GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

I -PROPERTIES OF SOIL

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SOILS:
- are materials that are derived from weathering of the
parent rocks.

TWO TYPES OF WEATHERING:

1. Physical Weathering
2. Chemical Weathering

MAJOR TYPES OF SOILS:

1. Gravel
Coarse-grained soils
2. Sand
3. Silt
4. Clay Fine-grained soils
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 SOIL PHASE AND COMPOSITION

 Illustration
Wa=0 air Va
Vv
Ww water Vw

W V

Ws soil particle Vs

Actual Particle Idealized Particle

Distribution Distribution
Basic Equations:
where: W, V = total wt. and volume of soil
W = W S + WW WS, VS= wt. and volume of soil particles
WW, VW= wt. and volume of water
V = VS + VV
VV = volume of voids
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1. Void Ratio (e):
- ratio of volume of voids to the volume of soil solids.

Vv
e=
Vs
2. Porosity (n):
- ratio of volume of voids to the total volume of soil.

n= Vv
V

Relationship of “e” and “n”:

Vv Vv Vv/Vs
n= = =
V Vs + Vv (Vs/Vs) + (Vv/Vs)
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therefore: n= e
1+e

3. Moisture Content (w):

- the ratio of weight of water to the weight of soil solids,
normally expressed in %.

Ww 100%
w=
Ws

4. Degree of Saturation (S):

- the ratio of volume of water to the volume of voids,
normally expressed in %.

Vw 100%
S=
Vv
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note: When Vw = Vv, the soil is saturated and S = 1 or 100%.

5. Specific Gravity (Gs):

- the ratio of weight of soil solids to the weight of equal
volume of water.
WS γS
Gs = =
γWVS γW

Relationship of S, Gs, w, and e:

Vw WW/γW w WS w (WS/ γW VS)
S= = = =
Vv eVs γW e VS e
w GS
therefore: S=
e
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Note: For saturated soil (S = 1 or 100%):

e= w GS

6. Specific Volume (V’):

- the volume of soil per unit volume of solids.
V VS + VV (VS + eVS)
V’ = = =
VS VS VS

V’ = 1 + e

7. Air-void Ratio (eA):

- the ratio of volume of air to the total volume of soil.
Va VV - VW VV - SVV VV (1 – S)
eA = = = =
V V V V
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therefore: eA = n (1 – S)

8. Unit Weight (γ):

- is the weight of soil per unit volume.

W
γ=
V
Also:
W WS + WW WS + w WS WS(1 + w)
γ= = = =
V VS + VV VS + e VS VS(1 + e)
GS γW VS(1 + w)
γ= , therefore: GS γW (1 + w)
VS(1 + e) γ=
1+e

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Also:
GS γW (1 + w) GS γW [1 + (Se/GS)]
γ= =
(1 + e) (1 + e)

(GS + Se) γW
therefore: γ=
1+e
note:
Other terms for unit weight are moist / wet / in-situ / bulk unit
weight.
9. Dry Unit Weight (γd):
- is the weight of soil solids per unit volume.
WS
γd =
V
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Also:
WS GS γW VS GS γW VS GS γW VS
γd = = = =
V VS + VV VS + eVS VS(1 + e)

GS γW
therefore: γd =
1+e

GS γW (1 + w)
Also: γ= = γd (1 + w)
1+e

10. Saturated Unit Weight (γsat):

- is the weight of saturated soil per unit volume.

(GS + e) γW
γsat =
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+e
11. Effective Unit Weight (γ’):
- is the weight of saturated soil, surrounded with water,
per unit volume.
(GS + e) γW [(GS + e) – (1 + e)]γW
γ’ = γsat – γW = – γW =
1+e 1+e
(GS – 1) γW
γ’ =
1+e

Typical Values of Unit Weight of Soils

Soil Type γsat(kN/m3) γd(kN/m3)
Gravel 20 - 22 15 - 17
Sand 18 - 20 13 - 16
Silt 18 - 20 14 - 18
Clay 16 - 22 14 - 21
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12. Relative Density (Dr):
- is an index that quantifies the degree of packing
between the loosest and densest possible state of
coarse-grained soils as determined in the laboratory.

