemctl status firewalld

firewalld.service - firewalld - dynamic firewall daemon
Loaded: loaded (/usr/lib/systemd/system/firewalld.service; enabled; vendor pr
Active: active (running) since Mon 2017-12-18 16:05:15 CET; 50min ago
Docs: man:firewalld(1)
36
Main PID: 705 (firewalld)

Tasks: 2 (limit: 4915)
CGroup: /system.slice/firewalld.service
└─705 /usr/bin/python3 -Es /usr/sbin/firewalld --nofork --nopid
It is important to know how firewalld is set up and which rules are in force before you try to edit the
settings. To display the firewall settings, see Section 5.3.2, “Viewing current firewalld settings”
5.3.2. Viewing current firewalld settings
5.3.2.1. Viewing allowed services using GUI
To view the list of services using the graphical firewall-config tool, press the Super key to enter the
Activities Overview, type firewall, and press Enter. The firewall-config tool appears. You can now view
the list of services under the Services tab.
Alternatively, to start the graphical firewall configuration tool using the command-line, enter the
following command:
$ firewall-config
The Firewall Configuration window opens. Note that this command can be run as a normal user, but you
are prompted for an administrator password occasionally.
5.3.2.2. Viewing firewalld settings using CLI
With the CLI client, it is possible to get different views of the current firewall settings. The --list-all
option shows a complete overview of the firewalld settings.
firewalld uses zones to manage the traffic. If a zone is not specified by the --zone option, the command
is effective in the default zone assigned to the active network interface and connection.
To list all the relevant information for the default zone:
# firewall-cmd --list-all
public
target: default
icmp-block-inversion: no
interfaces:
sources:
services: ssh dhcpv6-client
ports:
protocols:
masquerade: no
forward-ports:
source-ports:
icmp-blocks:
rich rules:
To specify the zone for which to display the settings, add the --zone=zone-name argument to the
firewall-cmd --list-all command, for example:
# firewall-cmd --list-all --zone=home
37
home
target: default
icmp-block-inversion: no
interfaces:
sources:
services: ssh mdns samba-client dhcpv6-client
... [trimmed for clarity]
To see the settings for particular information, such as services or ports, use a specific option. See the
firewalld manual pages or get a list of the options using the command help:
# firewall-cmd --help
Usage: firewall-cmd [OPTIONS...]
General Options
-h, --help Prints a short help text and exists
-V, --version Print the version string of firewalld
-q, --quiet Do not print status messages
Status Options
--state Return and print firewalld state
--reload Reload firewall and keep state information
... [trimmed for clarity]
For example, to see which services are allowed in the current zone:
# firewall-cmd --list-services
ssh dhcpv6-client
NOTE
Listing the settings for a certain subpart using the CLI tool can sometimes be difficult to
interpret. For example, you allow the SSH service and firewalld opens the necessary port
(22) for the service. Later, if you list the allowed services, the list shows the SSH service,
but if you list open ports, it does not show any. Therefore, it is recommended to use the --
list-all option to make sure you receive a complete information.
5.4. STARTING FIREWALLD

Procedure
1. To start firewalld, enter the following command as root:
# systemctl unmask firewalld

# systemctl start firewalld
2. To ensure firewalld starts automatically at system start, enter the following command as root:
# systemctl enable firewalld
5.5. STOPPING FIREWALLD
38
Procedure
1. To stop firewalld, enter the following command as root:
# systemctl stop firewalld
2. To prevent firewalld from starting automatically at system start:
# systemctl disable firewalld
3. To make sure firewalld is not started by accessing the firewalld D-Bus interface and also if
other services require firewalld:
# systemctl mask firewalld
5.6. RUNTIME AND PERMANENT SETTINGS

Any changes committed in runtime mode only apply while firewalld is running. When firewalld is
restarted, the settings revert to their permanent values.
To make the changes persistent across reboots, apply them again using the --permanent option.
Alternatively, to make changes persistent while firewalld is running, use the --runtime-to-permanent
firewall-cmd option.
If you set the rules while firewalld is running using only the --permanent option, they do not become
effective before firewalld is restarted. However, restarting firewalld closes all open ports and stops the
networking traffic.
Modifying settings in runtime and permanent configuration using CLI

Using the CLI, you do not modify the firewall settings in both modes at the same time. You only modify
either runtime or permanent mode. To modify the firewall settings in the permanent mode, use the --
permanent option with the firewall-cmd command.
# firewall-cmd --permanent <other options>
Without this option, the command modifies runtime mode.
To change settings in both modes, you can use two methods:
1. Change runtime settings and then make them permanent as follows:
# firewall-cmd <other options>

2. Set permanent settings and reload the settings into runtime mode:
# firewall-cmd --permanent <other options>

# firewall-cmd --reload
The first method allows you to test the settings before you apply them to the permanent mode.
NOTE
39
NOTE
It is possible, especially on remote systems, that an incorrect setting results in a user

locking themselves out of a machine. To prevent such situations, use the --timeout
option. After a specified amount of time, any change reverts to its previous state. Using
this options excludes the --permanent option.
For example, to add the SSH service for 15 minutes:
# firewall-cmd --add-service=ssh --timeout 15m
5.7. CONTROLLING NETWORK TRAFFIC USING FIREWALLD
5.7.1. Disabling all traffic in case of emergency using CLI

