HANDBOOK

ON PROTECTION OF
SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS

1
 CONTENTS

1. Introduction

2. Power conditioning - protection against

electrical disturbances

2.1. Protection against disturbances on the mains

electricity supply
2.2. Protection against spikes
2.3. Protection against voltage fluctuation
2.4. Choice of protection devices against electrical disturbances for scientific
instruments
2.5. Protecting data links
2.6. Protection against Electrostatic Discharge
2.7. Mains wiring and grounding

Appendices

Appendix A EPC Expert - Electrical Power Conditioning Expert System

Bibliography
Contributors to drafting and review.

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1. Introduction

Instruments are very sensitive and vulnerable to poor environment - hostile climate, electrical
disturbances - and to damage by human error. The objective of this handbook is to provide scientists in
research centres with information on how and why to protect their instruments against such possible
causes of damage.

Instruments are fundamental to successful research practice. They must be properly installed in an
environment in which they can give accurate and uninterrupted service. They have to be properly and
carefully operated and supported throughout their life by regular care and maintenance. If something
is wrong with a key instrument all well-trained staff members are idle and all efforts become useless.

Overall responsibility for instrumentation rests with the directors of research centers. They should
support their electronic engineers, physicists, technologists and physicians to plan and seriously
implement the care and protection of instruments, see that they are properly maintained and kept in
optimum working condition by regular checks.

Protection should be considered, and provided for, before installation of any instrument. The protective
devices are part of each installation and they should be well maintained along with the instrument
throughout its life. Thus protection needs careful planning, particularly at the beginning of a new
instrumentation programme. It can affect selection, procurement, acceptance tests, and the design of
quality control and maintenance routines.

Experience shows that more than half of all failures of electronic equipment are due to damage by
external electrical disturbances. Section 2. of this handbook aims to help instrument users to
understand the nature of the various types of disturbance, and to protect against them. It will help
them to formulate their needs to suppliers of protective equipment, to order it, and to make sure that it
is properly installed. In-depth knowledge of electronic engineering is not required for the users of the
instruments and a general understanding of the problems involved is often sufficient.

A computer program for Personal Computer “EPC Expert” is described in Appendix A. This is an
“expert system” which gives a summary of measures to provide a safe electrical environment for
electronic equipment. It should certainly be useful as a training aid and may also help in the selection
of surge suppressors, uninterruptible power supplies, and other protective devices.
In the Bibliography other references are given for further reading.

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2. Power Conditioning - protection against electrical disturbances

2.1. Protection against disturbances on the mains electricity supply

It has always been difficult to keep equipment working properly in the tropics. Scientific equipment is
no exception - indeed it is a prime example. Devices that give years of service in more temperate
places are at risk as soon as they are used in a tropical country. The consequences are familiar -
unusable equipment, untreated patients, frustrated medical staff, overloaded repair shops. Evidently
equipment needed better care right from the beginning, from the moment it is unpacked. But what
sort of care, what hazards are peculiar to the tropics, what can and should be done, and who should
do it ?

Modern electronic instruments are highly reliable but they are peculiarly sensitive to certain kinds of
electrical damage. But they can be protected , and how to do this is the main message of this book.
Mechanical and optical components need protection too but they are different from instrument to
instrument and need specialised attention. Electronics is a common theme, it is possible and not
difficult or expensive, to protect all the electronic equipment in a laboratory by taking a few rather
simple precautions.

There has been a lot of change in the technology of instruments since its early days. Electronics in
the 1960s was still in the age of electron tubes and mechanical relays. The devices of those days,
designed for temperate countries, were not sealed or treated to resist hostile climates. They were
vulnerable to high temperature, humidity, insects, and fungus. Components in them soon
deteriorated.

Techniques for tropicalizing electronic equipment were developed during the second World War.
Radar and communications equipment could be made to work even in the jungle. Why not the same
for scientific equipment ? It was a question of cost. Expensive procedures and special sealed
components are needed for tropicalization. Standard equipment was not tropicalised and
manufacturers were not willing to bring in the added difficulty and cost of doing so.

Air conditioning is a practical solution to the climatic problem, wherever it could be afforded it was
applied. Failure rates decreased but were still high. For electronic equipment the cause could not
be the misuse - as it might well be for mechanical equipment - but there was good reason to suspect
the destructive effect of unreliable or erratic electricity supply. This was confirmed in a series of
studies made by the IAEA in South-East Asia in the 1970s.

The details of the ways in which these disturbances could cause damage was at first not
understood. Why should failure of the mains supply, just a temporary loss of voltage,
sometimes cause permanent damage to instruments? But this is what repair workers
reported - after a power cut more instruments came in for repair. And why did instruments in
one building fail but those in another worked well for months on end? Did the way a building
was wired - what kind of cables, how they were arranged, what arrangements for grounding,
what other equipment might be connected - have some critical effect ? What was the role of
electric storms, with their lightning flashes ? Could a distant storm cause damage to
instruments, and if so, how to protect them ? Could a whole laboratory be protected by some
simple single system - as lightning conductors can protect every part of a building - or must
a protective device be provided for each instrument ?

It was known that damaging voltage surges can be launched into powerline systems by load-
switching at power stations. Similar surges may be due to accidental short circuits, or sudden

4
connection or disconnection of a large industrial load. Lightning is evidently a factor, as damage to
electronics during thunderstorms is common (Figure 2.). All these problems were widely studied,
mainly in the USA but also in Europe.

Lightning was studied first because of the damage it caused to transformers and switchgear in the
power supply system itself. High overhead distribution cables suffer huge voltage surges when
lightning strikes (Figure 3.). Recording devices were fixed to distribution pylons to measure the
frequency and scale of the disturbances.

Figure 2. Thunderstorm days per year

Distribution systems were protected by fitting surge

suppressors, devices that flash over when voltage is
excessive. Surge energy then flows through the
suppressor and down the legs of the pylon,
dissipating itself in the earth. Residual surge voltage
remaining on the cables is not harmful to the
distribution system. But it may still amount to
several thousands of volts - enough to damage
instrumentation if it gets into a building.

Power distribution in industrial regions can be very

unstable, as big loads are switched in or switched
out and overloaded systems fail. Information about
this has been collected for many years and reported
in the technical literature. Figure 3. Lightning strikes affecting the power
supply system

5
The typical disturbances are summarised on Figure 4.

Figure 4. Disturbances of the mains supply

Protective measures against all these effects have been worked out and recommended procedures
are codified as industrial standards. Protective devices for use in buildings - small-scale equivalents
of those which protect overhead lines - are available commercially and can be bought in retail shops
selling electrical equipment. Since the 1980s complete security against powerline disturbance has
been possible, and indeed easy. There are also small standby power systems which provide
alternative power if public supply fails.

Why then are there still so many breakdowns ?

Modern electronics is highly reliable but the devices on which it depends - microprocessors etc - are
continually being made more sophisticated. That also often means, they are more sensitive to
damage. The trend is towards more complexity and higher operating speed, so the circuits inside
chips become smaller and are packed closer together. A single chip may contain a million
microscopic transistors and failure of a single one could disable the whole equipment.

