0 - BME-OCW For Physics II For Biomedical Engineering

JIS College of Engineering (An Autonomous Institute)
Narula Institute of Technology (An Autonomous Institute)

Gurunanak Institute of Technology (An Autonomous Institute)
Department of Physics
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Objective of the Physics II Course: Paper Code: PH (BME) 401

[applicable to 2nd year BME students]
The Physics II course will
 Form the foundation of ultrasound, infrasound, radio activity for Biomedical

Engineering purpose.
 Narrate the scientific details of various electronic &optical devices.

 apply quantum mechanics and solid state physics to study advanced materials such as
nanomaterials related areas of applications.
 Exposure to the physics of materials that are applied in modern electronic circuitry,
storage devices.
Course Outcome of Advanced Physics Course (Theoretical: PH (BME) 401)
At the end of the course students’ should have the
CO1: ability to apply the knowledge of PO1
 Electrostatics to explain actions of dielectrics
 Magnetism and semiconductor physics in data storage
 Schrödinger equation in physical problems including semiconductor devices
 Band theory explain electrical conductivity of metal, insulators and semiconductor
CO2: Ability to analyze PO2
 Use of insulators and magnetic materials in modern electrical circuitry and storage
purpose.
 The inability of direct measurement technique in quantum mechanics and role of operators
 The need of suitable theoretical methods to explain electron transport in all types of
materials
 Role of defected solid structure in perspective of Biomedical engineering
CO3: ability to design and realize PO3
 Mathematical frame work for making measurements in quantum mechanical situation\

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 Biomaterials using new generation materials like Graphene
CO4: Ability to conduct experiments using PO1, PO9
 Dielectric under alternating field
 Intrinsic semiconductor under electric and magnetic field
 Various types of magnetic materials
 Semiconductor Photovoltaic cell, Light emitting diodes, Light dependent resistor
 Band theory and electron transport in a semiconductor
Pre-Requisites: 1st year Basic Physics knowledge
CO-PO Mapping:
CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 H
CO2 H
CO3 M
CO4 L
CO5 L
H:3 , M:2, L:1
Minimum CO attainment: 10/15=0.66
Module 1: Electric and Magnetic properties of materials (9L)
Module 1.01: Insulating materials:

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Dielectric Material: Concept of Polarization, the relation between D, E and P,

Polarizability, Electronic (derivation of polarizability), Ionic, Orientation & Space charge
polarization (no derivation), internal field, Claussius Mossotti equation, ferroelctric and
piezoelectrics (Qualitative study). 3L
Module 1.02: Magnetic materials and storage devices:
Magnetic Field & Magnetization M, relation between B, H, M. Bohr magneton,
susceptibility, Diamagnetism- & Paramagnetism - Curie law (qualitative discussion),
Ferromagnetism– Curie Temperature, Weiss molecular field theory (qualitative) & Curie-
Weiss law, concept of θp , Hysteresis, Hard ferromagnets, Comparison and applications of
permanent magnets (storage devices) and Soft ferromagnets (Permalloys, Ferrites etc.)
4L
Module 1.03: Super conductivity: Basic concept, qualitative study up to Meissner effect,
examples of High Temperature Superconductor, BCS theory (qualitative), Applications.
2L
Lesson plan for Electric and Magnetic properties of materials

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Module Lect Topic Application Reference Book

No ure
No
1:Electric 1 Dielectric Material: Concept of Capacitor Insulating Materials:

and Polarization, the relation between D, Transformer Principles, Materials,
Magnetic E and P Electric wire and Applications, Margit
propertie 2 Polarizability, Electronic (derivation of cable’s insulating Pfundstein, Roland
s of polarizability), Ionic, Orientation & coating Gellert, Martin Spitzner
materials Space charge polarization (no Dielectric elastomers Alexander Rudolphi:
derivation), internal field as electromechanical BirkhauserVerlag AG; 1
3 ClaussiusMossotti equation, ferroelctric transducers edition (1 April 2008)
and piezoelectrics (Qualitative study) Dielectric High Voltage and
Resonators in Electrical Insulation
Microwave Engineering,
Components RavindraArora, Wolfga
Mosch: Online ISBN:
9780470947906DOI:
10.1002/978047094790
Series Editor(s):
Mohamed E. El-Hawary
4 Magnetic Field & Magnetization M, NMR
relation between B, H, M. Bohr Magnetic Force
magneton, susceptibility Microscopy (MFM)
5 Diamagnetism- &Paramagnetism - Curie Permanent
law (qualitative discussion), magnets
Ferromagnetism– Curie Temperature Electromagnets
6 Weiss molecular field theory (qualitative) Magnetic tapes and
& Curie-Weiss law, concept of θp , memory store
Hysteresis, Core of the
7 Hard ferromagnets, Comparison and transformer
applications of permanent magnets Refrigerator
(storage devices) and Soft ferromagnets magnets,
(Permalloys, Ferrites etc.) loudspeakers and
8 Quantum wires (one dimensional), small electric motors
Quantum dots (zero dimensional); Ferrite cores for
Quantum size effect and Quantum inductors and
confinement transformers, and in
9 Carbon allotropes. Application of various microwave
nanomaterials(CNT, grapheme, components
electronic, environment, medical).
MODULE 1: ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

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MODULE 1.01: INSULATING MATERIALS:

1.01.1: DIELECTRIC MATERIAL: CONCEPT OF POLARIZATION,
RELATION BETWEEN D, E AND P, POLARIZABILITY, ELECTRONIC
POLARIZABILITY
LECTURE 1 :
 Dielectrics are non-metals with high specific resistance and negative temperature
coefficients. Examples are air, mica, paraffin, glass etc.
 Every electron of the dielectric material are bound to its parent molecule due to
which they can be affected by applied electric field.
 Dielectrics are of two types- Polar molecules and Non-polar molecules.
 Polar molecules: Centre of gravity of positive charges does not coincide with the
negative charges due to which permanent dipole are constituted. Examples are
HCL, H2O, NH3, etc.
 Non-Polar molecules: Centre of gravity of positive charges exactly coincides with
that of the negative charges results in no dipole moment. Examples are H 2, O2, CO2,
etc.
 When a non-polar dielectric is placed in an electric field, the centres of the positive
and negative charges are displaced from their equilibrium positions by a short
distance. The separation of the positive and negative charges continues till the force
on either of them due to electric field is completely balanced by the internal forces
due to their relative displacement. A dipole moment is induced in the molecules in
the direction of the applied electric field. Then the material is said to be polarized.
 So, polarization can be defined as the dipole moment developed per unit volume of
the material.
 The relation between polarization P , electric displacement vector D and electric
field E is
D = ε0E + P, where ε0 is the permittivity of the free
space.
 If the strength of the applied electric field E is increased, then the dipole moment P
also increases, i.e., P = αE, where α is known as the polarizability and can be
defined as the dipole moment induced per unit electric field.
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 Electronic Polarization is due to the shift of positively charged nucleus and

negatively charged electrons in opposite directions. If an external electric field is
applied, a dipole moment is produced.
 \The induced dipole moment µ = aeE, where ae is electronic polarizability.
 Inert gases like He, A and Ne exhibit only electronic polarization.
1.01.2: IONIC, ORIENTATION AND SPACE CHARGE POLARIZATION,

INTERNAL FIELD
LECTURE 2 :
 In an ionic compound if an external electric field is applied, the positive and
negative ions are displaced results in ionic polarization.
 Orientational polarization occurs in the polar molecules due to the orientation of
dipoles along the applied external electric field.
 The dipolar or oriental polarizability is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature of the dielectric.
 The polarizability arising due to the accumulation of charges at the electrodes or at
the interfaces in a multiphase material is known as space charge polarization.
 In solids and liquids the distance between the molecules is small, so the dipoles are
not interacted by only external electric field but also with the fields created by the
dipoles of other particles. The actual field Ea seen by a dipole is thus different from
the externally applied field E, this field Ea is called internal electric field.
1.01.3: CLAUSIUS–MOSSOTTI EQUATION, FERROELECTRIC AND

PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS
LECTURE 3:
 In the materials like diamond, silicon, germanium and carbon, the polarization is
only due to the electronic polarization as all the atoms are alike and there is no ions
or permanent dipoles in these materials.
So, polarization can be written as
Na e E
P=
Na e ……………………….. (1)
1-
3e 0
But, P = ε0 (εr-1)E ………………………… (2)

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From equations (1) and (2) we get,

e r - 1 Na e
= ………………………… (3)
e r + 2 3e 0
 Equation (3) is called as Clausius-Mossotti relation which is used to determine the
dielectric constant as well as electronic polarizability for elemental dielectrics.
1.01.4 FERROELECTRIC AND PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS
 The materials in which spontaneous polarization takes place are called as
ferroelectric materials. These materials exhibit hysteresis effects similar to the
effect in ferromagnetic materials. Examples are Rochelle salt, KH 2PO4, dihydrogen
phosphate etc.
Some of the properties of ferroelectric materials are:
 The centres of positive and negative charges of the material do not coincide with
each other even in the absence of electric field.
 In ferroelectrics, the polarization can be changed and even reversed by an external
electric field.
 The polarization does not vary linearly with applied electric field rather forms a
hysteresis loop.
 Ferroelectric material shows piezoelectric and pyroelectric properties below
transition temperature.
 Those materials in which the electric potential is generated due to the application of
some kind of mechanical stress are called as piezoelectric materials. Examples are
Rochelle salt, tourmaline etc.
Inverse Piezoelectric Effect
If a material (crystal) becomes strained due to the application of electric Voltage (stress),
then the effect is said to be inverse piezoelectric effect.
Assignments
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1. The radius of an argon gas atom is 10-10m. Calculate the electronic polarizability
of the atom.[Ans; 1.11X10-40Fm2]
2. For a certain gas molecule, the permanent dipole moment is 1.35 Debye unit.
Calculate the orientationalpolarisability at room temperature.[Ans; 4.5X 10-
40
Fm2]
3. Starting from Clausius-Mosotti relation explain the origin of spontaneous
polarization.
4. The relative permittivity and square of refractive index of a dielectric material
are 4.94 and 2.69 respectively. Find the ratio between electronic and ionic
polarizabilities of the material. [Ans; 1.739]
LECTURE 4:
1.02: MAGNETIC MATERIALS AND STORAGE DEVICES:

Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic fields. Electric
currents and the magnetic moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field,
which acts on other currents and magnetic moments. The most familiar effects occur in
ferromagnetic materials, which are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and can be
magnetized to become permanent magnets, producing magnetic fields themselves. Only a
few substances are ferromagnetic; the most common ones are iron, nickel and cobalt and
their alloys. The prefix ferro- refers to iron, because permanent magnetism was first
observed in lodestone, a form of natural iron ore called magnetite, Fe3O4.
Although ferromagnetism is responsible for most of the effects of magnetism encountered
in everyday life, all other materials are influenced to some extent by a magnetic field, by
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several other types of magnetism. Paramagnetic substances such as aluminum and oxygen
are weakly attracted to an applied magnetic field; diamagnetic substances such as copper
and carbon are weakly repelled; while antiferromagnetic materials such as chromium and
spin glasses have a more complex relationship with a magnetic field. The force of a magnet
on paramagnetic, diamagnetic, antiferromagnetic materials is usually too weak to be felt,
and can be detected only by laboratory instruments, so in everyday life these substances are
often described as non-magnetic.
The magnetic state (or magnetic phase) of a material depends on temperature and other
variables such as pressure and the applied magnetic field. A material may exhibit more than
one form of magnetism as these variables change.
Sources of magnetism
Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources:
1. Electric current
2. Spin magnetic moments of elementary particles. The magnetic moments of the
nuclei of atoms are typically thousands of times smaller than the electrons' magnetic
moments, so they are negligible in the context of the magnetization of materials.
Nuclear magnetic moments are nevertheless very important in other contexts,
particularly in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI).
Ordinarily, the enormous number of electrons in a material is arranged such that their
magnetic moments (both orbital and intrinsic) cancel out. This is due, to some extent, to
electrons combining into pairs with opposite intrinsic magnetic moments as a result of
the Pauli exclusion principle (see electron configuration), or combining into filled
subshells with zero net orbital motion. In both cases, the electron arrangement is so as
to exactly cancel the magnetic moments from each electron. Moreover, even when the
electron configurationis such that there are unpaired electrons and/or non-filled
subshells, it is often the case that the various electrons in the solid will contribute
magnetic moments that point in different, random directions, so that the material will
not be magnetic.
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3. Sometimes, either spontaneously, or owing to an applied external magnetic field—

each of the electron magnetic moments will be, on average, lined up. A suitable
material can then produce a strong net magnetic field.
4. The magnetic behavior of a material depends on its structure, particularly its
electron configuration, for the reasons mentioned above, and also on the
temperature. At high temperatures, random thermal motion makes it more difficult
for the electrons to maintain alignment.
1.02.1 MAGNETIC FIELD & MAGNETIZATION M

A magnetic field is the magnetic effect of electric currents and magnetic materials. The
magnetic field at any given point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude (or
strength); as such it is represented by a vector field. The term is used for two distinct
but closely related fields denoted by the symbols B and H, where H is measured in
units of amperes per meter (symbol: A⋅m−1 or A/m) in the SI. B is measured in
teslas (symbol: T) and newtons per meter per ampere (symbol: N⋅m−1⋅A−1 or N/
(m⋅A)) in the SI. B is most commonly defined in terms of the Lorentz force it exerts
on moving electric charges.
 
In a vacuum, B = μ0 H
whereμ0 is the vacuum permeability.
  
In a material, B = μ0 ( H M)
+

The quantity μ0 M is called magnetic polarization.
H and M will have the same units, amperes/meter. To further distinguish B from H, B is
sometimes called the magnetic flux density or the magnetic induction. The quantity M in
these relationships is called the magnetization of the material.
 In classical electromagnetism, magnetization or magnetic polarization is the vector
field that expresses the density of permanent or induced magnetic dipole moments
in a magnetic material.
1.02.2 Relation between B, H, M

 The magnetization defines the auxiliary magnetic field H asB = 0 (H +M)(SI Unit)
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The vacuum permeability μ0 is, by definition, 4π×10−7V·s/(A·m).

 A relation between M and H exists in many materials. In diamagnets and
paramagnets, the relation is usually linear: M = mH
whereχm is called the volume magnetic susceptibility.
In ferromagnets there is no one-to-one correspondence between M and H because of
Magnetic hysteresis.
1.02.3 BohrMagneton
In atomic physics, the Bohr magneton (symbol μB) is a physical constant and the natural
unit for expressing the magnetic moment of an electron caused by either its orbital or spin
angular momentum.
The Bohr magneton is defined in SI unitsby
where,
e is the elementary charge
Me is the rest mass
c is the speed of light
ħis the reduced Planck constant
 Bohr Magneton is defined as the magnetic dipole moment associated with an atom
due to the orbital motion of an electron revolving in the first orbit of hydrogen
atom.
1.02.3 Susceptibility
Magnetic susceptibility shows the degree of magnetization of a material in presence of
magnetic field
M=mH ,m is called the magnetic susceptibility
M is magnetisation
H is magnetic fields
Diamagnetic materials have a weak, negative susceptibility to magnetic fields.
Paramagnetic materials have a small, positive susceptibility to magnetic fields.
Ferromagnetic materials have a large, positive susceptibility to an external magnetic field.
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Ferromagnetism
Fig 1.1
Fig 1.2
LECTURE 5:
1.2.4 Diamagnetism- &Paramagnetism

Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism is a fundamental property of all matter, although it is usually very
weak. It is due to the non-cooperative behavior of orbiting electrons when exposed
to an applied magnetic field. Diamagnetic substances are composed of atoms which
have no net magnetic moments (ie., all the orbital shells are filled and there are no
unpaired electrons). However, when exposed to a field, a negative magnetization is
produced and thus the susceptibility is negative.
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Paramagnetism
This class of materials, some of the atoms or ions in the material have a net
magnetic moment due to unpaired electrons in partially filled orbitals. One of the
most important atoms with unpaired electrons is iron. However, the individual
magnetic moments do not interact magnetically, and like diamagnetism, the
magnetization is zero when the field is removed. In the presence of a field, there is
now a partial alignment of the atomic magnetic moments in the direction of the
field, resulting in a net positive magnetization and positive susceptibility.
LECTURE 6:
1.02.5 Paramagnetism - Curie law
In a paramagnetic material the magnetization of the material is (approximately)

directly proportional to an applied magnetic field. However, if the material is
heated, this proportionality is reduced: for a fixed value of the field, the
magnetization is (approximately) inversely proportional to temperature. This fact is
encapsulated by Curie's law:
M=C
where, M is the resulting magnetisation

B is the magnetic field, measured in tesla
T is absolute temperature, measured in kelvins
C is a material-specific Curie constant.
This law holds for high temperatures, or weak magnetic fields.
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Fig 1.3
1.02.6 Ferromagnetism - Curie law
The Curie–Weiss law describes the magnetic susceptibilityχ of a ferromagnet in the

paramagnetic region above the Curie point:
whereC is a material-specific Curie constant, T is absolute temperature, measured in

kelvins, and Tc is the Curie temperature, measured in kelvins. The law predicts a singularity
in the susceptibility at T = Tc. Below this temperature the ferromagnet has a spontaneous
magnetization.
1.2.5 Weiss molecular field theory, Curie-Weiss law

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Weiss postulated that mutual interaction between the magnetic moments keeps them
parallel and aligned together subscribing this to an internal field. This extra field is called
Weiss molecular field, Hw plays a crucial in keeping the moments aligned in one direction.
Hw is expressed as a product of magnetization with a molecular field constant , a
characteristic of the material. Hence, this internal field can be expressed as
Hi = H + Hw = H + M
Now, for a ferromagnetic material, we need to replace H with Hi
Or, =
Or, =
Where, Tc =C and has a unit of temperature and is called as Curie temperature. This is
called Curie Weiss Law.
Fig 1.4
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The figure above shows that while Ms starts dropping at TC and then dies off slowly
as there is a divergence in 1/χ at θ in the paramagnetic region and is a signature of a
phase transition to a spontaneously ordered phase. A positive value of T C indicates
that molecular field is acting in the same direction as of applied field and acts to
align the magnetic moments parallel to each other, as should be the case with a
ferromagnetic material.
However, in real picture as later physicists pointed out, the origin of Weiss
molecular field is the exchange interaction as a consequence of the Pauli’s
exclusion principle and the Coulomb interaction between electrons. For instance, in
case of two electrons, electrons can arrange themselves parallel or antiparallel. If
parallel, Pauli’s exclusion principle requires them to remain far apart and if
antiparallel, the electrons may come closer together and their wave functions
overlap considerably. Hence, the electrostatic energy of an electron system is
governed by the relative orientation of the spins and the difference in energy defines
the exchange energy. For transition element materials like iron, nickel and cobalt,
the exchange energy is minimum for parallel spin configuration while for certain
other materials like MnO and various other ferrites, exchange energy (actually
super-exchange energy) is minimum when the spins are arranged in antiparallel
fashion and these materials are called antiferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic materials
which we will discuss in the following sections.
The exchange interaction is of short range, thus only nearest neighbor atoms
produce the molecular field. The magnitude of this exchange or molecular field can
be worked out by equating the exchange energy (μ BHW) with thermal energy, kT at
TC, i.e. HW = (kTC/μB) which turns to be of the order of about 1 kilo-tesla which is
quite large a field, and not even found in the best of machines.
1.02.6 Concept of θp
In physics and materials science, the Curie temperature, or Curie point, is the
temperature at which certain materials lose their permanent magnetic properties, to be
replaced by induced magnetism.
The Curie temperature is an essential temperature for a ferromagnetic material. For
example, if a ferromagnetic material has a temperature under its Curie temperature, then
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the material has a net spontaneous magnetization, which means that the material becomes
ferromagnetic, or magnetic. If a ferromagnetic material has a temperature over its Curie
temperature, then the material becomes paramagnetic, or does not become a magnet.
The Curie temperature of iron is 1043 K. Even sources copyrighted before the year 1984
had the Curie temperature of iron to be the same number as more current sources. When the
temperature of iron is at the Curie temperature or higher, then the iron becomes
paramagnetic and when the temperature of iron is below the Curie temperature, then it is
ferromagnetic. Each element has its own Curie temperature. For example, the Curie
temperature of iron is different from that of Cobalt or Nickel.
1.2.7 Hysteresis
When a ferromagnetic material is magnetized in one direction, it will not relax
back to zero magnetization when the imposed magnetizing field is removed. It
must be driven back to zero by a field in the opposite direction. If an alternating
magnetic field is applied to the material, its magnetization will trace out a loop
called a hysteresis loop. The lack of retraceability of the magnetization curve is the
property called hysteresis and it is related to the existence of magnetic domains in
the material. Once the magnetic domains are reoriented, it takes some energy to
turn them back again. This property of ferrromagnetic materials is useful as a
magnetic "memory". Some compositions of ferromagnetic materials will retain an
imposed magnetization indefinitely and are useful as "permanent magnets". The
magnetic memory aspects of iron and chromium oxides make them useful in audio
tape recording and for the magnetic storage of data on computer disks.
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Fig 1.5
hysteresis Loss
Due to hysteresis (i.e., during a cyclic process of magnetization and
demagnetization) there is always some loss of energy and this loss of energy per
unit volume per cycle of magnetization is called hysteresis loss.
This is w =
LECTURE 7:
1.2.8 Hard ferromagnets