In an emergency situation, such as a system attack, it is possible to disable all network traffic and cut off
the attacker.
Procedure
1. To immediately disable networking traffic, switch panic mode on:
# firewall-cmd --panic-on
IMPORTANT
Enabling panic mode stops all networking traffic. From this reason, it should be used only
when you have the physical access to the machine or if you are logged in using a serial
console.
Switching off panic mode reverts the firewall to its permanent settings. To switch panic mode off:
# firewall-cmd --panic-off
To see whether panic mode is switched on or off, use:
# firewall-cmd --query-panic
5.7.2. Controlling traffic with predefined services using CLI

The most straightforward method to control traffic is to add a predefined service to firewalld. This
opens all necessary ports and modifies other settings according to the service definition file .
Procedure
1. Check that the service is not already allowed:
# firewall-cmd --list-services
ssh dhcpv6-client
2. List all predefined services:
40
# firewall-cmd --get-services
RH-Satellite-6 amanda-client amanda-k5-client bacula bacula-client bitcoin bitcoin-rpc
bitcoin-testnet bitcoin-testnet-rpc ceph ceph-mon cfengine condor-collector ctdb dhcp dhcpv6
dhcpv6-client dns docker-registry ...
[trimmed for clarity]
3. Add the service to the allowed services:
# firewall-cmd --add-service=<service-name>
4. Make the new settings persistent:
5.7.3. Controlling traffic with predefined services using GUI

To enable or disable a predefined or custom service:
1. Start the firewall-config tool and select the network zone whose services are to be configured.
2. Select the Services tab.
3. Select the check box for each type of service you want to trust or clear the check box to block a
service.
To edit a service:
1. Start the firewall-config tool.
2. Select Permanent from the menu labeled Configuration. Additional icons and menu buttons
appear at the bottom of the Services window.
3. Select the service you want to configure.
The Ports, Protocols, and Source Port tabs enable adding, changing, and removing of ports, protocols,
and source port for the selected service. The modules tab is for configuring Netfilter helper modules.
The Destination tab enables limiting traffic to a particular destination address and Internet Protocol
(IPv4 or IPv6).
NOTE
It is not possible to alter service settings in Runtime mode.
5.7.4. Adding new services

Services can be added and removed using the graphical firewall-config tool, firewall-cmd, and firewall-
offline-cmd. Alternatively, you can edit the XML files in /etc/firewalld/services/. If a service is not added
or changed by the user, then no corresponding XML file are found in /etc/firewalld/services/. The files
/usr/lib/firewalld/services/ can be used as templates if you want to add or change a service.
Procedure
To add a new service in a terminal, use firewall-cmd, or firewall-offline-cmd in case of not active
firewalld.
41
1. Enter the following command to add a new and empty service:
$ firewall-cmd --new-service=service-name
2. To add a new service using a local file, use the following command:
$ firewall-cmd --new-service-from-file=service-name.xml
You can change the service name with the additional --name=service-name option.
3. As soon as service settings are changed, an updated copy of the service is placed into
/etc/firewalld/services/.
As root, you can enter the following command to copy a service manually:
# cp /usr/lib/firewalld/services/service-name.xml /etc/firewalld/services/service-name.xml
firewalld loads files from /usr/lib/firewalld/services in the first place. If files are placed in
/etc/firewalld/services and they are valid, then these will override the matching files from
/usr/lib/firewalld/services. The overriden files in /usr/lib/firewalld/services are used as soon as the
matching files in /etc/firewalld/services have been removed or if firewalld has been asked to load the
defaults of the services. This applies to the permanent environment only. A reload is needed to get
these fallbacks also in the runtime environment.
5.7.5. Controlling ports using CLI

Ports are logical devices that enable an operating system to receive and distinguish network traffic and
forward it accordingly to system services. These are usually represented by a daemon that listens on the
port, that is it waits for any traffic coming to this port.
Normally, system services listen on standard ports that are reserved for them. The httpd daemon, for
example, listens on port 80. However, system administrators by default configure daemons to listen on
different ports to enhance security or for other reasons.
5.7.5.1. Opening a port
Through open ports, the system is accessible from the outside, which represents a security risk.
Generally, keep ports closed and only open them if they are required for certain services.
Procedure
To get a list of open ports in the current zone:
1. List all allowed ports:
# firewall-cmd --list-ports
2. Add a port to the allowed ports to open it for incoming traffic:
# firewall-cmd --add-port=port-number/port-type
The port types are either tcp, udp, sctp, or dccp. The type must match the type of network
42
The port types are either tcp, udp, sctp, or dccp. The type must match the type of network
communication.
5.7.5.2. Closing a port
When an open port is no longer needed, close that port in firewalld. It is highly recommended to close all
unnecessary ports as soon as they are not used because leaving a port open represents a security risk.
Procedure
To close a port, remove it from the list of allowed ports:
1. List all allowed ports:
# firewall-cmd --list-ports
[WARNING]
====
This command will only give you a list of ports that have been opened as ports. You will not
be able to see any open ports that have been opened as a service. Therefore, you should
consider using the --list-all option instead of --list-ports.
====
2. Remove the port from the allowed ports to close it for the incoming traffic:
# firewall-cmd --remove-port=port-number/port-type
5.7.6. Opening ports using GUI

To permit traffic through the firewall to a certain port:
1. Start the firewall-config tool and select the network zone whose settings you want to change.
2. Select the Ports tab and click the Add button on the right-hand side. The Port and Protocol
window opens.
3. Enter the port number or range of ports to permit.
4. Select tcp or udp from the list.
5.7.7. Controlling traffic with protocols using GUI