emax - eo (1/γdmin) - (1/γdo)

Dr = Dr =
emax - emin (1/γdmin) - (1/γmax)

where:
emax, γdmin = void ratio and dry unit weight in the loosest state
emin, γdmax = void ratio and dry unit weight in the densest state
eo, γdo = in-situ void ratio and dry unit weight

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Past Board Exam Problems

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Problem 01) CE – Board, November 2002:
The weight of moist soil is 56.7 lb. The volume of the soil
before drying is 0.50 ft3. After being dried out in an oven, the
weight of the dry soil is 48.7 lb. If the sp.gr. of the soil solids
is 2.69, determine the following:
a. Porosity b. Degree of saturation c. Dry density in pcf
Solution:
a. Porosity (n): n = e/(1+e)
WS = GS γWVS n = 0.724/(1+0.724)
48.7 = 2.69 x 62.4 x VS n = 0.42 (ans)
VS = 0.29 ft3
b. Degree of saturation (S):
W = WS(1+w)
V = VS(1 + e)
0.5 = 0.29(1 + e) 56.7 = 48.7(1+w)
e = 0.724 w = 0.1643 = 16.43%
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 S = wGS/e γd = GS γW /(1+e)
S = (16.43 x 2.69)/0.724 γd = (2.69 x 62.4) /(1+0.724)
S = 61.04% (ans) γd = 97.36 lb/ft3 (ans)
c. Dry density in pcf:

Problem 02) CE – Board, May 2003:

A soil sample has a natural water content of 22.5% and it is
known to have a sp.gr. of 2.6. In order to determine the
moist density of the soil, a portion of it weighing 224 grams
is put in a 500 cm3 container. It is filled with 382 cm3 of
water to fill the container.
a. Determine the moist unit weight of soil in kN/m3.
b. Determine the dry unit weight of soil in kN/m3.
c. Determine the void ratio of the soil sample.

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Solution: c. Void ratio (e):
a. Moist unit weight in kN/m3: γd = GS γW /(1+e)
Vcontainer = Vsoil + Vwater 15.2 = (2.6 x 9.81)/(1+e)
500 = Vsoil + 382 e = 0.678 (ans)
Vsoil = 118 cm3
γ = W/V
224 g x 1003 x 9.81
γ=
118 cm3 x 10002
γ = 18.62 kN/m3 (ans)
b. Dry unit weight in kN/m3:
γ = γd(1+w)
18.62 = γd(1 + 0.225)
γd = 15.2 kN/m3 (ans)
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Problem 03) CE – Board, November 2003:
The total weight of the soil when saturated is 1526 grams
and the weight of the soil after drying is 1053 grams. If the
specific gravity of the soil is 2.84, compute the following:
a. Moisture content b. Void ratio c. Porosity

Solution:
a. Moisture content (w%): c. Porosity (n):
w = WW/WS n = e/(1+e)
w = (1526 – 1053)/1053 n = 1.28/(1 + 1.28)
w = 0.449 = 44.9% (ans) n = 0.56 (ans)
b. Void ratio (e):
e = wGS
e = 0.449 x 2.84
e = 1.28 (ans)
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Problem 04) CE – Board, November 2005:
The field unit weight of the soil sample is 1960 kg/m3, and
the unit weight of the soil particle is 2700 kg/m3. If emax =
0.69 and emin = 0.44, compute the following:
a. Dry unit weight in kN/m3 if the water content is 11%.
b. Void ratio of the soil sample.
c. Relative density of the soil sample.
Solution:
a. Dry unit weight (γd ): b. Void ratio (e):
γ = 1960 kg/m3 (9.81/1000) GS = γS / γW
γ = 19.23 kN/m3 GS = 2700/1000 = 2.7
γ = γd (1+w) γd = GS γW/(1+e)
19.23 = γd (1 + 0.11) 17.32 = (2.7 x 9.81)/(1+e)
γd = 17.32 kN/m3 (ans) e = 0.53
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 c. Relative density (Dr):
Dr = (emax – eo)/(emax – emin)
Dr = (0.69 – 0.53 )/(0.69 – 0.44) = 0.64 = 64%