The substances with large retentivity are called hard ferromagnetic substances
which are used in producing permanent magnets. The hysteresis cycle for such
substances is broad. Alnico (an alloy of Al, Ni, Co and Cu ) is a hard
ferromagnetic material. Hence permanent magnets are made using Alnico. The
substances with small retentivity, i.e., with narrow hysteresis cycle, are called soft
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ferromagnetic substances, e.g., soft iron. Such materials are used for making
electromagnets.
Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into magnetically "soft" materials like
annealediron, which can be magnetized but do not tend to stay magnetized, and
magnetically "hard" materials, which do. Permanent magnets are made from
"hard" ferromagnetic materials such as alnico and ferrite that are subjected to
special processing in a strong magnetic field during manufacture to align their
internal microcrystallinestructure, making them very hard to demagnetize. To
demagnetize a saturated magnet, a certain magnetic field must be applied, and this
threshold depends on coercivity of the respective material. "Hard" materials have
high coercivity, whereas "soft" materials have low coercivity.
1.2.9
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SI No. Hard magnetic Material Soft magnetic Material

1 Materials which retain their Soft magnetic materials are easy to
magnetism and are difficult to magnetize and demagnetize
demagnetize are called hard
magnetic materials.
2 They have large hysteresis loss They have low hysteresis loss due
due to large hysteresis loop area. to small hysteresis loop area.
3 Susceptibility and permeability are Susceptibility and permeability are
low. high.
4 Coercivity and retentivity values Coercivity and retentivity values are
are large. less.
5 The eddy current loss is high. The eddy current loss is less.
1.02.10 Applications of permanent magnets (storage devices)

Performance permanent magnets are indispensable in the production of high-efficiency
motors and generators and ultimately for sustaining the green earth. Magnetic storage or
magnetic recording is the storage of data on a magnetised medium. Magnetic storage uses
different patterns of magnetisation in a magnetisable material to store data and is a form of
non-volatile memory. The information is accessed using one or more read/write heads.
Magnetic storage media, primarily hard disks, are widely used to store computer data as
well as audio and video signals. In the field of computing, the term magnetic storage is
preferred and in the field of audio and video production, the term magnetic recording is
more commonly used. The distinction is less technical and more a matter of preference.
Other examples of magnetic storage media include floppy disks, magnetic recording tape,
and magnetic stripes on credit cards.
Soft ferromagnets (Permalloys, Ferrites etc.)

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A magnetic core is a piece of magnetic material with a high magnetic permeability used to
confine and guide magnetic fields in electrical, electromechanical and magnetic devices
such as electromagnets, transformers, electric motors, generators, inductors, magnetic
recording heads, and magnetic assemblies. It is made of ferromagnetic metal such as iron,
or ferrimagnetic compounds such as ferrites. The high permeability, relative to the
surrounding air, causes the magnetic field lines to be concentrated in the core material. The
magnetic field is often created by a current-carrying coil of wire around the core. The
presence of the core can increase the magnetic field of a coil by a factor of several thousand
over what it would be without the core.
The use of a magnetic core can enormously concentrate the strength and increase the effect
of magnetic fields produced by electric currents and permanent magnets. The properties of
a device will depend crucially on the following factors:
 thegeometry of the magnetic core.
 the amount of air gap in the magnetic circuit.
 the properties of the core material (especially permeability and hysteresis).
 theoperating temperature of the core.
 whether the core is laminated to reduce eddy currents.
In many applications it is undesirable for the core to retain magnetization when the applied
field is removed. This property, called hysteresis can cause energy losses in applications
such as transformers. Therefore, "soft" magnetic materials with low hysteresis, such as
silicon steel, rather than the "hard" magnetic materials used for permanent magnets, are
usually used in cores.
Permalloy is a nickel–iron magnetic alloy, with about 80% nickel and 20% iron content. It
is notable for its very high magnetic permeability, which makes it useful as a magnetic core
material in electrical and electronic equipment, and also in magnetic shielding to block
magnetic fields. Commercial permalloy alloys typically have relative permeability of
around 100,000, compared to several thousand for ordinary steel.[2]
Ferrite is a type of ceramic compound composed of iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) combined
chemically with one or more additional metallicelements. They are both electrically
nonconductive and ferrimagnetic, meaning they can be magnetized or attracted to a
magnet. Ferrites can be divided into two families based on their magnetic coercivity, their
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resistance to being demagnetized. Hard ferrites have high coercivity, hence they are
difficult to demagnetize. They are used to make magnets, for devices such as refrigerator
magnets, loudspeakers and small electric motors. Soft ferrites have low coercivity. They are
used in the electronics industry to make ferrite cores for inductors and transformers, and in
various microwave components. Ferrite compounds have extremely low cost, being made
of iron oxide (i.e. rusted iron), and also have excellent corrosion resistance. They are very
stable and difficult to demagnetize, and can be made with both high and low coercive
forces.
1.03 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
LECTURE 8:
The discovery of superconductors
The phenomenon of superconductivity, in which the electrical resistance of certain