To permit traffic through the firewall using a certain protocol:
2. Select the Protocols tab and click the Add button on the right-hand side. The Protocol window
opens.
3. Either select a protocol from the list or select the Other Protocol check box and enter the
protocol in the field.
43
5.7.8. Opening source ports using GUI

To permit traffic through the firewall from a certain port:
2. Select the Source Port tab and click the Add button on the right-hand side. The Source Port
window opens.
3. Enter the port number or range of ports to permit. Select tcp or udp from the list.
5.8. WORKING WITH FIREWALLD ZONES

Zones represent a concept to manage incoming traffic more transparently. The zones are connected to
networking interfaces or assigned a range of source addresses. You manage firewall rules for each zone
independently, which enables you to define complex firewall settings and apply them to the traffic.
5.8.1. Listing zones

Procedure
1. To see which zones are available on your system:
# firewall-cmd --get-zones
The firewall-cmd --get-zones command displays all zones that are available on the system, but
it does not show any details for particular zones.
2. To see detailed information for all zones:
# firewall-cmd --list-all-zones
3. To see detailed information for a specific zone:
# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --list-all
5.8.2. Modifying firewalld settings for a certain zone

The Section 5.7.2, “Controlling traffic with predefined services using CLI” and Section 5.7.5, “Controlling
ports using CLI” explain how to add services or modify ports in the scope of the current working zone.
Sometimes, it is required to set up rules in a different zone.
Procedure
1. To work in a different zone, use the --zone=zone-name option. For example, to allow the SSH
service in the zone public:
# firewall-cmd --add-service=ssh --zone=public
5.8.3. Changing the default zone
System administrators assign a zone to a networking interface in its configuration files. If an interface is
44
System administrators assign a zone to a networking interface in its configuration files. If an interface is
not assigned to a specific zone, it is assigned to the default zone. After each restart of the firewalld
service, firewalld loads the settings for the default zone and makes it active.
Procedure
To set up the default zone:
1. Display the current default zone:
# firewall-cmd --get-default-zone
2. Set the new default zone:
# firewall-cmd --set-default-zone zone-name
NOTE
Following this procedure, the setting is a permanent setting, even without the --
permanent option.
5.8.4. Assigning a network interface to a zone

It is possible to define different sets of rules for different zones and then change the settings quickly by
changing the zone for the interface that is being used. With multiple interfaces, a specific zone can be
set for each of them to distinguish traffic that is coming through them.
Procedure
To assign the zone to a specific interface:
1. List the active zones and the interfaces assigned to them:
# firewall-cmd --get-active-zones
2. Assign the interface to a different zone:
# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --change-interface=<interface-name>
NOTE
You do not have to use the --permanent option to make the setting persistent across
restarts. If you set a new default zone, the setting becomes permanent.
5.8.5. Assigning a default zone to a network connection

When the connection is managed by NetworkManager, it must be aware of a zone that it uses. For
every network connection, a zone can be specified, which provides the flexibility of various firewall
settings according to the location of the computer with portable devices. Thus, zones and settings can
be specified for different locations, such as company or home.
Procedure
1. To set a default zone for an Internet connection, use either the NetworkManager GUI or edit
45
1. To set a default zone for an Internet connection, use either the NetworkManager GUI or edit
the /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-connection-name file and add a line that assigns a
zone to this connection:
ZONE=zone-name
5.8.6. Creating a new zone

To use custom zones, create a new zone and use it just like a predefined zone. New zones require the --
permanent option, otherwise the command does not work.
Procedure
To create a new zone:
1. Create a new zone:
# firewall-cmd --new-zone=zone-name
2. Check if the new zone is added to your permanent settings:
5.8.7. Zone configuration files

Zones can also be created using a zone configuration file. This approach can be helpful when you need to
create a new zone, but want to reuse the settings from a different zone and only alter them a little.
A firewalld zone configuration file contains the information for a zone. These are the zone description,
services, ports, protocols, icmp-blocks, masquerade, forward-ports and rich language rules in an XML
file format. The file name has to be zone-name.xml where the length of zone-name is currently limited
to 17 chars. The zone configuration files are located in the /usr/lib/firewalld/zones/ and
/etc/firewalld/zones/ directories.
The following example shows a configuration that allows one service (SSH) and one port range, for both
the TCP and UDP protocols:
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>

<zone>
<short>My zone</short>
<description>Here you can describe the characteristic features of the zone.</description>
<service name="ssh"/>
<port port="1025-65535" protocol="tcp"/>
<port port="1025-65535" protocol="udp"/>
</zone>
To change settings for that zone, add or remove sections to add ports, forward ports, services, and so
on.
46
For more information, see the firewalld.zone manual pages.
5.8.8. Using zone targets to set default behavior for incoming traffic
For every zone, you can set a default behavior that handles incoming traffic that is not further specified.
Such behaviour is defined by setting the target of the zone. There are three options - default, ACCEPT,
REJECT, and DROP. By setting the target to ACCEPT, you accept all incoming packets except those
disabled by a specific rule. If you set the target to REJECT or DROP, you disable all incoming packets
except those that you have allowed in specific rules. When packets are rejected, the source machine is
informed about the rejection, while there is no information sent when the packets are dropped.
Procedure
To set a target for a zone:
1. List the information for the specific zone to see the default target:
$ firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --list-all
2. Set a new target in the zone:
# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --set-target=<default|ACCEPT|REJECT|DROP>
5.9. USING ZONES TO MANAGE INCOMING TRAFFIC DEPENDING ON