Another modern trend is data connection between computers. Local networks link them together,
modems and telephone lines connect them with other computers at distant sites. Data lines are wide
open to voltage pickup, and the sensitive elements in computers which transmit and receive data are
very vulnerable to damage by voltage surges. It is probable that more failures are caused in this way
than by pickup from power mains.

Some equipment, from some manufacturers, now has built-in surge protection. Miniature surge
suppressors are mounted inside the equipment, even on the circuit boards, within a few millimetres
of components they are to protect. Input or output sockets connected to data lines have their own
built-in suppressors. Grounding is carefully planned so that surge currents do not interfere with the
working of the equipment.

Such well-designed systems work well and are not damaged even in very disturbed electrical
environments. But it is seldom possible to tell from a manufacturer's catalogue whether what is
described is up to this standard. In most cases the mixture of old and new equipment in many
laboratories makes it probable that some items have no internal protection at all. Since it is neither
difficult nor expensive to protect a whole laboratory, by fitting surge suppressors to its supply wiring, it
makes sense to protect everything at once, in this way.

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The discussion up to now has been about protection against high-voltage impulses on the mains
which can permanently damage an instrument. Attention to that is certainly the first priority. But the
most troublesome problem in daily work is due to the total loss of power, or supply voltage being too
high or too low, or interference (“radiofrequency noise”) on the power supply. Correction is also
needed for temporary loss of function because the supply voltage is too low, or carries interference
voltages (radiofrequency noise), or fails altogether. Low voltage can be corrected by various types of
constant-voltage transformer, but to go on working when total power loss lasts for hours or days
needs a full-scale standby supply such as a motor-generator. Protection for a few minutes, which is
enough to save data or complete an important measurement, can be given by a battery-operated
device. None of these is cheap, and all must be matched to the type of equipment to be protected.
How to decide what to do is discussed in the next chapter.

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2.2. Protection against spikes.

The most damaging of all electrical disturbances (Figure 4.) are the short sharp voltage impulses
known as "spikes" that appear at random intervals on power supply or data cables. These have
been the subject of many investigations. They are brief, lasting less than a thousandth of a second,
but may be very intense, reaching a peak of several thousands of volts.
Spikes are very different, in origin as well as in electrical characteristics, from the minor changes in
supply voltage known as "sags" or "surges". Sags and surges are brief changes of voltage, or the
shape of the sinusoidal , lasting a fraction of a second. They may be signs of an overloaded supply
system, may interfere with the working of an instrument but are unlikely to damage it.
Spikes are caused by switching events in the power supply network, or by lightning strikes. Because
of their extreme amplitude they can destroy vital components inside an instrument.

Fortunately, protection against spikes is neither difficult nor expensive. It should be a first
step in any programme for better care of electronic instruments.

The switching events which cause spikes may be ordinary load switching by the supply company, or
large industrial loads being switched on or off, or accidental events such as short circuits or broken
connections in mains cables or faulty electrical equipment. Whenever a large current is switched on
or off the effects of induction may generate short-lived high voltage and so launch a spike into the
supply network. This travels along the cables at near the speed of light, losing energy as it goes, but
even after a kilometer or more may still be strong enough to damage delicate instruments.

Spikes may originate inside the laboratory building. A faulty lift motor, a failing fluorescent light, or
faulty domestic equipment can all generate spikes. Although less intense than those due to big
switching events outside the laboratory these can also be damaging because they originate so close
at hand.
When a lightning discharge strikes an overhead power cable it generates a short-lived impulse of
hundreds of kilovolts. Flashover and protective devices near the point of impact reduce this to tens
of kilovolts but nevertheless a formidable residual spike remains and is launched out in both
directions along the overhead cable. It jumps across switches and transformers and if it enter a
building may be propagated throughout the interior wiring.
Spikes are too brief to be noticed by people in the laboratory. There is no visible flickering of the
lights and seldom any sign of interference with the working of equipment. The only sign that a spike
has occurred may be that an instrument has inexplicably broken down.

How often do the spikes occur, and how big are they (what voltage, what energy) when they
travel around inside a building ? Is it easy for them to do this ?

Studies have been made by connecting recording oscilloscopes to mains outlets in buildings on
different types of terrain, in different countries. There is a continuous distribution of amplitudes,
limited at around 6000V by flashover in the mains wiring. There are more high voltage spikes in
exposed mountainous country than in cities, and more in countries where lightning is common.
Thunderstorms are ten times more frequent in the tropics than in northern Europe.
It has been found that spike amplitudes of 1500V or more are consistently damaging to instruments.
But with so much variation no definite figures can be given. One can say only that a killer spike may
occur at any time, at any place, at random intervals of weeks or months or years.

8
Spikes do not travel easily through mains wiring. They are electrically similar to brief high-frequency
radio waves, and are weakened much as a radio signal would be if passed through ordinary wiring
(this is why TV antennas need special cables). This fortunate fact is exploited for suppressing
spikes. Devices which appear to a spike as a short circuit are connected
across the mains at strategic locations. The energy of the spike is
dissipated in the devices and in the electrical resistance of the cabling.

This procedure is often called "surge suppression" and the devices are
called "surge suppressors", although "spike suppressor" would be a
better name. In the following we call them "Spike Suppression Devices",
SSDs. There are many forms of SSD, ranging from special mains plugs
which protect a single instrument up to lightning arrestors which protect a
whole building. Several manufacturers specialise in this type of
equipment and will advise on what to buy and how to use it.

Spike suppression has become a lot more easy and effective in recent
years. A range of voltage-sensitive components has been developed for
use in SSDs - gas discharge tubes, diodes, varistors, transorbs. Each of
these have very different characteristics. Some absorb a lot of energy
but respond slowly, others respond quickly but cannot handle large Figure 5. Spike protected socket
spikes. Manufacturers use them singly or in combination to produce
strip
SSDs with different specifications.
Some SSDs are designed for data lines, others for mains power, others to protect modems
connected to phone lines for Internet service.

SSDs for mains protection may be “heavy duty”, designed to intercept very energetic spikes as they
enter the building at the main switchboard. There are smaller units for mounting on distribution
boards within the building. These may have some means to show that their protective function is still
working correctly, by a light on the unit or a contact which opens or closes to give remote indication.
Some have removable components, similar to plug-in fuses, so that a faulty unit may easily be
replaced.

A common form of mains SSD sold in retail shops is the "surge-suppressor socket strip" (Figure 5.).
This is widely used to protect TV sets or Personal Computers. It looks like
an ordinary extension adapter with three or four mains sockets , but inside
the socket moulding is a spike suppression circuit. A good quality device
of this type need cost no more than 50 US dollars. It will protect as many
instruments as can be plugged into its outlets, within the total current
capacity of the strip.
Cheaper units of this type may not be as effective as they claim. A mains
SSD should include three Varistors, one connected between the two
power lines and one between each power line and the ground line. If in
doubt open up the SSD and check what it contains. Varistors are small
coin-shaped devices with an insulating coating (Figure 6.). If there is only
one of these choose another model. Check also that Varistors of
adequate rating have been used. As a general guide their diameter Figure 6. Varistor
should be 15mm or more - if it is less they may have an unacceptably
short working life.

