TERM PAPER

OF

SIGNAL AND SYSTEM (ECE 209)

TOPIC: Numerical based on Laplace transform

SUBMITTED TO:- SUBMITTED BY:-

Mr.Govardhana Rao Md.RAJIUR RAHMAN

Talluri SECTION:-B6911
DEPT.OF ECE ROLL NO.:-B6911A27

REG. NO.:-10902835

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 I take this opportunity to present my votes of thanks to all those guidepost who really
acted as lightening pillars to enlighten our way throughout this project that has led to
successful and satisfactory completion of this study.We are really grateful to our Head of
the department for providing us with an opportunity to undertake this project in this
university and providing us with all the facilities. We are highly thankful to
MR.GOVERDHAN SIR for his active support, valuable time and advice, whole-hearted
guidance, sincere cooperation and pains-taking involvement during the study and in
completing the assignment of preparing the said project within the time stipulated.

Lastly, We are thankful to all those, particularly the various friends , who have been
instrumental in creating proper, healthy and conductive environment and including new
and fresh innovative ideas for us during the project, their help, it would have been
extremely difficult for us to prepare the project in a time bound framework.

CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Historical review of NLT

3. Basic Development of NLT

4. Definition of Laplace Transform

5. Region of Convergence

6. Properties of L T

7. Direct Numerical Laplace Transform

8. Inverse Numerical Laplace Transform

9. Application Examples

10. Sequential energization of transmission lion

11. Restoration process of a power network

12. Conclusions

13. References

INTRODUCTION gravitation to the solar system (an important

problem of his day). He played a leading role
Laplace was a in the development of the metric
Frenchmathematician, astronomer,and physi system.The Laplace Transform is widely
cist who applied the Newtonian theory of used in engineering applications (mechanical
and electronic), especially where the driving Electromagnetic transients, mainly due to
force is discontinuous. It is also used in switching operations,faults and lightning,
process control. cause overvoltages that are dangerous to the
power system. Therefore, an accurate analysis
In mathematics, the Laplace transform is a of these disturbances is very important for the
widely used integral transform. It has many insulation coordination design and testing
important applications stages of power system equipment,such as
in mathematics, physics, economics, engineeri transmission lines and cables, rotatory plant,
ng, and probability theory.The Laplace transformers,grounding systems, and so on.
transform is related to the Fourier transform, This analysis can be performed either with
but whereas the Fourier transform resolves a time or frequency domain methods However,
function or signal into its modes of vibration, the latter are preferred, mainly for the
the Laplace transform resolves a function into following reasons: short computer processing
itsmoments. Like the Fourier transform, the time is required,nonlinear and time varying
Laplace transform is used for solving elements can be directly accounted for, and it
differential and integral equations. In physics is suitable for real time simulation.Besides,the
and engineering, it is used for analysis time domain program EMTP (Electromagnetic
of linear time-invariant systems such Transients Program) is nowadays the most
as electrical circuits, harmonic widely known and used tool for analyzing
oscillators, optical devices, and mechanical electromagnetic transients in power
systems. In this analysis, the Laplace systems.The inclusion of frequency dependent
transform is often interpreted as a elements, such as transmission lines, has
transformation from the time-domain, in which always been an inherent difficulty in time
inputs and outputs are functions of time, to domain methods. Several approaches have
the frequency-domain, where the same inputs been applied to overcome this problem the
and outputs are functions of complex angular since early 70s, but even the most advanced
frequency, in radians per unit time. Given a line models considerapproximations that are
simple mathematical or functional description prone to error in systems with high frequency
of an input or output to a system, the Laplace dependence. In contrast, when using frequency
transform provides an alternative functional domain methods,such as thos
description that often simplifies the process of ebasedontheFourierorLaplacetransforms,frequ
analyzing the behavior of the system, or in ency dependent elements can be included in a