A SOURCE
5.9.1. Using zones to manage incoming traffic depending on a source

You can use zones to manage incoming traffic based on its source. That enables you to sort incoming
traffic and route it through different zones to allow or disallow services that can be reached by that
traffic.
If you add a source to a zone, the zone becomes active and any incoming traffic from that source will be
directed through it. You can specify different settings for each zone, which is applied to the traffic from
the given sources accordingly. You can use more zones even if you only have one network interface.
5.9.2. Adding a source

To route incoming traffic into a specific source, add the source to that zone. The source can be an IP
address or an IP mask in the Classless Inter-domain Routing (CIDR) notation.
To set the source in the current zone:
# firewall-cmd --add-source=<source>
To set the source IP address for a specific zone:
# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --add-source=<source>
The following procedure allows all incoming traffic from 192.168.2.15 in the trusted zone:
Procedure
1. List all available zones:
47
2. Add the source IP to the trusted zone in the permanent mode:
# firewall-cmd --zone=trusted --add-source=192.168.2.15
5.9.3. Removing a source

Removing a source from the zone cuts off the traffic coming from it.
Procedure
1. List allowed sources for the required zone:
# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --list-sources
2. Remove the source from the zone permanently:
# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --remove-source=<source>
5.9.4. Adding a source port

To enable sorting the traffic based on a port of origin, specify a source port using the --add-source-port
option. You can also combine this with the --add-source option to limit the traffic to a certain IP address
or IP range.
Procedure
1. To add a source port:
# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --add-source-port=<port-name>/<tcp|udp|sctp|dccp>
5.9.5. Removing a source port

By removing a source port you disable sorting the traffic based on a port of origin.
Procedure
1. To remove a source port:
# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --remove-source-port=<port-name>/<tcp|udp|sctp|dccp>
5.9.6. Using zones and sources to allow a service for only a specific domain
48
To allow traffic from a specific network to use a service on a machine, use zones and source. The
following procedure allows traffic from 192.168.1.0/24 to be able to reach the HTTP service while any
other traffic is blocked.
Procedure
1. List all available zones:
block dmz drop external home internal public trusted work
2. Add the source to the trusted zone to route the traffic originating from the source through the
zone:
# firewall-cmd --zone=trusted --add-source=192.168.1.0/24
3. Add the http service in the trusted zone:
# firewall-cmd --zone=trusted -add-service=http
5. Check that the trusted zone is active and that the service is allowed in it:
# firewall-cmd --zone=trusted --list-all

trusted (active)
target: ACCEPT
sources: 192.168.1.0/24
services: http
5.9.7. Configuring traffic accepted by a zone based on a protocol

You can allow incoming traffic to be accepted by a zone based on a protocol. All traffic using the
specified protocol is accepted by a zone, in which you can apply further rules and filtering.
5.9.7.1. Adding a protocol to a zone
By adding a protocol to a certain zone, you allow all traffic with this protocol to be accepted by this zone.
Procedure
1. To add a protocol to a zone:
# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --add-protocol=port-name/tcp|udp|sctp|dccp|igmp
NOTE
To receive multicast traffic, use the igmp value with the --add-protocol option.
5.9.7.2. Removing a protocol from a zone
49
By removing a protocol from a certain zone, you stop accepting all traffic based on this protocol by the
zone.
Procedure
1. To remove a protocol from a zone:
# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --remove-protocol=port-name/tcp|udp|sctp|dccp|igmp
5.10. CONFIGURING IP ADDRESS MASQUERADING

The following procedure describes how to enable IP masquerading on your system. IP masquerading
hides individual machines behind a gateway when accessing the Internet.
Procedure
1. To check if IP masquerading is enabled (for example, for the external zone), enter the following
command as root:
# firewall-cmd --zone=external --query-masquerade
The command prints yes with exit status 0 if enabled. It prints no with exit status 1 otherwise. If
zone is omitted, the default zone will be used.
2. To enable IP masquerading, enter the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --zone=external --add-masquerade
3. To make this setting persistent, repeat the command adding the --permanent option.
To disable IP masquerading, enter the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --zone=external --remove-masquerade --permanent
5.11. PORT FORWARDING

Redirecting ports using this method only works for IPv4-based traffic. For IPv6 redirecting setup, you
must use rich rules.
To redirect to an external system, it is necessary to enable masquerading. For more information, see
Configuring IP address masquerading .
5.11.1. Adding a port to redirect

Using firewalld, you can set up ports redirection so that any incoming traffic that reaches a certain port
on your system is delivered to another internal port of your choice or to an external port on another
machine.
Prerequisites
Before you redirect traffic from one port to another port, or another address, you have to know
three things: which port the packets arrive at, what protocol is used, and where you want to
redirect them.
50
Procedure
To redirect a port to another port:
# firewall-cmd --add-forward-port=port=port-number:proto=tcp|udp|sctp|dccp:toport=port-number
To redirect a port to another port at a different IP address:
1. Add the port to be forwarded:
# firewall-cmd --add-forward-port=port=port-number:proto=tcp|udp:toport=port-
number:toaddr=IP/mask
2. Enable masquerade:
# firewall-cmd --add-masquerade
5.11.2. Redirecting TCP port 80 to port 88 on the same machine