Many SSDs include a radiofrequency filter as well as spike suppression. There is no need to accept
the expense of this unless RF interference on the mains has been identified as a real problem. This
is unlikely in most laboratories.
The size of a SSD - whether it is a large unit mounted on a switchboard or only a small unit
protecting one PC - depends not on the current drawn by the load but on the voltage and energy
content of the spikes. SSDs do not block spikes, they short-circuit or divert them. It is this action
that makes spike suppression so easy to apply - there is no need to match the SSD to the current
drawn by the equipment to be protected. One SSD can protect a whole laboratory.

9
Spikes are most energetic close to where they enter the building along the power cable. The main
switchboard, near this point, is exposed to full-scale lightning spikes, and, if it is decided to protect it,
needs a heavy-duty SSD with flame-proof cover. But it may be decided not to protect at this point,
and instead to accept and repair any damage that occurs. It can be economical to replace burnt-out
wiring and perhaps switchgear - very occasionally - than to install a large SSD.

A few tens of meters away, at local distribution board, the energy of incoming spikes is no more than
that of those originating within the building. This is readily handled by a medium-level SSD. Further
away still, in the laboratories, small socket-mounted units as described above are sufficient.

This "three-zone
approach" (Figure
7.) is commonly
used in SSD
planning and has
been incorporated
in SSD standards
and guidelines. One
can follow it,
conveniently and
low cost, when
introducing spike
protection for the
first time. In the
first zone, SSD
socket strips are
bought and used
with key
Figure 7. Three zone protection instruments. Then a
bigger unit is fitted
to the distribution board serving the whole laboratory. In the third zone a heavy-duty unit
may be fitted to the main switchboard, but this option need not always be taken up.

As more SSD socket strips come into use around the laboratory the better becomes the general
electrical environment - spikes propagating through the mains wiring find themselves more frequently
passing an outlet into which a spike-protected socket strip is plugged, or which is used to supply
modern spike-protected equipment - equipment with its own built-in SSD. Each time this happens
the spike loses energy.

.
2.3. Protection against voltage fluctuation.
Voltage fluctuation is well known to everyone. If voltage is too high or too low the lights flicker, radios
stop, lifts do not work.
Electric power reaches the laboratory through a long and difficult path from the generating station.
Overhead and underground cables, switchgear, transformers, and many branchings and junctions lie
between generator and user. Hundreds of other users tap off varying amounts of power. It is not
surprising that the mains voltage measured in the laboratory is not completely steady.

10
How often such events occur is common knowledge. Everyone knows the consequences for their
own work.
Before setting out to stabilise it we need to know how much it fluctuates and
decide how much fluctuation is acceptable.

Electronic equipment is designed to work with mains voltage which varies

within a certain range. Voltage stabilisers in the equipment cope with
fluctuations up to plus or minus 15 percent from normal, or much more in some
modern equipment. For a supply which keeps within the equipment's
acceptance range there is no need for further stabilisation.
The problem faced by many users is long-term reduction in voltage by more
than their equipment can accept, due to chronic overload of the supply
network. There are occasional blackouts when power fails altogether. There
are frequent jumps in voltage as loads or generators are switched in or out.
And there are the spikes described in the previous chapter.

A simple way to provide reasonably stable power for a single instrument is to

connect it to the mains through a Constant Voltage Transformer, CVT
(Figure 8.). This delivers power at close to nominal voltage even if the supply Figure 8. Constant Voltage
varies as much as 20-30 percent. This is a simple solution which is well worth Transformer
trying if a particular instrument seems troubled by unstable power supply. The
power rating of the CVT should be comfortably more than that of the instrument - if the instrument
draws 200 watts choose a CVT rated at half a kilowatt. The cost will be around 500 US dollars.

Another way to stabilise the mains voltage is installing a tap-switching transformer (Figure 9.).
This has a sensing circuit which continually measures the supply voltage and automatically switches
the taps of a secondary winding so as to maintain output voltage within a few percent of nominal.
Tap switching may be done mechanically by a motor-driven selector
switch or electronically using semiconductor switching devices. Selection
needs some expertise.

Constant-voltage devices cannot help if the power supply fails altogether.

Then an alternative source of energy is needed, and it is necessary to
install some form of Uninterruptable Power Supply, UPS (Figure 10.).
Several UPS systems are now available. Most of these units draw power
from a battery and convert it electronically into alternating current at
mains voltage also recharging the battery automatically when mains power
returns.
UPS systems were developed to keep computers running during power
failure long enough for the operator to save data and then shut down the
system in an orderly way. The time needed for this is around ten minutes. Figure 9. Tap switching
The battery is usually big enough to supply backup power only for this transformer
time. Some models make provision to use a larger external battery to
extend the backup period. If longer off-line working is required this must be specified when ordering
the UPS.

UPS systems come with a bewildering variety of options. The simplest switch themselves into action
only when mains power fails. More expensive models are in action the whole time - the instrument
they protect is never connected directly to the mains but is always supplied entirely by the battery-
driven UPS generator, and so it is effectively protected from fast transients (spikes). An intermediate
type - the "intelligent UPS" - keeps the instrument connected to the mains whenever this is available
but uses its internal generator to correct mains voltage by adding or subtracting voltage as required.

11
Nowadays the use of a UPS to protect computers against data loss is less
necessary than before, as software provides such protection reliably and
cheaply. But important research equipment may usefully be supplied through
a UPS.

This ensures that e.g. an expensive analysis can be completed even if

there is power failure. Thus the cost of the associated activities are not
wasted.

Using a UPS may also brings protection against spikes. As explained above
this depends on the type of UPS. Some give excellent protection because
the way they act as a permanent barrier to spikes but others may include just
the spike suppressor components. But if protection against spikes is the Figure 10. Uninterruptable
main requirement, installing a UPS would be a wastefully expensive way to go
Power Supply
about it - it would be much cheaper just to install a simple SSD. It would be
wise to consult with the manufacturer of the equipment to be protected before
taking a decision.

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2.4. Choice of protection devices against electrical disturbances
With such variety of devices to choose from how should one begin to improve the protection of
instruments? The choice depends on the types of instrument to be protected, the severity of local
power supply problems, and the availability of power protection equipment in local markets.
Damage is statistical.
Protection against electrical disturbance is a form of insurance. It is buying protection against
something that may happen at any time. One cannot predict what, or when, but only that there will
be trouble sooner or later. To decide if protection is worth while one must balance how much it costs
to buy protection against financial and other loss if an instrument is out of action. Only the cost of
protection can be stated with any precision. Luckily, it is not great.

What are the chances and consequences of damage ? We must distinguish between effects
of voltage spikes and voltage fluctuations.