materials completely vanishes at low temperatures, is one of the most interesting and
sophisticated in condensed matter physics. It was first discovered by the Dutch physicist
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who was the first to liquefy helium (which boils at 4.2 Kelvin at
standard pressure). In 1911 Kamerlingh Onnes and one of his assistants discovered the
phenomenon of superconductivity while studying the resistance of metals at low
temperatures. They studied mercury because very pure samples could easily be prepared by
distillation. The historic measurement of superconductivity in mercury is shown in Figure
1. As in many other metals, the electrical resistance of mercury decreased steadily upon
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cooling, but dropped suddenly at 4.2 K, and became undetectably small. Soon after this
discovery, many other elemental metals were found to exhibit zero resistance when their
temperatures were lowered below a certain characteristic temperature of the material,
called the critical temperature, Tc, some of which are given in Figure 2
Fig 1.6
Resistivity of superconductor
Fig 1.7
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The Meissner effect
In 1933, Walter Meissner and Robert

Ochsenfeld discovered a magnetic phenomenon
that showed that superconductors are not just
perfect conductors. Imagine that both the ideal
conductor and superconductor are above their
critical temperature, Tc. That is, they both are in
a normal conducting state and have electrical
resistance. A magnetic field, B, is then applied.
This results in the field penetrating both
materials. Both samples are then cooled so that the ideal conductor now has zero resistance.
It is found that the superconductor expels the magnetic field from inside it, while the ideal
conductor maintains its interior field. The superconductor behaves like a perfect
diamagnetic material. This is called Meissner effect. Meissner effect is a reversible
phenomenon. Thus we conclude that the behavior of a superconductor is different from that
of a perfect conductor and the superconducting state may be considered as a characteristic
thermodynamic phase of a substance in which the substance can't sustain steady electric
and magnetic fields. Hence the two mutually independent properties defining the
superconducting state are the zero resistivity and perfect diamagnetism.
Type I and II superconductors
High magnetic fields destroy superconductivity and restore the normal conducting state.
Depending on the character of this transition, we may distinguish between type I and II
superconductors. The graph shown in Figure 4 illustrates the internal magnetic field
strength, H, with increasing applied magnetic field. It is found that the internal field is zero
(as expected from the Meissner effect) until a critical magnetic field, Hc, is reached where
a sudden transition to the normal state occurs. This results in the penetration of the applied
field into the interior. Superconductors that undergo this abrupt transition to the normal
state above a critical magnetic field are known as type I superconductors. Most of the pure
elements in Figure 2 tend to be type I superconductors. Type II superconductors, on the
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other hand, respond differently to an applied magnetic field, as shown in Figure. An

increasing field from zero results in two critical fields, Hc1 and Hc2. At Hc1 the applied
field begins to partially penetrate the interior of the superconductor. However, the
superconductivity is maintained at this point. The superconductivity vanishes above the
second, much higher, critical field, Hc2. For applied fields between Hc1 and Hc2, the applied
field is able to partially penetrate the superconductor, so the Meissner effect is incomplete,
allowing the superconductor to tolerate very high magnetic fields.
Fig. 1.8 Type I and type II superconductor

LECTURE 9:
BCS Theory of superconductor (qualitative explanation)

Superconductivity was not sufficiently explained until 1957 when John Bardeen and his
graduate assistants Leon Cooper and John Schreiffer proposed a microscopic explanation
that would later be their namesake: the BCS Theory. This theoretical explanation later
earned them the Nobel prize, making John Bardeen the only man in history to be awarded
this honor twice. The BCS Theory makes a crucial assumption at the beginning: that an
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attractive force exists between electrons. In typical Type I superconductors, this force is
due to Coulomb attraction between the electron and the crystal lattice. An electron in the
lattice will cause a slight increase in positive charges around it. This increase in positive
charge will, in turn, attract another electron. These two electrons are known as a Cooper
pair. If the energy required to bind these electrons together is less than the energy from the
thermal vibrations of the lattice attempting to break them apart, the pair will remain bound.
This explains (roughly) why superconductivity requires low temperatures- the thermal
vibration of the lattice must be small enough to allow the forming of Cooper pairs. In a
superconductor, the current is made up of these Cooper pairs, rather than individual
electrons. Cooper pairs are formed by Coulomb interactions with the crystal lattice. This is
also what overcomes resistance. An electron inside the lattice causes a slight increase of
positive charge due to Coulomb attraction. As the Cooper pair flows, the leading electron
causes this increase of charge, and the trailing electron is attracted by it. This is illustrated
below.
Fig. 1.9 Formation of cooper pair

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High Temperature superconductors
Ceramic materials are expected to be insulators -- certainly not superconductors, but that is
just what Georg Bednorz and Alex Muller found when they studied the conductivity of a
lanthanum-barium-copper oxide ceramic in 1986. Its critical temperature of 30 K was the
highest which had been measured to date, but their discovery started a surge of activity
which discovered superconducting behavior as high as 125 K. The following table shows
some high temp superconductors.
Fig 1.10
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MODULE 2: ULTRASOUND AND INFRASOUND (4L)

Ultrasound-Introduction, definition and properties –Production of ultrasonics by Piezo-
electric crystal and magnetostriction method; Detection of ultrasonics; Engineering
applications of Ultrasonics (Non-destructive testing, cavitations, measurement of gauge),
Infrasound – Introduction and definition, production, application: 4L
Lesson Plan: Ultrasound and infrasound
Module Lecture Topic Application Reference