Follow the steps to redirect the TCP port 80 to port 88.
Procedure
1. Redirect the port 80 to port 88 for TCP traffic:
# firewall-cmd --add-forward-port=port=80:proto=tcp:toport=88
3. Check that the port is redirected:
# firewall-cmd --list-all
5.11.3. Removing a redirected port

To remove a redirected port:
~]# firewall-cmd --remove-forward-port=port=port-number:proto=<tcp|udp>:toport=port-

number:toaddr=<IP/mask>
To remove a forwarded port redirected to a different address, use the following procedure.
Procedure
1. Remove the forwarded port:
~]# firewall-cmd --remove-forward-port=port=port-number:proto=<tcp|udp>:toport=port-

number:toaddr=<IP/mask>
2. Disable masquerade:
51
~]# firewall-cmd --remove-masquerade
5.11.4. Removing TCP port 80 forwarded to port 88 on the same machine

To remove the port redirection:
Procedure
1. List redirected ports:
~]# firewall-cmd --list-forward-ports

port=80:proto=tcp:toport=88:toaddr=
2. Remove the redirected port from the firewall::
~]# firewall-cmd --remove-forward-port=port=80:proto=tcp:toport=88:toaddr=
~]# firewall-cmd --runtime-to-permanent
5.12. MANAGING ICMP REQUESTS

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a supporting protocol that is used by various
network devices to send error messages and operational information indicating a connection problem,
for example, that a requested service is not available. ICMP differs from transport protocols such as TCP
and UDP because it is not used to exchange data between systems.
Unfortunately, it is possible to use the ICMP messages, especially echo-request and echo-reply, to
reveal information about your network and misuse such information for various kinds of fraudulent
activities. Therefore, firewalld enables blocking the ICMP requests to protect your network information.
5.12.1. Listing and blocking ICMP requests
Listing ICMP requests

The ICMP requests are described in individual XML files that are located in the
/usr/lib/firewalld/icmptypes/ directory. You can read these files to see a description of the request. The
firewall-cmd command controls the ICMP requests manipulation.
To list all available ICMP types:
# firewall-cmd --get-icmptypes
The ICMP request can be used by IPv4, IPv6, or by both protocols. To see for which protocol the
ICMP request is used:
# firewall-cmd --info-icmptype=<icmptype>
The status of an ICMP request shows yes if the request is currently blocked or no if it is not. To
see if an ICMP request is currently blocked:
52
# firewall-cmd --query-icmp-block=<icmptype>
Blocking or unblocking ICMP requests

When your server blocks ICMP requests, it does not provide the information that it normally would.
However, that does not mean that no information is given at all. The clients receive information that the
particular ICMP request is being blocked (rejected). Blocking the ICMP requests should be considered
carefully, because it can cause communication problems, especially with IPv6 traffic.
To see if an ICMP request is currently blocked:
# firewall-cmd --query-icmp-block=<icmptype>
To block an ICMP request:
# firewall-cmd --add-icmp-block=<icmptype>
To remove the block for an ICMP request:
# firewall-cmd --remove-icmp-block=<icmptype>
Blocking ICMP requests without providing any information at all

Normally, if you block ICMP requests, clients know that you are blocking it. So, a potential attacker who
is sniffing for live IP addresses is still able to see that your IP address is online. To hide this information
completely, you have to drop all ICMP requests.
To block and drop all ICMP requests:
1. Set the target of your zone to DROP:
# firewall-cmd --set-target=DROP
Now, all traffic, including ICMP requests, is dropped, except traffic which you have explicitly allowed.
To block and drop certain ICMP requests and allow others:
1. Set the target of your zone to DROP:
# firewall-cmd --set-target=DROP
2. Add the ICMP block inversion to block all ICMP requests at once:
# firewall-cmd --add-icmp-block-inversion
3. Add the ICMP block for those ICMP requests that you want to allow:
# firewall-cmd --add-icmp-block=<icmptype>
53
The block inversion inverts the setting of the ICMP requests blocks, so all requests, that were not
previously blocked, are blocked. Those that were blocked are not blocked. Which means that if you need
to unblock a request, you must use the blocking command.
To revert the block inversion to a fully permissive setting:
1. Set the target of your zone to default or ACCEPT:
# firewall-cmd --set-target=default
2. Remove all added blocks for ICMP requests:
# firewall-cmd --remove-icmp-block=<icmptype>
3. Remove the ICMP block inversion:
# firewall-cmd --remove-icmp-block-inversion
5.12.2. Configuring the ICMP filter using GUI

To enable or disable an ICMP filter, start the firewall-config tool and select the network zone
whose messages are to be filtered. Select the ICMP Filter tab and select the check box for each
type of ICMP message you want to filter. Clear the check box to disable a filter. This setting is
per direction and the default allows everything.
To edit an ICMP type, start the firewall-config tool and select Permanent mode from the
menu labeled Configuration. Additional icons appear at the bottom of the Services window.
Select Yes in the following dialog to enable masquerading and to make forwarding to another
machine working.
To enable inverting the ICMP Filter, click the Invert Filter check box on the right. Only marked
ICMP types are now accepted, all other are rejected. In a zone using the DROP target, they are
dropped.
5.13. SETTING AND CONTROLLING IP SETS USING FIREWALLD