As has been explained, spikes are rare events which occur unpredictably and cause serious
damage.
They are accidents, no ordinary measuring instrument can detect them. Spikes big enough to cause
damage occur only rarely, separated by weeks or months or years. There is no way to predict which
instrument will be affected. A costly breakdown may be due to a single spike but there is no way to
prove the occurrence of this event.
Spike protection is cheap, it can be applied to a whole building. When this is done every instrument
is spike-protected and there is no need to think about each instrument separately.
In this respect our measures are like fitting seatbelts in a car - protection against something that is
unlikely to happen but disastrous if it does.

Protection against voltage fluctuation is expensive and must be matched to the instrument being
protected. A big instrument needs a big stabiliser. A good voltage stabiliser also protects against
spikes. Consult with the manufacturer of the equipment before deciding what type of stabiliser to
buy.

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Type of instrument to be protected

Firstly, whether there are problems in the main power supply or not, buy surge suppressor
socket strips or plug type surge suppressors (Figure 11.) and draw mains power for
important instruments only through these sockets. For each major instrument with
permanently wired supply, fit a wall-mounted surge suppressor. These are minimum
precautions - no more than one might do for a computer or TV at home - but well worth while.

Looking out from the equipment side, for the simple and sparingly used instruments,
the transient surge suppressor will suffice if the power interruptions are not frequent
and the usage are not continuos.
However, for accurate measurement under conditions of voltage fluctuation the unit
may need to be fed through a constant voltage transformer unit. .
Voltage problems can be solved, but at a cost. The cost of protection is much higher
for voltage fluctuation than for spikes.
There are in fact many types and specification of Constant Voltage Transformers,
offering different degrees of security and convenience. Prices vary accordingly.
Nevertheless nowadays good quality CVTs of different ratings are available at low
cost. n

If you are in an area where voltage is known to be unstable, budget for

stabilisation when planning a new project. Include the stabiliser in the project Figure 11. Plug type surge
estimate. If in doubt about the type or size of stabiliser necessary, consult suppressor
the manufacturer of the equipment to be protected.

Suppliers may recommend UPS, and this expensive solution will almost certainly solve your
problems (blackout, brownout, surges, etc.). UPS will provide several minutes of extended working
when there is a power failure. But is it really the best answer ?
Consider, if the black outs are not frequent and/or not disturbing your work, using a high capacity and
expensive UPS may not be worth the extra cost. A Constant Voltage Transformer and a surge
suppressor may be sufficient to fight against the other disturbances.

Commonly used instruments such as gamma counting equipment, liquid scintillation system, or
rectilinear scanner , require the use of a surge suppressor against spikes along with Constant
Voltage Transformer for protection against occasional brownouts.
If continuous work is needed the use of Uninterruptable Power Supply is recommended. The
Gamma Camera as an example, which is the work horse of nuclear medicine, requires to be
protected against power spikes, voltage fluctuations and also occasional power interruptions.
It has been noticed that equipment involve frequent switching ON and OFF of electromechanical
motors, the sudden inrush currents may create voltage surges in the ferro-resonant CVT.

The conclusion is clear - fit surge suppression now, fit stabilisers later. Stabilisation is needed only
for instruments for which it is known that the mains supply is insufficiently steady and which are
important enough to justify measures to keep them working reliably. But surge suppression is a form
of accident prevention. As for seat belts in cars, there is no need to wait for proof that accidents
can happen !

Since the manufacturers know the requirements of their equipment concerning to the quality
of mains supply, you can avoid after-sale and guarantee problems if you consult with the
manufacturer before placing the order.

Zone Protection

Having protected your main instruments you may consider whether it is worth fitting suppressors to
protect the whole building, or at least to protect the laboratory area. This can be done by fitting a

14
surge suppressor to each mains distribution board. Check whether the distribution board that serves
your laboratory also supplies power to some other activity, and whether the latter is electrically
"noisy". If it is, fit the surge suppressor without delay.

Installing such a board-mounted unit is a job for a surge-suppression specialist. For example correct
connection to the building ground system is essential and must be done with minimum length of
connecting cable.

Protecting air conditioners and refrigerators

A word about a quite different problem - damage, due to supply voltage being too low
(brownout), to refrigerators, air conditioners, and other devices which use motor-
driven pumps. Without these equipment a research institute can not work. Typically
during brown out or after a short break in power supply the restored voltage is lower
than normal and the pump motor cannot get the pump to rotate. The motor remains
stalled, it over-heats, and burns out. It is well known that a good portion of
refrigerators and air conditioners in areas affected by frequent brownouts are
damaged. Protection is by a device which monitors mains voltage continually and
disconnects if it is less than normal. When voltage returns to the normal range there
is a delay of two or three minutes before connection is resumed. These simple and
reliable devices called Fridgeguard (Figure 12.) or Voltage Sensitive Switch cost
around US$ 50.

A computerised "help" system

An expert system software is available from the IAEA which offers guidance to the Figure 12. Air
user in the selection of the right type of protective devices and the power conditioning conditioner
units. It utilises a large amount of knowledge on power conditioning devices and rules protection
to select the right device to counter a particular set of power supply disturbances. It
provides specifications of the recommended devices to match the instrument which requires
protection and from its built-in database gives details of models available from well-known
manufacturers. It is an effective tool for finding solutions to specific power supply problems. Details
are given in the Appendix A.

15
2.5. Protecting data links

Scientific instruments include sophisticated equipment systems - like image acquisition and
processing units, main computers, etc. - which may be located in separate rooms or even in different
buildings. Communication between them may be via simple twisted wires (RS232C link) or special
cables (Ethernet). The latter is widely used for fast transmission of the large volumes of data.

Both forms of connection are vulnerable to electrical interference. Small electrical interference
(noise) corrupts data as it is being transferred. Strong voltage surges can damage sensitive signal
circuits at either end of the interconnection. Both problems need careful treatment because of the
great length of cable that may be exposed to interference.
Evidently, the data cables should be well shielded and should not be run close to other power cables
which may carry interference. These precautions are easy to take.

It is more difficult to decide how to connect the cable shields - should they be grounded at
both ends or at one end only ? To what should they be grounded ? And what about surges,
which in this case do not come from a power supply system - where do they come from, and
how can they be protected against ?

As a general rule the shields of signal cables should be grounded at one end only. A shield which is
grounded at both ends forms one side of an extended "ground loop", the other side being the earth,
and such a loop is exposed to inductive coupling with other long conductors or with the magnetic
fields which accompany lightning discharge. Voltage induced along the shielding is coupled
capacitatively to the inner signal conductor and appears as an interference signal between its ends.
A shield grounded only at one end is not affected by induction, and any voltage induced on it
capacitatively has no differential between the ends of the shield.