synthesizing a new system based on a set of straightforward manner. Thus, a frequency
specifications. domain method offers the most theoretically
exact transient solution.In this work, the
methodology basis of a frequency domain
Denoted  , it is a linear operator on method, namely the Numerical Laplace
a function f(t) (original) with a real Transform, is reviewed, discussing its
accuracy as compared with time domain
argument t (t ≥ 0) that transforms it to a
methods and presenting some of its most
function F(s) (image) with a complex recent applications.
argument s. This transformation is
essentially bijective for the majority of
practical uses; the respective pairs of f(t) Historical review of the NLT
and F(s) are matched in tables. The Laplace
transform has the useful property that many
relationships and operations over the The Fourier and Laplace transforms are very
originals f(t) correspond to simpler powerful analysis tools for the solution of
differential and integral equations.However,
relationships and operations over the images. their application to practical problems is
limited,given that the transformation from time
to frequency domain and vice versa can be
very difficult or even impossible.Besides, the Let f(t) be a causal time domain function and
time domain function may not be defined F(s) its image in the frequency domain. Direct
analytically,but rather through graphics, and inverse Laplace transforms are given by
experimental measure ments, sections or in
discrete form. In particular, the analytical
solution of systems with nonlinear frequency
dependence,such as transmission lines, is …1
practically impossible. To overcome these
situations, numerical transformations have
been used instead of the analytical
expressions.The numerical inversion of the …2
Laplace transform was introduced in the 60s
by Bellman et al., approximating the Laplace Defining the Laplace variable as s=c+jw (1)
integral by a Gauss-Legendre and (2) can be rewritten as
polynomial.From 1965 to 1973, a group lead
by Mullineux applied discrete Fourier
transforms in analyzing transients in power
..3
systems, naming their technique “Modified
Fourier Transform” (MFT), since the
algorithm was adapted to reducing truncation
and discretization errors. In 1969, the MFT
was successfully applied by Medepohl et al. to ..4
the computation of transients in
multiconductor transmission lines. In 1973, where ! is the angular frequency and c is a
Ametani introduced the use of the Fast Fourier stability constant. It can be noticed that when
Transform algorithm (FFT) to obtain computer c=0, (3) and (4) correspond to the Fourier
time savings,and the MFT became a much transforms
more attractive analysis method.The term
“Numerical Laplace Transform” was
introduced in 1978 by Wilcox, who formulated
the MFT in terms of the Laplace transform ..5
theory.In 1988, Nagaoka et al. developed an
electromagnetic transient program in the
frequency domain based on the MFT,which
included lumped and distributed parameters, as ..6
well as switches and nonlinear elements.The
Numerical Laplace Transform has been A comparison of (3) and (5) shows that the
successfully applied in analyzing transients in Laplace transform can be obtained by applying
particular elements such as uniform the Fourier integral to f(t)exp(-ct), i.e. a
transmission lines, as well as nonuniform and damped version of f(t). Hence, c is also known
field excited transmission lines, underground as a damping constant and, as will be seen, its
cables, transformer and machine windings, etc. correct definition is fundamental in order to
Besides, the NLThas been widely used in reduce aliasing errors.As previously
testing new time domain model developments. mentioned, the application of (3) and (4)

[or (5) and (6)] for real practical systems can

be very difficult or even impossible. In
Basic Development of the NLT consequence, these expressions need to be
evaluated numerically, giving rise to
truncation and discretization errors. Practical
techniques for reducing numerical errors when
inverting from Laplace to time domain are
addressed in the following subsections.
 can be reduced to an acceptable value by the
introduction of some suitable data window
Truncation errors

TABLE I. Defining equations of data

It will be assumed in this section that c=0; windows.
application of c as a damping factor will be
introduced in 3.2. For the numerical evaluation
of (6), the finite range is considered:

..7

Equation (7) can be rewritten as

..8

Where

..9

From (6) and (8):

..10

and from the convolution theorem:

..11

where h(t) is the inverse Laplace transform of FIGURE 1. Convolution of f(t) and h(t).
H(w), computed as follows:

..12

According to (11) and (12), truncation of the

frequency spectrum is equivalent to the
convolution of f(t) and a sinc function in time
domain. As an example, let f(t) be a unit step
function. The waveform obtained from its
convolution with h(t) shows high frequency
oscillations near the discontinuities (Fig. 1),
known as Gibbs oscillations, which lead to
amplitude errors that are unacceptable for
transient analysis purposes. This magnitude FIGURE 2. Data windows
 ..17
e.g. by multiplying F(jw) by Among a
variety of existing data windows for digital Using the convolution theorem, the discrete
signal processing, Day et al.introduced the use approximation f1(t) is given by the
of the Lanczos window for transient analysis convolution of the original function f(t) and
the Dirac comb g(t):
in 1965, while Wedepohl proposed in 1983 the
use of the Hamming window [24]. More
recently, the Hanning (Von Hann) and ..1
Blackman windows have also been 8
tested,yielding satisfactory results. Figure 2
shows these data windows, while Table I lists Equation (18) shows that f1(t) is obtained from
their respective equations. a superposition of f(t) and its time-displaced
versions f(t + T), f(t + 2T), etc., as shown in
Fig. 3. This causes aliasing errors, which can
be reduced by multiplying f(t) by the damping
Discretization errors
factor exp(-ct), as in (3), so that f(t) tends to
zero for t > T. Function f1(t) will accurately
approximate f(t) in the interval 0< t < T if the
damping constant c is appropriately chosen.
Equation (6) can be expressed in discrete form Given that exp(-ct) is used to damp f(t), it
as could be supposed that a high value for c is
required. Unfortunately,other errors arise if c
is chosen too high, since the expression exp(ct)
..13 in the inverse Laplace transform acts as an
amplifier which, when multiplied by f(t);
where is the spectrum integration step. magnifies the remaining errors related to
From the sampling property of a Dirac truncation and quantification. Determination
function, the term inside the summation of c is still mostly based on empirical
rules.Wilcox proposed the following criterion:
can be expressed as follows:
..19

...14 Wedepohl [24] found a relationship between

the number of samples N and the choice of c,
where G(w) is a Dirac comb in the frequency given by
domain:

..20
..15 Using (20), aliasing errors can be directly
reduced by increasing the number of samples.
or in the time domain
Definition: Laplace Transform

..16
Form a continuous-time LTI system with
impulse response h(t), the output y(t)of the
with From (14) and the definition system to the complex exponential input of the
of the inverse Fourier transform:
 The range of values of the complex variables s
form is
for which the Laplace transform converges is
…(a) called the region of convergence (ROC). To
illustrate the Laplace transform and the
Where associated ROC let us consider some
examples.

…(b)
EXAMPLE:
The function H(s) in Eq. (b) is referred to as
the Laplace transform of h(t). For a general Consider the signal
continuous-time signal x(t), the Laplace
transform X(s) is defined as
(a real)

…(c) Then by Eq. (3) the Laplace transform of x(t)

is
The variable s is generally complex-valued
and is expressed as

…(d)

The Laplace transform defined in Eq. (c) is

often called the bilateral (or two-sided)
Laplace transform in contrast to the unilateral
(or one-sided) Laplace transform, which is
defined as because lim only if
Re(s + a ) > 0 or Re(s) > -a.

…(d) Thus, the ROC for this example is specified in

as Re(s) > -a and is displayed in the complex
where Clearly the plane as shown by the shaded area to the right
bilateral and unilateral transforms are of the lineRe(s) = -a. In Laplace transform
equivalent only if x(t) = 0 for t < 0. The applications, the complex plane is commonly
unilateral Laplace transform is discussed in. referred to as the s-plane. The horizontal and
We will omit the word "bilateral" except vertical axes are sometimes referred to as the
where it is needed to avoid ambiguity. a-axis and the jw-axis, respectively.
Equation (c) is sometimes considered an
Properties of the Laplace Transform
operator that transforms a signal x(t) into a
function X(s) symbolically represented by Basic properties of the Laplace transform are
…(e) presented in the following.

and the signal x(t) and its Laplace transform 1. Linearity:

X(s) are said to form a Laplace transform pair
denoted as If

…(f)

The Region of Convergence:

Then
The set notation means that set A
contains set B, while denotes the
intersection of sets A and B, that is, the set 4. Time Scaling:
containing all elements in both A and B. Thus,
Eq. (3.15) indicates that the ROC of the
resultant Laplace transform is at least as large
as the region in common between R, and R2. If
Usually we have simply This is
illustrated in given Fig.