To see the list of IP set types supported by firewalld, enter the following command as root.
~]# firewall-cmd --get-ipset-types

hash:ip hash:ip,mark hash:ip,port hash:ip,port,ip hash:ip,port,net hash:mac hash:net hash:net,iface
hash:net,net hash:net,port hash:net,port,net
5.13.1. Configuring IP set options using CLI
IP sets can be used in firewalld zones as sources and also as sources in rich rules. In Red Hat Enterprise
54
IP sets can be used in firewalld zones as sources and also as sources in rich rules. In Red Hat Enterprise
Linux, the preferred method is to use the IP sets created with firewalld in a direct rule.
To list the IP sets known to firewalld in the permanent environment, use the following
command as root:
# firewall-cmd --permanent --get-ipsets
To add a new IP set, use the following command using the permanent environment as root:
# firewall-cmd --permanent --new-ipset=test --type=hash:net

success
The previous command creates a new IP set with the name test and the hash:net type for IPv4.
To create an IP set for use with IPv6, add the --option=family=inet6 option. To make the new
setting effective in the runtime environment, reload firewalld.
List the new IP set with the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --permanent --get-ipsets

test
To get more information about the IP set, use the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --permanent --info-ipset=test

test
type: hash:net
options:
entries:
Note that the IP set does not have any entries at the moment.
To add an entry to the test IP set, use the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --permanent --ipset=test --add-entry=192.168.0.1

success
The previous command adds the IP address 192.168.0.1 to the IP set.
To get the list of current entries in the IP set, use the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --permanent --ipset=test --get-entries

192.168.0.1
Generate a file containing a list of IP addresses, for example:
# cat > iplist.txt <<EOL

192.168.0.2
192.168.0.3
192.168.1.0/24
192.168.2.254
EOL
The file with the list of IP addresses for an IP set should contain an entry per line. Lines starting
55
The file with the list of IP addresses for an IP set should contain an entry per line. Lines starting
with a hash, a semi-colon, or empty lines are ignored.
To add the addresses from the iplist.txt file, use the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --permanent --ipset=test --add-entries-from-file=iplist.txt

success
To see the extended entries list of the IP set, use the following command as root:

192.168.0.1
192.168.0.2
192.168.0.3
192.168.1.0/24
192.168.2.254
To remove the addresses from the IP set and to check the updated entries list, use the following
commands as root:
# firewall-cmd --permanent --ipset=test --remove-entries-from-file=iplist.txt

success
192.168.0.1
You can add the IP set as a source to a zone to handle all traffic coming in from any of the
addresses listed in the IP set with a zone. For example, to add the test IP set as a source to the
drop zone to drop all packets coming from all entries listed in the test IP set, use the following
command as root:
# firewall-cmd --permanent --zone=drop --add-source=ipset:test

success
The ipset: prefix in the source shows firewalld that the source is an IP set and not an IP
address or an address range.
Only the creation and removal of IP sets is limited to the permanent environment, all other IP set
options can be used also in the runtime environment without the --permanent option.

WARNING
Red Hat does not recommend using IP sets that are not managed through
firewalld. To use such IP sets, a permanent direct rule is required to reference the
set, and a custom service must be added to create these IP sets. This service needs
to be started before firewalld starts, otherwise firewalld is not able to add the
direct rules using these sets. You can add permanent direct rules with the
/etc/firewalld/direct.xml file.
5.14. CONFIGURING FIREWALL LOCKDOWN
56
Local applications or services are able to change the firewall configuration if they are running as root (for
example, libvirt). With this feature, the administrator can lock the firewall configuration so that either no
applications or only applications that are added to the lockdown whitelist are able to request firewall
changes. The lockdown settings default to disabled. If enabled, the user can be sure that there are no
unwanted configuration changes made to the firewall by local applications or services.
5.14.1. Configuring lockdown with using CLI

To query whether lockdown is enabled, use the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --query-lockdown
The command prints yes with exit status 0 if lockdown is enabled. It prints no with exit status 1
otherwise.
To enable lockdown, enter the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --lockdown-on
To disable lockdown, use the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --lockdown-off
5.14.2. Configuring lockdown whitelist options using CLI

The lockdown whitelist can contain commands, security contexts, users and user IDs. If a command entry
on the whitelist ends with an asterisk "*", then all command lines starting with that command will match. If
the "*" is not there then the absolute command including arguments must match.
The context is the security (SELinux) context of a running application or service. To get the
context of a running application use the following command:
$ ps -e --context
That command returns all running applications. Pipe the output through the grep tool to get
the application of interest. For example:
$ ps -e --context | grep example_program
To list all command lines that are on the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --list-lockdown-whitelist-commands
To add a command command to the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --add-lockdown-whitelist-command='/usr/bin/python3 -Es /usr/bin/command'
To remove a command command from the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --remove-lockdown-whitelist-command='/usr/bin/python3 -Es

/usr/bin/command'
To query whether the command command is on the whitelist, enter the following command as
57
To query whether the command command is on the whitelist, enter the following command as
root:
# firewall-cmd --query-lockdown-whitelist-command='/usr/bin/python3 -Es /usr/bin/command'
The command prints yes with exit status 0 if true. It prints no with exit status 1 otherwise.
To list all security contexts that are on the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --list-lockdown-whitelist-contexts
To add a context context to the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --add-lockdown-whitelist-context=context
To remove a context context from the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --remove-lockdown-whitelist-context=context
To query whether the context context is on the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --query-lockdown-whitelist-context=context
Prints yes with exit status 0, if true, prints no with exit status 1 otherwise.
To list all user IDs that are on the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --list-lockdown-whitelist-uids
To add a user ID uid to the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --add-lockdown-whitelist-uid=uid
To remove a user ID uid from the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --remove-lockdown-whitelist-uid=uid
To query whether the user ID uid is on the whitelist, enter the following command:
$ firewall-cmd --query-lockdown-whitelist-uid=uid
To list all user names that are on the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --list-lockdown-whitelist-users
To add a user name user to the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --add-lockdown-whitelist-user=user
To remove a user name user from the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
58
# firewall-cmd --remove-lockdown-whitelist-user=user
To query whether the user name user is on the whitelist, enter the following command:
$ firewall-cmd --query-lockdown-whitelist-user=user
5.14.3. Configuring lockdown whitelist options using configuration files

The default whitelist configuration file contains the NetworkManager context and the default context
of libvirt. The user ID 0 is also on the list.