Digital signalling is in terms of "voltage high" or "voltage low" with respect to a reference potential. If
the shield does not provide a common reference potential, how is communication possible ?
To solve this problem in some industrial situations the concept of "equipotential system" has been
introduced. Within a building an effort is made to bind the whole structure together, electrically, so
that it approximates to a single Faraday cage. Structural steelworks is linked by welding, pipes and
ducts are connected to the steelworks. In such a building data cables run long distances without
problem because the whole structure is always at a single potential. Even if lightning strikes nearby
the interconnected systems are unaffected, protected within the equipotential enclosure.

16
This is of course not a practical solution for existing buildings, but it points the way.
The protective earth wiring (PE) of a conventional distribution system is insulated,
and is kept out of contact with building structures so as to avoid imperfect and
perhaps intermittent alternative conducting paths. Connection to earth is at one
point only, at the earthing rod near the point where power cables enter he building.
Instead, earth connections may be made intentionally to the structure at multiple
points, to approximate to the ideal of an equipotential system, while making sure
that all alternative earthing paths are sound.

Single-point insulated PE, being cheap and easy to install, is suitable for domestic
buildings. For buildings in which data transfer is critical - and this includes banks
and supermarkets as well as research institutes - multiple earthing is becoming the
method of choice. But this must be said with reservation - national building codes
may specify how earthing is to be done, and such codes must be respected.

There can be conflict between the requirements of data integrity and human
safety, and if so the latter must prevail.

Data transfer is anyway protected by error detection routines. These offer a Figure 13.
software solution at the cost of slowed data transfer when the error rate is high. Combined
This is in many cases an acceptable solution. Thinking about earthing helps to telephone and
avoid unnecessary mistakes and suggests ways to improve, but ultimately the mains surge
instrumentation has to do the best it can in an imperfect environment. suppressor

Reliable surge suppression for data lines is however possible and should be provided.

For simple standalone PCs with modem connected to the telephone network one should buy a
combined mains and telephone surge suppressor (Figure13.) available at retail shops.
Dataline surge suppressors are different from those used on power lines because they must pass
high-speed data signals, which power line surge suppressors are not required to do. These
suppressors should be fitted at each end of every exposed data line.
On Figure14. surge suppressors for different data lines are
shown. Dataline surge suppressors are professional items that
may have to be ordered specially matching the type of data
transfer and data cable. Consultation with a supplier in this field
is the only way.

An example illustrates why data lines should be protected. A

well-known agricultural research station run instrumental studies
in its experimental fields. Sensors measured temperature,
humidity, growth status, and so on. Data lines brought this
information from the fields to recording PCs in the laboratory.
Figure 14. Surge suppressors of different
When lightning struck the field and the PCs were destroyed by
the surges conducted through data lines. Simple surge data lines
arrestors would have prevented this.

17
2.6. Protection against Electrostatic Discharge

The phenomena of charge accumulation due to friction have been known for
centuries. When a person walks across a synthetic carpet the body may
become charged due to friction between shoe and carpet. The body may be
charged to several kilovolts in a dry climate. Often it is noticed that when a
charged person touches or approaches an object having conducting surfaces,
chassis, the electrostatic discharge (ESD) occurs; perhaps with
accompanying spark. Rubbing of furniture or printed papers etc. can also
generate ESD, which can be more serious than those due to human
discharge. The problem of ESD risk is more severe when the relative humidity
is low.

In general it causes no danger to people, although discharge from a fingertip

to a grounded metallic object is certainly an unpleasant experience (Figure
15.). Lightning which is a form of electrostatic discharge, is of course capable
of inflicting very serious damages. Figure 15. Electrostatic
discharge

Electrostatic discharge creates strong electromagnetic fields and induces high currents in
conducting paths. It can result in faulty operation of equipment and may damage sensitive electronic
components, especially semiconductor memory chips or microprocessors in a system.
ESD may induce temporary degradation of performance or loss of function of the equipment. Some
effects are self-recovering, maybe with intervention by an operator, or at least a system reset.
Permanent effects are due to damage to hardware because of insulation breakdown in
semiconductor devices, or loss of data.

18
Protection against ESD

The Electrostatic Discharge injects charge into victim components or equipment. This direct charge
injection can have lethal results on components and needs particular attention. Some measures can
be taken to dispel the charge accumulating on an object before or after the charge is generated:

Antistatic packaging and handling

If you receive some component or spare parts for replacement

you should pay attention to those which need antistatic
packaging and handling. Work with them according to the
accompanying instructions. A static-free work table (Figure
16.) helps to protect these sensitive items. A conductive floor
mats or grid can prevent the operator and object from
accumulating charge.

Humidity control

A humid atmosphere can provide a leakage path that slowly

drains accumulated charge to ground. The higher the relative
humidity, the more effective is the leakage path. A humidity-
controller or air-conditioner can maintain humidity at the
required level.

Ionizers
Figure 16. Typical static free work station
Ionizers are small electronic devices that generate large
quantities of positively and negatively charged ions. Due to Coulomb force ions with opposite polarity
are attracted to a charged object. Thus the charge on the object is neutralised. Two kinds of ionizer
are available commercially. One utilises electrical corona, the other uses ionising radiation from a
radioactive source. Both are effective solutions to the present problem.

Besides dispelling the charges accumulated by electrostatic phenomenon; the problem of ESD may
be regarded as just another form of electromagnetic interference (EMI) and some typical EMI
protection methods such as grounding, shielding, filtering, etc., can also be used against it.

19
2.7. Mains wiring and grounding

Instrumentation problem in laboratory may be due to poor wiring or grounding. Examination of these
is a necessary first step when evaluating power problems in general, how branches of the supply are
shared by different departments and where your department fits into this scheme.

Mains wiring

A big installation such as a research center has its own electricity substation, typically a small
building in the grounds. The supply company delivers electric power at high voltage, ten kilovolts or
more. A transformers in the substation converts this to local low voltage, 220 or 110 volts AC. A
switchboard in the substation distributes this to secondary switchboards in the laboratory buildings.
Local distribution boards in rooms or corridors control supply to individual laboratories.

The laboratory wiring network thus has a tree-like structure, with branches extending out from the
substation. The first task is to trace the part of this network which supplies the department.

Older laboratories have networks which have grown over the years and may follow a pattern that
seems quite without logic. Parts of the distribution tree may be loops rather than branches, and side
branches may have been added later at various points around the loops.
Parts of the laboratory may draw their power from separate substations.
Wiring plans may not be up-to-date but are a useful starting point.

Consult the electrical engineer and work with him to make an accurate plan for your part of
the laboratory. Identify key switchboards and trace the circuits they supply by opening
switches and noting where power is cut off. Note any cabling that runs in an unidentified
direction and try to trace it. Note the quality of the wiring and the way it is connected at
points you can inspect. Remove the covers of a few wall sockets and look inside. Loose or
resistive connections cause heating - look for signs of burnt insulation.

The layout of the wiring is important because it affects the probability that electrical noise or surges
from other people's faulty equipment will reach your instruments. Noise and surges are very rapid
changes of voltage and behave more like radio signals than power currents. Power wiring carries
them inefficiently, so the further you are from where they originate the less they are likely to trouble
you. Attenuation is proportional to distance along cabling, and is greater in the direction back
towards the main switchboard, going past distribution boards and branching points, as at each such
point surge energy coming toward you is shared with the other branches and so your share of surge
is reduced.