Then

Fig:

2.Time Shifting:

If

Then

Fig: Effect on the ROC of shifting in the s-

domain. (a) ROC of X(s); (b) ROC of
Equation indicates that the ROCs before and Equation indicates that scaling the time
after the time-shift operation are the same. variable t by the factor a causes an inverse
scaling of the variable s by l / a as well as an
amplitude scaling of X(s/a) by I/ Jal. The
corresponding effect on the ROC is illustrated
3. Shifting in the s-Domain: in given Fig

If 5. Differentiation in the Time Domain:

If
Then

Then
Equation (3.1 7 ) indicates that the ROC
associated with is that of X(s) shifted
by . This is illustrated in given Fig.(a)
 8. Convolution:
Equation shows that the effect of
differentiation in the time domain is
multiplication of the corresponding Laplace
transform by s. The associated ROC is If
unchanged unless there is a pole-zero
cancellation at s = 0.

6. Differentiation in the s-Domain:

Then

If
This convolution property plays a central role
in the analysis and design of continuous-time

LTI systems.
Then

Direct numerical Laplace transform

7. Integration in the Time Domain: Considering f(t) to be not only causal but also
real and measurable, and taking a finite
integration range [0,T], (3) can be written in
discrete form according to
If

..21

Then

where n= 0, 1, 2,. . . , N-1 and is the time

step. Moreover, (21) can be expressed in terms
of the well known Discrete Fourier Transform
Equation shows that the Laplace transform (DFT):
operation corresponding to time-domain
integration is multiplication by l/s, and this is
expected since integration is the inverse
..22
operation of differentiation. The form of R'
follows from the possible introduction of an

additional pole at s = 0 by the multiplication

by l/s. Where
 ..23

Inverse numerical Laplace Transform

Taking a finite integration range and

including the data window (4) can be
expressed as

FIGURE 5. Arrangement of the conductors

for example
..24
Where
For the numerical evaluation of (24), an odd
sampling of w is considered in order to avoid
singularities of F(jw) at !=w. Bearing this in
mind, the discrete form of (24) is as follows:
..27

..28
..2
5

Equation (25) can be expressed in terms of the ..29

Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT):
..30

26 Equations (22) and (26) can be solved using

the FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) and inverse
FIGURE 3. Superposition of f(t) and its FFT, respectively, to get computer time
time displaced versions. savings.

TABLE II. Effect of increasing N in

EMTDC.

FIGURE 4. Circuit for example

 depicted in Fig. 5 is considered. Sequential
energization with closing times of 3, 6 and 9
ms for phases A, B and C, respectively, is
analyzed using the NLT and the commercial
time domain program EMTDC, with a total
observation time of 15 ms. The Phase Domain
Line Model, which takes into account the
frequency dependence of the line electrical
parameters, was used for the EMTDC
simulation. The number of samples for the
NLT algorithm was fixed to 1024 (210), while
in EMTDC it was increased from 1024 to
10£1024, for a total of 10 simulations.

TABLE III. Winding data.

FIGURE 6. Voltage at phase C of the

receiving

Application Examples

In order to illustrate the use of the NLT, three

application example related to electromagnetic
transient phenomena are presented in this
section: sequential energization of a
transmission line, fast transient overvoltage in
machine winding,and switching transients
related to the restoration process of a power
FIGURE 7. Winding representation using
network. Comparisons with EMTDC, ATP
line segments.
and the Method of Characteristics are provided
to show the accurace of the NLT.