Problem 05) CE – Board, November 2006:

A soil sample has a mass of 1830 grams taken from the
field having a volume of 1 x 10-3 m3. It has a specific gravity
of 2.60 and a water content of 10%. Values of emax = 0.62
and emin = 0.43.
a. Compute the dry unit weight in kg/m3.
b. Compute the void ratio.
c. Compute the relative density.

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Solution:
a. Dry unit weight (γd ): c. Relative density (Dr):
γ = W/ V Dr = (emax – eo)/(emax – emin)
γ = 1.83kg/0.001m3 Dr = (0.62 - 0.56)/(0.62 - 0.43)
γ = 1830 kg/m3 Dr = 0.316 = 31.6% (ans)
γ = γd(1+w)
1830 = γd(1+0.10)
γd = 1664 kg/m3
b. Void ratio (e):
γd = GSγW /(1+e)
1664 = (2.60 x 1000)/(1+e)
e = 0.56 (ans)

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Problem 06) CE – Board, November 2006:
The filled unit weight of soil sample is 1900 kg/m3 and the
unit weight of the soil particle is 2600 kg/m3. Compute the ff:
a. Dry unit weight in kg/m3 if the moisture content is 11.5%.
b. Void ratio c. Degree of saturation
Solution:
a. Dry unit weight in kg/m3: 1704 = (2.6 x 1000)/(1+e)
γ = γd(1+w) e = 0.526 (ans)
1900 = γd(1+0.115) c. Degree of saturation (S):
γd = 1704 kg/m3 (ans) S = wGS/e
b. Void ratio (e): S = (11.5 x 2.6)/0.526
GS = γS/ γW S = 56.84%
GS = 2600/1000 = 2.6
γd = GS γW/(1+e)
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Problem 07) CE – Board, November 2007:
The filled unit weight of soil sample is 1900 kg/m3 and the
unit weight of the soil particle is 2660 kg/m3. Compute the ff:
a. Dry unit weight in kg/m3 if the moisture content is 11.5%.
b. Void ratio c. Degree of saturation
Solution:
a. Dry unit weight in kg/m3: 1704 = (2.66 x 1000)/(1+e)
γ = γd(1+w) e = 0.561 (ans)
1900 = γd(1+0.115) c. Degree of saturation (S):
γd = 1704 kg/m3 (ans) S = wGS/e
b. Void ratio (e): S = (11.5 x 2.66)/0.561
GS = γS/ γW S = 54.53%
GS = 2660/1000 = 2.66
γd = GS γW/(1+e)
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Problem 08) CE – Board, November 2007:
A soil sample has a mass of 1830 grams taken from the
field having a volume of 1 x 10-3 m3. It has a specific gravity
of 2.60 and a water content of 10%. Values of emax = 0.63
and emin = 0.44.
a. Compute the dry unit weight in kg/m3.
b. Compute the void ratio. c. Compute the relative density.
Solution: b. Void ratio (e):
a. Dry unit weight (γd ): γd = GSγW /(1+e)
γ = W/ V 1664 = (2.60 x 1000)/(1+e)
γ = 1.83kg/0.001m3 e = 0.56 (ans)
γ = 1830 kg/m3 c. Relative density (Dr):
γ = γd(1+w) Dr = (emax – eo)/(emax – emin)
1830 = γd(1+0.10) Dr = (0.63 - 0.56)/(0.63 - 0.44)
γd = 1664 kg/m3 D = 0.368 = 36.8% (ans)
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Problem 09) CE – Board, May 2008:
A dry soil is mixed with 17% by mass with water and
compacted. Volume of wet soil is 0.001 m3 and has a mass
of 1.6 kg. If the specific gravity of soil is 2.70, compute the ff:
a. Unit weight b. Void ratio c. Degree of saturation
Solution:
a. Unit weight (γ): γd = GSγW /(1+e)
γ = W/V 1367.52 = (2.7 x 1000) /(1+e)
γ = 1.6 kg/0.001 m3 e = 0.974(ans)