Which departments are connected to your part of the tree ? If you share a branch with a workshop
where they do electrical welding you are sure to have trouble sooner or later.
Faulty electrical equipment for example a lift motor, a fluorescent light, a coffee machine, a faulty
instrument. may generate interference.

If possible arrange for your laboratory to be supplied via its own branch line connected
directly to a major distribution board.

If this is not possible, because of distance or the cost of new cables, and if you have reason to
believe that a laboratory that shares your line is a source of interference, consider running temporary
wiring past the offending neighbour and check if there is improvement. If there is you have
strengthened your case for a separate branch.

When you understand the wiring layout, and have an idea about where

20
interference is likely to originate, you may make a case for fitting heavy-duty surge suppressors to
some of the distribution boards. Such units back up and protect the smaller and cheaper
suppressors you fit to individual power outlets in your laboratory.
Surges originating outside the building, caused by lightning or faults in the cross-country power
system, may be very energetic, but for these too you are protected by attenuation in the building
wiring. After travelling a few tens of meters from the main switchboard even a surge from a nearby
lightning strike is manageable by the heavy-duty suppressors on the distribution boards.

Grounding

Grounding (or earthing - the meaning is the same) is an important part of electric power distribution.
It refers to how the average voltage of the AC supply is fixed with respect to ground, and how
conducting paths are provided to allow current to flow harmlessly away if there is a short circuit.
These might seem simple matters but in fact the whole subject is problematic and difficult. We do
not attempt full treatment here but only outline why grounding is important and mention some of its
problems.

The main purpose of grounding is safety. If a fault

occurs in the wiring there will be strong flow of
current ("fault current") and dangerously high
voltage may appear on surfaces which before were
safe to touch (Figure 17.). Flash-over or
overheating may damage wiring and equipment.
The grounding system is “protective” because it is
arranged so that the fault currents themselves act
in the direction of safety, by blowing fuses or
actuating cut-outs and thereby cutting off the
supply.

Good grounding may also help sensitive

instruments to work correctly, but that is only
secondary - its main purpose is safety, to
protect the supply system, the equipment
connected to it, and those who use the
equipment.

How is the laboratory power supply grounded ?

There is - or should be - only one grounding point,

in or near the substation. One side of the
secondary winding of the transformer is connected
via a short thick cable to a metal rod driven into the
ground. This is the "neutral" (N) side of the
laboratory power supply. Connection to ground
holds the voltage of this side of the winding to zero.
The other side, the "live" side (L), is at the full
alternating voltage of the power supply, 110 or 220
volts. Cables connected to N and L run to every
power outlet in the laboratory.

In modern installations a third wire, the ground wire

E (or PE, "protective earth") also runs from the
ground rod in the substation to all power outlets
and connected to third pin of the power socket. Figure 17. Grounding against shock hazard

21
Instruments draw power from N and L. Their chassis and exposed metal parts are connected to
ground via E.

Would it matter if a user in a distant part of the laboratory were to decide that better grounding would
be good for his instruments, and drive another rod into the ground, and connect the N side of the
supply to ground a second time, at this rod ? Yes, it certainly would ! Because if ever there should
be a fault in N - if N should become disconnected somewhere between the two ground rods - all
current drawn by the distant user would flow through the earth between the rods, and such earth
currents find their way along any metal pipes or building structures that lie in their way. There could
be arcing, fire, shock, as current jumps across gaps and may energise the structures people can
touch. It is to minimise such possibilities that grounding systems are strictly specified by regulations
governing electrical installation.

A metal outer casing of an instrument connected to ground obviously protects people, but
how does grounding protect equipment, the supply system, and even the building ?

Grounding protects by disconnecting power quickly when a fault occurs. In fault conditions the live
wires touch each other or come into contact with grounded structures (such as the case of an
instrument). Faults often develop gradually - a component in an instrument begins to fail, there is
heating, and eventually the component burns out, damaging nearby components and perhaps
wrecking the instrument. The fault process may cause live point touching the enclosure. Grounding
is the means by which even incipient faults are detected. Fault current flows through the ground wire
back to the power transformer in the substation, and even a few milliamps flowing through this route
can be detected by safety cut-outs which quickly disconnect the supply.

In this context "quickly" means within a small fraction of a second. Speed is important to minimise
damage to equipment and save people exposed to shock from serious hurt. The ground wire is a
reliable low-resistance return path, so cut-outs open quickly and reliably. If, as in earlier two-wire
mains systems, there is no ground wire, a developing fault may remain unnoticed for weeks until
something suddenly bursts into flames or someone receives a serious shock.

What about the secondary function of grounding, to provide a steady electrical environment for
electronic instruments ? We must ask the manufacturer of the instrument whether instruments really
need such an environment, and if so whether mains grounding is the best way to provide it. We find
that in fact it is not, and that electrical disturbances in this system can work against reliable
operation.
For the instrumentation engineer the central problem of grounding is how to retain the safety function
of mains ground without allowing it to compromise the operation of instruments. The problem is
worst if instruments are connected together by data links and if they are far enough apart to be
plugged into different branches of the mains.

Digital signals, which govern every aspect of modern instrumentation, are small high-speed changes
in voltage, but changes relative to what ? Signal circuits in each instrument are "grounded" to its
frame, so signals are voltages relative to the frame. Frames are connected to E. So we might say
that signals are changes in voltage relative to the steady zero voltage of the building's grounding
system. But that would be an oversimplification, as we shall see.

Difficulty arises when instruments exchange signals with other instruments. PCs work with monitors
and printers or with other PCs to which they are connected in a network. Signal links between
instruments work reliably only if their signal circuits refer to the same steady reference voltage. Does
the mains ground system provide this ? Unfortunately not - it is in fact be source of electrical
interference which may prevent linked instruments from working reliably together at all.
Suppose two instruments in different parts of a building are joined by a data link. Each is plugged
into a three-pin mains wall socket. Their E pins are electrically connected through the lengthy wiring
of the mains grounding system. But they share this connection with every other mains socket in the
building. Fault currents or electrical noise flowing in the E wire can generate interference between
the two instruments.
But signal links do not depend only on mains ground - signal cables carry their own zero reference
connection, a wire in a multiwire cable or the shield of a concentric cable. This may also be said to

22
be grounded, because it is connected at each end to the frame of an instrument. The link would
work just as well - in fact better -without any connection to the E wire of the mains.

A grounding tip

When you change the signal cables between instruments, for example between a
printer and a PC, first switch both off and unplug their power cords. Only then can
you safely remove or connect the signal cable. If live power is connected while you
do this there may be damage to data transmission circuits in one or both of the
instruments, as filter capacitors at mains entry points can introduce swings of
voltage between signal lines and signal ground. This can happen even if the
instruments are switched off, because the power switch comes after the filter
capacitors.