<whitelist>
<selinux context="system_u:system_r:NetworkManager_t:s0"/>
<selinux context="system_u:system_r:virtd_t:s0-s0:c0.c1023"/>
<user id="0"/>
</whitelist>
Following is an example whitelist configuration file enabling all commands for the firewall-cmd utility, for
a user called user whose user ID is 815:

<whitelist>
<command name="/usr/libexec/platform-python -s /bin/firewall-cmd*"/>
<selinux context="system_u:system_r:NetworkManager_t:s0"/>
<user id="815"/>
<user name="user"/>
</whitelist>
This example shows both user id and user name, but only one option is required. Python is the
interpreter and is prepended to the command line. You can also use a specific command, for example:
/usr/bin/python3 /bin/firewall-cmd --lockdown-on
In that example, only the --lockdown-on command is allowed.
In Red Hat Enterprise Linux, all utilities are placed in the /usr/bin/ directory and the /bin/ directory is
sym-linked to the /usr/bin/ directory. In other words, although the path for firewall-cmd when entered
as root might resolve to /bin/firewall-cmd, /usr/bin/firewall-cmd can now be used. All new scripts
should use the new location. But be aware that if scripts that run as root are written to use the
/bin/firewall-cmd path, then that command path must be whitelisted in addition to the /usr/bin/firewall-
cmd path traditionally used only for non- root users.
The * at the end of the name attribute of a command means that all commands that start with this string
match. If the * is not there then the absolute command including arguments must match.
5.15. LOG FOR DENIED PACKETS

With the LogDenied option in the firewalld, it is possible to add a simple logging mechanism for denied
packets. These are the packets that are rejected or dropped. To change the setting of the logging, edit
the /etc/firewalld/firewalld.conf file or use the command-line or GUI configuration tool.
59
If LogDenied is enabled, logging rules are added right before the reject and drop rules in the INPUT,
FORWARD and OUTPUT chains for the default rules and also the final reject and drop rules in zones.
The possible values for this setting are: all, unicast, broadcast, multicast, and off. The default setting is
off. With the unicast, broadcast, and multicast setting, the pkttype match is used to match the link-
layer packet type. With all, all packets are logged.
To list the actual LogDenied setting with firewall-cmd, use the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --get-log-denied
off
To change the LogDenied setting, use the following command as root:
# firewall-cmd --set-log-denied=all
success
To change the LogDenied setting with the firewalld GUI configuration tool, start firewall-config, click
the Options menu and select Change Log Denied. The LogDenied window appears. Select the new
LogDenied setting from the menu and click OK.

The following sources of information provide additional resources regarding firewalld.
Installed documentation
firewalld(1) man page — describes command options for firewalld.
firewalld.conf(5) man page — contains information to configure firewalld.
firewall-cmd(1) man page — describes command options for the firewalld command-line client.
firewall-config(1) man page — describes settings for the firewall-config tool.
firewall-offline-cmd(1) man page — describes command options for the firewalld offline
command-line client.
firewalld.icmptype(5) man page — describes XML configuration files for ICMP filtering.
firewalld.ipset(5) man page — describes XML configuration files for the firewalld IP sets.
firewalld.service(5) man page — describes XML configuration files for firewalld service.
firewalld.zone(5) man page — describes XML configuration files for firewalld zone
configuration.
firewalld.direct(5) man page — describes the firewalld direct interface configuration file.
firewalld.lockdown-whitelist(5) man page — describes the firewalld lockdown whitelist

configuration file.
firewalld.richlanguage(5) man page — describes the firewalld rich language rule syntax.
firewalld.zones(5) man page — general description of what zones are and how to configure
them.
60
firewalld.dbus(5) man page — describes the D-Bus interface of firewalld.
Online documentation
http://www.firewalld.org/ — firewalld home page.
61
CHAPTER 6. GETTING STARTED WITH NFTABLES

The nftables framework enables administrators to configure packet-filtering rules used by the Linux
kernel firewall.
6.1. INTRODUCTION TO NFTABLES