γ = 1600 kg/m3 (ans) c. Degree of saturation (S):
b. Void ratio (e): S = wGS/e
γ = γd(1+w) S = (17 x 2.7)/ 0.974
1600 = γd(1+0.17) S = 47.12%
γd = 1367.52 kg/m3
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Problem 10) CE – Board, Nov 2009:
A dry soil is mixed with 14.5% by mass with water and
compacted. Volume of wet soil is 0.001 m3 and has a mass
of 1.6 kg. If the specific gravity of soil is 2.70, compute the ff:
a. Unit weight b. Void ratio c. Degree of saturation
Solution:
a. Unit weight (γ): γd = GSγW /(1+e)
γ = W/V 1397.38 = (2.7 x 1000) /(1+e)
γ = 1.6 kg/0.001 m3 e = 0.932(ans)
γ = 1600 kg/m3 (ans) c. Degree of saturation (S):
b. Void ratio (e): S = wGS/e
γ = γd(1+w) S = (14.5 x 2.7)/ 0.932
1600 = γd(1+0.145) S = 42.01%
γd = 1397.38 kg/m3
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Problem 11) CE – Board, Nov 2010:
A soil sample has a mass of 1830 grams taken from the
field having a volume of 1 x 10-3 m3. It has a specific gravity
of 2.60 and a water content of 10%. Values of emax = 0.62
and emin = 0.43.
a. Compute the dry unit weight in kg/m3.
b. Compute the void ratio. c. Compute the relative density.
Solution: b. Void ratio (e):
a. Dry unit weight (γd ): γd = GSγW /(1+e)
γ = W/ V 1664 = (2.60 x 1000)/(1+e)
γ = 1.83kg/0.001m3 e = 0.56 (ans)
γ = 1830 kg/m3 c. Relative density (Dr):
γ = γd(1+w) Dr = (emax – eo)/(emax – emin)
1830 = γd(1+0.10) Dr = (0.62 - 0.56)/(0.62 - 0.43)
γd = 1664 kg/m3 D = 0.316 = 31.6%
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Problem 12) CE – Board, Nov 2010:
The filled unit weight of soil sample is 1900 kg/m3 and the
unit weight of the soil particle is 2600 kg/m3. Compute the ff:
a. Dry unit weight in kg/m3 if the moisture content is 12%.
b. Void ratio c. Degree of saturation
Solution:
a. Dry unit weight in kg/m3: 1696 = (2.6 x 1000)/(1+e)
γ = γd(1+w) e = 0.533 (ans)
1900 = γd(1+0.12) c. Degree of saturation (S):
γd = 1696 kg/m3 (ans) S = wGS/e
b. Void ratio (e): S = (12 x 2.6)/0.533
GS = γS/ γW S = 58.54%
GS = 2600/1000 = 2.6
γd = GS γW/(1+e)
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Problem 13) CE – Board, May 2014:
The total density in an embankment was found to be 1900
kg/m3 and the field water content was 11.5%. In the
laboratory, the density of solids was found to be 2660 kg/m3
and the maximum and minimum void ratios are 0.62 and
0.44 respectively. Compute the ff:
a. Dry density of the sand in kg/m3. (Ans. 1704 kg/m3)
b. Void ratio of the sand. (Ans. 0.56)
c. Relative density of the sand. (Ans. 33%)

Problem 14) CE – Board, May 2014:

The total density in an embankment was found to be 1900
kg/m3 and the field water content was 12%. In the
laboratory, the density of solids was found to be 2660 kg/m3
and the maximum and minimum void ratios are 0.63 and
0.44 respectively. Compute the ff:
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a. Dry density of the sand in kg/m3. (Ans. 1693.43 kg/m3)
b. Void ratio of the sand. (Ans. 0.57)
c. Relative density of the sand. (Ans. 32%)

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