There is a further complication. The two ground links, through the mains E wire and through the
ground wire of the signal cable, together form a closed conducting loop which can pick up
interference by inductive coupling. Conductors running nearby may inject interference via this
coupling.
It is to avoid such difficulties that some installations have been provided with a separate "instrument
earth", or a ground connection completely separate from that of the power system. A second ground
rod was driven into the earth at a supposedly quiet location and connected to an earth wire running
around the instrument room. The mains ground wire E was disconnected and the frames of all
instruments were joined to the new quiet earth.

"Instrument earth" contravened wiring regulations - it reduced safety because it increased

the resistance of the earth return by the resistance of the ground between the two rods.
Modern practice does not recommend a separate instrument earth.

The problem of two linked instruments described above could be solved by running a local E wire
between the instruments and connecting it to the E wire of the mains wiring system at one point only
along its length. Fault and noise currents flowing in the mains E system cannot flow in a wire to
which they have only single-point connection.
This is the rationale for the currently recommended method for grounding groups of interconnected
instruments. Their frames are connected together by taking a wire from each instrument to a single
common terminal, and that terminal is connected by a single wire to the E wire of the mains. By
grounding in this "star connection" way the safety features of conventional mains grounding are
retained but troubles due to currents flowing through a grounding system are avoided.

The mains cable and the plug-outlet connections are relatively vulnerable. They can be
electrically or mechanically not reliable, loose, or even cut, not conducting the E properly.
The simplest way to create a safe zero potential among the units or instruments if you
connect the metal cases of the separate equipment in your system together. Special ground
connection (screw or banana) on the front or rear panel or a metal screw near to the power
inlet can be used. Since it may conduct high frequency current, use short, multicore wires.

23
The Bar of Equipotential

It has been a common misconception that the earth is a sort of sink into which interference signals
simply disappear. But this is not so. The earth has appreciable resistance, much more indeed than
that of the ground wiring we connect to it, and its voltage at any point varies from instant to instant as
currents flow through it. Lightning produces huge voltages surges in the ground near the point of
impact, as may fault currents. It is not connection to the earth, to the real physical ground, that is
important for instrumentation, but rather it is the provision to provide a working environment from
which electrical instability has been excluded. The modern approach is to replace the older idea
"connection to a quiet earth" by a new concept, that of the "Equipotential System". This is an
extension of star-connection approach mentioned above.

This system uses conventional three-wire distribution, but mounted close to the main switchboard
there is a massive copper bar, the "Bar of Equipotential", to which all E wiring is connected. A single
conductor joins this bar to the ground rod. The Bar of Equipotential acts as the central point of a
star-connected grounding system for the whole building (Figure 18.).

Figure 18. Bonding to the Equipotential Bar

If a laboratory in such a building needs a particularly steady electrical environment, protected from
interference arising from equipment in other rooms, a separate insulated E wire may be run directly
to the Bar of Equipotential. This takes the place of the "quiet instrument earth" which would have
been used before.
If an extremely stable environment is needed throughout the whole building it may be designed and
built as a single Equipotential Enclosure. Reinforcement bars in the concrete, structural steelworks,
metal door and window frames, and metal pipes of all kinds are bonded together and connected to
the Bar of Equipotential. Here "bonding" means making solid electrical connections between all
metalwork which is not part of the power system.

An extreme example of such an arrangement is a modern aircraft. Here many electronic systems
work together in a small space. The metal body of the aircraft is an Equipotential Enclosure. Each
group of instrumentation has star-connected "grounding" with single-point connection to the metal
body. It is not uncommon for an aircraft to be struck by lightning. When this happens the whole

24
structure experiences a surge of hundreds of thousands of volts but the equipment within is
unaffected.

There is a common problem with the different types of plug and outlets. Use only compatible
ones! When the instrument arrived with not proper plug, you can cut it from the power cord
and fix a local one which fits to the outlet. Connect the L, N and E correctly.
Remember, the most important reason for grounding is personal safety.

Solutions without grounding

In many older laboratories the mains distribution system has apparently no E wire. The two-pin
outlet sockets are connected only to N and L. With such a system, what can be done to protect
against surges ? Is surge protection possible without making a good connection to ground ?

If your laboratory has two-pin outlets the following is recommended.

First, check the distribution board supplying the laboratory. Quite probably it has a ground
connection, even though this is not carried through to the outlet sockets. If it has, mount a heavy-
duty surge suppressor on the distribution board and connect its E terminal to the ground connection
on the board.
If the distribution board has no ground connection, check earlier boards in the distribution tree.
Mount the suppressor on the closest board that has a ground connection. As a last resort mount it
on the laboratory main switchboard, which must be connected to ground at the E side of the
transformer.
The function of the heavy-duty suppressor is to intercept and divert lightning and other high-energy
surges coming into the laboratory from outside. A connection to ground is necessary because these
surges occur as voltages between the supply system and ground and can be "suppressed" only by
shunting them to ground.

To control disturbances coming from inside the laboratory fit your laboratory room with its
own local three-wire distribution system. Use three-pin socket strips with built-in surge
suppressors. Wire them as a new ring main, using three-core cable. Connect the N and L
circuits of the new system to N and L of the old two-wire mains system. Plug your instrument
into the new 3-pin sockets.
Connect the E circuit of the new system to a common terminal - a "chocolate block" terminal
strip will do - to serve as ground reference point.
If there is a convenient ground point handy - a water pipe or some exposed steel building
structure - you may ground your reference to that.

25
Appendix A

EPC Expert - Electrical Power Conditioning Expert System

EPC Expert is a standalone software package and runs under MS Windows on IBM PC
compatibles. This software package provides specific guidelines to improve the mains power supply
quality and makes recommendations of conditioning / protective devices to be used, for reliable
operation and protection of the sensitive electronic instruments. Besides providing guidelines and
recommendations, the EPC Expert also provides databases of commercially available conditioning /
protection devices and context sensitive help facility to apprise the user about the relevance of the
advise. A separate module is included to provide a comprehensive information about the mains
power supply as part of training.

EPC Expert has been developed to be used by all levels of persons connected to a research
laboratory besides the maintenance persons and the technical experts. EPC Expert provides a
single point solution for the protection of scientific instruments
from the disturbances / damages caused due to the poor or unpredictable mains power supply. The
consultation session interacts with the user in terms of the problems faced and the type of instrument
with the user. The level of interaction in this session has been evolved in such a way that an user
finds it simple and even all the default/wildcard selections also lead to meaningful recommendations;
may not be optimum always anyway. In most cases general users can get near optimum
recommendations to the generic problems ; whereas for a typical solution to a specific problem, a
session with a technical expert will result in a more precise recommendations. The devices
recommended in the consultation session may not be available easily or there might not be any
optimum device(s) in the built-in database who’s specification match with the required specification,
in such cases the specification of the recommended device becomes handy for procurement and
selection actions from the market. The database and training modules are self explanatory and the
user interfaces are in standard MS Windows format.
The EPC Expert has three modules namely, Consultation, Database and Training. Consultation
module provides recommendations for protection and/or conditioning. The database module
provides categorised list of the applicable electrical protection and conditioning device models along
with their manufacturer and supplier details. The training module provides graphical and textual
presentation of information to give an overall view of the electrical power, associated problems and
remedial actions.