Sequentialenergization of a
Transmission line

A 400 kV 3-phase transmission line shown in

Fig. 4, with the conductors arrangement
 FIGURE 9. One-line diagram for example

FIGURE 8. Voltage at node B of the

winding.

FIGURE 10. Voltage at phase A of the open

In Fig. 6, the transient overvoltage at phase end of the line L2.Same number of samples
C of the receiving node is shown, with for NLT and ATP.
N=10£1024 in EMTDC. Table II shows a
comparison between NLT and EMTDC results
for different number of samples of the latter. It
can be noticed that from 6£1024 onwards, the
relative error between the two methods
remains at approximately 3%. It is clear that
the number of samples required in EMTDC for
this example is on the order of 6 times those of
NLT to assure similar results.

Fast transient overvoltage in machine

winding

FIGURE 11. Voltage at phase A of the open

end of the line L2.Number of samples for
A machine winding is modeled using 6 ATP 15 times greater than with NLT.
distributed parameter segments, as shown in
Fig. 7. The coil electrical parameters are
computed according to [25] and the data listed
in Table III. A unit step voltage source is
connected to node A, while node B is left open. Figure 8 shows the
voltage waveform at node B, comparing the
results with those obtained with the Method of
Characteristics (MC) . A better approximation

between the waveforms could not be achieved,

since the MC requires a rational approximation

in order to consider the frequency dependence
of the coil parameters,which can be difficult
for non-smooth frequency spectra.
Switching transients related to the In this article, the basic development of the
restoration process of a power network Numerical Laplace Transform has been
presented. This technique has proven to be
efficient for the analysis of electromagnetic
transients in power systems. The main
In order to analyze transient overvoltages advantages of the NLT are summarized below:
related to transmission line energization during
a restoration process, the NLT and the 1. The modeling of components with
superposition principles were applied to the distributed and frequency dependent
parameters can be done in a straightforward
test system shown in Fig. 9. Each switch
operation is performed in separated simulation manner.
processes to obtain more accurate results.
Waveforms are compared with those obtained 2. Since its basic principles are different from
those of time domain methods, the NLT is
in the time domain using the ATP. To analyze very useful to verifying time domain methods,
the most severe overvoltages, each sequential as well as in the development of new time
energization is considered to be critical, i.e. domain models and techniques.
each switch pole closes at the maximum
voltage value present, and neither pre-insertion 3. The application of the NLT can be very
resistors nor arresters are included. The ATP important when a high accuracy of results is
simulation was performed using the J. Marti mandatory. The examples given show that
Line Model, which considers the frequency time domain methods may requireamuch
dependence of the line electrical parameters . smaller discretization step.

As an example, Fig. 10 shows transient

overvoltage at phase A of the open end of line
L2 when energized from its left end, with line References:
L1 previously connected. For both ATP and
NLT simulations, N=2048 samples were used 1.http://www.codeproject.com/KB/recipes/La
An important difference in waveforms placeTransforms.aspx
obtained with the frequency and time domain
methods can be noticed. Closing times of 2.BOOK…….
switch poles were 0.475, 0.47222 and 0.47777
s for phases A, B and C, respectively,
(A) SCHAUM'S OUTLINES OF
considering a damping time of 0.4666 s (28
cycles) for the transient produced by previous
connection of line L1. Figure 11 shows Theory and Problems of Signals and Systems
transient overvoltage at phase A of the same
line, when the frequency domain analysis is BY
performed with N=2048 but 15N points are
considered in ATP. This gives very similar Hwei P. Hsu, Ph.D.
results, showing that in this case the frequency
(B)SIGNALS $ SYSTEMS
domain method is much more accurate than
ATP. BY

Alan V.Oppeneheim

Conclusions Alan S.Willsky With

 S. Hamid Nawab

3. http://www.2dix.com/pdf-2010/numerical-
based-on-laplace-transform-pdf.php

4. P. GO´MEZ ZAMORANO AND F.A. URIBE

CAMPOS