The nftables framework provides packet classification facilities and it is the designated successor to the
iptables, ip6tables, arptables, and ebtables tools. It offers numerous improvements in convenience,
features, and performance over previous packet-filtering tools, most notably:
lookup tables instead of linear processing
a single framework for both the IPv4 and IPv6 protocols
rules all applied atomically instead of fetching, updating, and storing a complete ruleset
support for debugging and tracing in the ruleset (nftrace) and monitoring trace events (in the
nft tool)
more consistent and compact syntax, no protocol-specific extensions
a Netlink API for third-party applications
Similarly to iptables, nftables use tables for storing chains. The chains contain individual rules for
performing actions. The nft tool replaces all tools from the previous packet-filtering frameworks. The
libnftnl library can be used for low-level interaction with nftables Netlink API over the libmnl library.
In RHEL 8, nftables serve as the default firewalld back end. Although the nftables back end is
backward-compatible with the previous iptables backend in firewall configurations, you can switch back
to iptables by setting the FirewallBackend option to the iptables value in the
/etc/firewalld/firewalld.conf file.
Effect of the modules on the nftables ruleset can be observed using the nft list ruleset command. Since
these tools add tables, chains, and rules to the nftables ruleset, be aware that nftables rule-set
operations, such as the nft flush ruleset command, might affect rule sets installed using the formerly
separate legacy commands.
To quickly identify which variant of the tool is present, version information has been updated to include
the back-end name. In RHEL 8, the nftables-based iptables tool prints the following version string:
$ iptables --version
iptables v1.8.0 (nf_tables)
For comparison, the following version information is printed if legacy iptables tool is present:
$ iptables --version
iptables v1.8.0 (legacy)
The nft(8) man page provides a comprehensive reference documentation for configuring and
inspecting packet filtering with nftables using the nft command-line tool.
62
CHAPTER 6. GETTING STARTED WITH NFTABLES
6.2. CONVERTING IPTABLES TO NFTABLES

Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8 provides the iptables-translate and ip6tables-translate tools to convert
the existing iptables or ip6tables rules into the equivalent ones for nftables.
Note that some extensions lack translation support. If such an extension exists, the tool prints the
untranslated rule prefixed with the # sign. For example:
| % iptables-translate -A INPUT -j CHECKSUM --checksum-fill

| nft # -A INPUT -j CHECKSUM --checksum-fill
Additionally, users can use the iptables-restore-translate and ip6tables-restore-translate tools to

translate a dump of rules. Note that before that, users can use the iptables-save or ip6tables-save
commands to print a dump of current rules. For example:
| % sudo iptables-save >/tmp/iptables.dump

| % iptables-restore-translate -f /tmp/iptables.dump
| # Translated by iptables-restore-translate v1.8.0 on Wed Oct 17 17:00:13 2018
| add table ip nat
| ...
For more information and a list of possible options and values, enter the iptables-translate --help
command.

The What comes after iptables? Its successor, of course: nftables article explains why nftables
replaces iptables.
The Firewalld: The Future is nftables article provides additional information on nftables as a
default back end for firewalld.
63

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Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8

Configuring secured networks and network communication

Last Updated: 2019-08-20

Java ® is a registered trademark of Oracle and/or its affiliates.

All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.

4.2. USING MACSEC WITH NMCLI TOOL 32

6.1. INTRODUCTION TO NFTABLES 62

PROVIDING FEEDBACK ON RED HAT DOCUMENTATION

For submitting more complex feedback, create a Bugzilla ticket:

1. Go to the Bugzilla website.

2. As the Component, use Documentation.

4. Click Submit Bug.

CHAPTER 1. USING SECURE COMMUNICATIONS BETWEEN

1.1. THE SSH PROTOCOL

1.1.1. Reasons for using SSH

Interception of communication between two systems

Impersonation of a particular host

1.1.2. Main features

No one can pose as the intended server

Additionally, it also offers the following options:

It provides secure means to use graphical applications over a network

1.1.3. Protocol versions

1.1.4. Event sequence of an SSH connection

3. The client authenticates itself to the server.

1.1.4.1. Transport layer

Keys are exchanged

The public key encryption algorithm is determined

The symmetric encryption algorithm is determined

The message authentication algorithm is determined

The hash algorithm is determined

It is possible for an attacker to masquerade as an SSH server during the initial

1.2. SETTING UP OPENSSH USING CONFIGURATION FILES

Table 1.1. System-wide configuration files

/etc/ssh/moduli Contains Diffie-Hellman groups used for the Diffie-

/etc/ssh/ssh_config The default SSH client configuration file. Note that it

/etc/ssh/sshd_config The configuration file for the sshd daemon.

/etc/ssh/ssh_host_ecdsa_key The ECDSA private key used by the sshd daemon.

/etc/ssh/ssh_host_ecdsa_key.pub The ECDSA public key used by the sshd daemon.

/etc/ssh/ssh_host_ed25519_key The Ed25519 private key used by the sshd daemon

/etc/ssh/ssh_host_ed25519_key.pub The Ed25519 public key used by the sshd daemon

/etc/pam.d/sshd The PAM configuration file for the sshd daemon.

/etc/sysconfig/sshd Configuration file for the sshd service.

Table 1.2. User-specific configuration files

~/.ssh/authorized_keys Holds a list of authorized public keys for servers.

~/.ssh/id_ecdsa Contains the ECDSA private key of the user.

~/.ssh/id_ecdsa.pub The ECDSA public key of the user.

~/.ssh/id_ed25519 The Ed25519 private key used by ssh for version 2 of

~/.ssh/id_ed25519.pub The Ed25519 public key used by ssh for version 2 of

~/.ssh/known_hosts Contains host keys of SSH servers accessed by the

1.3. STARTING AN OPENSSH SERVER

# systemctl start sshd.service

To stop the running sshd daemon in the current session:

# systemctl stop sshd.service

To start the daemon automatically at boot time:

# systemctl enable sshd.service

1.3.1. Configuring the OpenSSH server keys generation

# systemctl mask [email protected]

1.4. REQUIRING SSH FOR REMOTE CONNECTIONS

1.5. USING KEY-BASED AUTHENTICATION

1.5.1. Generating key pairs