Consultation

Consultation module provides specific guidelines and practices of supplying mains power to
laboratory to reduce/eliminate the external disturbances reaching the laboratory through mains
supply. The conditioning and protection recommendations are provided for various instruments
categorised into four classes.
The advises are based on the assessment of overall electrical environment and characteristics of the
systems. The advises are supplemented with the exact specifications of the recommended
device(s), sample models from the reputed manufacturers and the scheme of their interconnection to
the system. The user can activate training module and
get more details on the highlighted aspects of the advice.

Laboratory

EPC Expert provides advises / recommendations to achieve clean mains power supply (i.e. the
supply free from disturbances) in the laboratory for use by the various types of instruments and
systems. The recommendations are made depending upon the overall assessment of the power
source including the environmental considerations. The user interaction through menu driven
questionnaires provides the system with the data pertaining to electrical power layout, wiring, power

26
requirement besides environmental aspects affecting the electrical power. The information obtained
from the operator is used by the system to invoke built-in expert rules. Conditional questionnaires to
the user provide additional information to make specific recommendations to the problems stated,
besides the regular practices. Recommendations also incorporate adequate features to avoid
anticipated power supply disturbances for the situations assessed. The recommendations are
reasoned out, wherever applicable, with the conditions indicated by the user.

Large Integrated Instrument System (LIS)

The complex instrument systems consisting of number of subunits and consume large
power are covered under this class, e.g. Gamma Camera, Reactor or Accelerator Control and
Instrumentation Systems etc. The advises and recommendations are aimed to achieve reliable and
protected electrical power environment for such systems. The data pertaining to the system
specifications as per the manufacturer’s catalogue and the power supply problems is obtained from
the user through a dialogue box. An operational assessment chart based on system type, usage,
susceptibility and consequences of failure guide the selection rules of protection / conditioning
devices. The additional dialogue boxes seek the attributes of power line disturbances from the user
and appropriate rules are activated.
The advise summary window gives the options to view the specifications of the recommended
device(s), sample models from the reputed manufacturers and the scheme of their interconnection to
the system.

Small Integrated Instrument System(SIS)

SIS class caters to systems of lesser complexity and power consumption., e.g. Automatic Liquid
Scintillation counting system, Automatic Radio Immuno Assay system etc. The general guidelines of
recommendation and modes of seeking the data pertaining to the system are similar to the LIS class.
Additional rules are framed to account for suitability in terms of price considerations.

Individual Instrument

The smaller instruments like Multichannel Analyser, Radioisotope calibrators etc. are covered under
this class. The protection and conditioning of these instruments follow a standard guidelines as in
other classes, in addition to the general practices of power line conditioning. The recommendations
are aimed to be cost effective and simple.

Instrument modules and Circuit Boards

The stand-alone modules/cards viz. PC plug-in cards, ADC/DAC boards are covered under this
class. The emphasis is given to provide protection from the power supply disturbances and advise
measures to ensure clean supply. The general rules governing these recommendations are derived
from the practices of board level protection.

Database Module

This part of the software is database which contains catalogue information of the protective and
conditioning device models as offered by the reputed manufacturers. These devices are categorised
as follows:
Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS)
PowerLine(Voltage) Conditioner (PLC)
Line Voltage Regulator (LVR)
Isolation Transformer (ISO)
Dropout Relay (DOR)
Transient Voltage Suppresser (TVS)

27
EMI/Line Filter (ELF)
Protective Components (COMP)
Each of these device categories has built-in databases of currently available models along with the
manufacturers and the suppliers details.

Browse

This is an option provided in the database module to look into the detailed specifications of any
model, address & contact persons of the manufacturer and/or supplier under each category of
devices listed above. The products offered by any supplier / manufacturer are also listed even
though there may not be any model specifications built in the current database. This helps the user
to locate the available sources of the products.

Maintenance

The databases of the model specifications under all categories of devices may be updated and
altered using this option. This facility enables user to discard the outdated product information and
keep the databases up-to-date. The operations allowed in any model specifications are:
Addition (Append)
Deletion (Erase)
Modify (Update)
Deletion of any manufacturer’s record is not possible, this avoids any ambiguous product having no
manufacturer reference.

Training Module

This part of the software module gives an overall view about the issues related to electrical power
generation, distribution, disturbances and remedies. The information is presented in easy-to-
understand graphical formats with essential texts.

The major topics are:

Power Line disturbances & their sources, Power line protection & conditioning devices and types of
Power line disturbances.
Each of these major topics have number of subtopics which may be referred by the user, to
understand the problems related to electrical power and interact with the system in a fruitful way. The
context sensitive help facilities provided during consultation refer to same relevant portions of the
training module. Once having sought the context sensitive help, the user may also refer to the other
portions of the training module.

28
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Protection of nuclear instruments and other

laboratory
equipment. IAEA/AL/091
2. STANDLER, R.B., Protection of electronic circuits from overvoltages. Wiley (1989)
3. IEEE Standards Collection, Surge Protection C62 (1995)
4. W HITE, D., The 1998 EMC Encyclopaedia. EMF-EMI control, Inc.
5. Electronic System Protection Handbook. ESPHB1. W J Furse & Co Ltd.
6. Earthing and Lightning Protection Equipment CHB/4/95 W J Furse & Co Ltd
7. W ANG, S.K., Handbook of air-conditioning and refrigeration. McGraw-Hill, Inc. (1994)
8. IEEE Std 602-1986, IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Systems in Health Care
Facilities
9. IEEE Std 1100-1992, IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Sensitive
Electronic Equipment.
10. Guideline on Electrical Power for ADP Installations. (FIPS PUB 94)
US National Information Service.
11. Lightning Protection 92- Buildings, Structures and Electronic Equipment.
Conference Proceedings, 1992, ERA Report 92-0289
12. Earthing Solutions -Standards, Safety & Good Practice.
Conference Proceedings, 1997, ERA Report 97-0533

CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW

Acknowledgement is due to the following for their contributions: Dr. Marian

Cabrejas (Argentina), Prof. Yonggeng Qian (China), Mr. B.R. Bairi (India), Mr. Debashis
Das (India), Mr. Hamid Malik (Pakistan), Mr. Nathaniel de Vera (Philippines), Mr.C. Taylor
(United Kingdom).

Figures published by courtesy of Elscint Ltd (cover page, Figure 1.), W J Furse & Co Ltd.
(Figure 2, 18), Felten & Guilleame AG. (Figure 3.), Phoenix Contact GmbH (Figure
5,6,7,11,14), Philips (Figure 8.), Sollatek Ltd. (figure 9,12,13), Victron Ltd. (Figure 10.) and
EMF-EMI control, Inc. (Figure 17.)

inst_prot1.doc

29