No No Book
2 1 Introduction, definition and properties Waves and
General idea about oscillation
ultrasonic ,audible ,infrasonic s
2 2 Production of ultrasonic by Piezo-electric \Working principal of the Dr.P.K
crystal and magnetostriction method; Mittal
different two methods of
Detection of ultrasonic; generation Prof Jai
and DEV
their advantages and Anand
disadvantages
Different detection method,
. Har A
nand
Idea about acoustic grating
publicatio
2 3 Engineering and medical application of Idea about sonar, sonogram
ns
ultrasonic. and their applications.
2 3 Non-destructive testing, cavitations, Application in sites, foundry
measurement of gauge
2 4 Definition and introduction and General idea about infrasonic.
generation of infrasound Applications in practical life
Natural sources of infrasonic.
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2 4 Seismography Application of infrasound to

detect earthquake
Text Book: Principles of Engineering Physics Vol 1 and Vol 2; by Md. N. Khan and S.
Panigrahi, Pub: Cambridge Univ. press
2.01: ULTRASONICS
LECTURE 10:
Infrasonic, Audible, Ultrasonic waves:
The mechanical longitudinal waves can be generated in all the three forms of matter,
namely solid, liquid and gas. These waves can be divided roughly into the following
classes according to their frequency as shown below:
Fig-2.1
Do you know??
 Elephants use infrasound for their communication.

 Normal human ear can sense the audible frequency.
 A few others creatures like cats, fox, nocturnal insects, and animals like bats
dolphins whales can sense ultrasound.
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2.02: NOW AT THE VERY FIRST PART OF THIS CHAPTER WE WILL TRY TO
GATHER SOME KNOWLEDGE ABOUT ULTRASONIC.
What is ultrasonic??
• The word ultrasoniccombines the Latin roots ultra, meaning ‘beyond’ and sonic, or
sound.
• The sound waves having frequencies above the audible range i.e. above 20000Hz
are called ultrasonic waves.
• Generally these waves are called as high frequency waves.
• The field of ultrasonic has applications for imaging, detection and navigation.
• The broad sectors of society that regularly apply ultrasonic technology are the
medical community, industry, and the military and private citizens.
2.03: WHAT ARE THE PROPERTIES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES??
 They have high energy content.

 Just like ordinary sound waves, ultrasonic waves get reflected refracted and
absorbed.
 They can be transmitted over large distances With no appreciable loss of
energy
 If an arrangement is made to form stationary waves of ultrasonic in a liquid, it
serves as a diffraction grating. It is called an acoustic grating.
 They produce intense heating effect when passed through a substance.
2.04:
NOW WE WILL TALK ABOUT SOME PRODUCTION METHODS OF

ULTRASONIC WAVES
Ultrasonic waves are produced by the following methods.
 Magnetostriction oscillator
 Piezoelectric generator or oscillator
It is time to get some brief idea about these two methods
Magnetostriction Oscillator
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Ultrasonic waves can be produced by the principle of magnetostriction oscillator.
Principle: Magnetostriction is a property of ferromagnetic materials that causes them to

change their shape or dimension when a magnetic field is applied. Thus, ferromagnetic
materials can be made to vibrate by applying an alternating magnetic field.
When a ferromagnetic rod like iron or nickel is placed in a magnetic field parallel to its
length, the rod experiences a small change in its length. This is called magnetostricion
effect.
Fig-2.2
The change in length (increase or decrease) produced in the rod depends upon the
strength of the magnetic field, the nature of the materials and is independent of the
direction of the magnetic field applied.
CONSTRUCTION OF MAGNETOSTRICTION OSCILLATOR
The experimental set up is shown in the figure below:

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Fig-2.3
1. XY is a rod of ferromagnetic materials like iron or nickel. The rod is clamped in the
middle.
2. The alternating magnetic field is generated by electronic oscillator.
3. The coil L1 wound on the right hand portion of the rod along with a variable capacitor C.
3. This forms the resonant circuit of the collector tuned oscillator. The frequency of
oscillator is controlled by the variable capacitor.
4. The coil L2 wound on the left hand portion of the rod is connected to the base
circuit. The coil L2 acts as feed –back loop.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:-
• When High Tension (H.T) battery is switched on, the collector circuit oscillates
with a frequency,
f= [Where L=L1]
• This alternating current flowing through the coil L1 produces an alternating

magnetic field along the length of the rod. The result is that the rod starts vibrating
due to magnetostrictive effect.
• The frequency of vibration of the rod is given by

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n=
where l = length of the rod
Y = Young’s modulus of the rod material and
r =density of rod material.
• The capacitor C is adjusted so that the frequency of the oscillatory circuit is equal to
natural frequency of the rod and thus resonance takes plate.
• Now the rod vibrates longitudinally with maximum amplitude and generates
ultrasonic waves of high frequency from its ends.
Now what are the advantages and disadvantages of this magnetostriction oscillator??
Advantages
1.The design of this oscillator is very simple and its production cost is low.
2. At low ultrasonic frequencies, the large power output can be produced without the risk of
damage of the oscillatory circuit.
DISADVANTAGES
1. It has low upper frequency limit and cannot generate ultrasonic frequency
above 3000 kHz (i.e. 3MHz).
Now it is time to discuss about the piezo-electric method to produce ultrasonic wave
LECTURE 11:
2.05: PIEZO ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR

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Principle: Inverse piezo electric effect
1. If mechanical pressure is applied to one pair of opposite faces of

certain crystals like quartz, equal and opposite electrical charges
appear across its other faces. This is called as piezo-electric effect.
Fig-2.4
The converse of piezo electric effect is also true.
2. If an electric field is applied to one pair of faces, the corresponding

changes in the dimensions of the other pair of faces of the crystal
are produced. This is known as inverse piezo electric effect or
electrostriction.
Fig-2.5
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When a crystal (as quartz, Rochelle salt or tourmaline) is subjected to an alternating

potential difference, it is set into mechanical vibrations. if the frequency of the electrical
oscillations coincides with one of the natural frequency of crystal ,which are of the order
of 250 to 10,000kilocycles/sec ,a large amplitude of vibration results. The phenomenon is
utilized to produce ultrasonic waves.
CONSTRUCTION OF PIEZO ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR
The circuit diagram is shown in figure below:
Fig-2.6
• The quartz crystal is placed between two metal plates A and B.
• The plates are connected to the primary (L3) of a transformer which is inductively
coupled to the electronics oscillator.
• The electronic oscillator circuit is a base tuned oscillator circuit.
• The coils L1 and L2 of oscillator circuit are taken from the secondary of a
transformer T.
• The collector coil L2 is inductively coupled to base coil L1.
• The coil L1 and variable capacitor C1 form the tank circuit of the oscillator.
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Working principle:
• When H.T. battery is switched on, the oscillator produces high frequency alternating
voltages with a frequency.
f= [L=L1, C=C1]
• Due to the transformer action, an oscillatory e.m.f. is induced in the coil L3. This
high frequency alternating voltages are fed on the plates A and B.
• Inverse piezo-electric effect takes place and the crystal contracts and expands
alternatively. The crystal is set into mechanical vibrations.
• The frequency of the vibration is given by
n= [where P = 1,2,3,4 … etc. For fundamental, first over tone, second over
tone etc.,
Y = Young’s modulus of the crystal and
ρ = density of the crystal]
• The variable condenser C1 is adjusted such that the frequency of the applied AC
voltage is equal to the natural frequency of the quartz crystal, and thus resonance
takes place.
• The vibrating crystal produces longitudinal ultrasonic waves of large amplitude.

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Fig-2.7
Points to be remembered:
 The ultrasonic generator delivers maximum power when it is operated at

the fundamental frequency of the crystal.
 In order to generate higher frequency ultrasonic waves ,the L-C circuit is
made to oscillate at a frequency equal to one of the harmonics of the crystal
because piezoelectric effect can occur only when opposite charges appear on
the electrodes.
 The above graphical representation shows the distribution of pressure and
charge in the thickness of crystal oscillating at three harmonics.
 It is seen that the effect will occur in the fundamental and third harmonic
,and not in the second harmonic.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of this piezo electric oscillator??
Advantages
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1. Ultrasonic frequencies as high as 5 x 10 8Hz or 500 MHz can be obtained with this
arrangement.
2. The output of this oscillator is very high.
3. It is not affected by temperature and humidity.
Disadvantages
1. The cost of piezo electric quartz is very high
2.The cutting and shaping of quartz crystal are very complex.
Next question is how can we detect ultrasonic waves??
2.06: DETECTION OF ULTRASONIC WAVES
Since ultrasonic waves are beyond human audible range, we human being can not directly
detect them. However ,ultrasonic waves propagated through a medium can be detected in a
number of ways. Some of the methods employed are as follows:
(1) Kundt’s tube method:

Ultrasonic waves can be detected with the help of Kundt’s tube. At the nodes, lycopodium
powder collects in the form of heaps. The average distance between two adjacent heaps is
equal to half the wavelength. This method cannot be used if the wavelength of ultrasonic
waves is very small i.e., less than few mm. In the case of a liquid medium instead of
lycopodium powder, powdered coke is used to detect the position of nodes.
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Fig-2.8
(2) Sensitive flame method:

A narrow sensitive flame is moved along the medium. At the positions of antinodes, the
flame is steady. At the positions of nodes, the flame flickers because there is a change in
pressure. In this way, positions of nodes and antinodes can be found out in the medium.
The average distance between the two adjacent nodes is equal to half the wavelength. If the
value of the frequency of ultrasonic wave is known, the velocity of ultrasonic wave
propagated through the medium can be calculated.
(3) Thermal detectors:

This is the most commonly used method of detection of ultrasonic waves. In this method, a
fine platinum wire is used. This wire is moved through the medium. At the position of
nodes, due to alternate compressions ad rarefactions, adiabatic changes in temperature
takes place. The resistance of the platinum wire changes with respect to time. This can be
detected with the help of Callendar and Griffith’s bridge arrangement. At the position of the
antinodes, the temperature remains constant. This will be indicated by the undisturbed
balanced position of the bridge.
(4) Quartz crystal method:

This method is based on the principle of Piezo-electric effect. When one pair of the
opposite faces of a quartz crystal is exposed to the ultrasonic waves, the other pairs of
opposite faces developed opposite charges. These charges are amplified and detected using
an electronic circuit.
Do you know how can you measure the velocity of ultrasonic waves in liquids??
Principle:
When ultrasonic waves are passed through a liquid, the density of the liquid varies layer by
layer due to the variation in pressure and hence the liquid will act as a diffraction grating,
so called acoustic grating. Under this condition, when a monochromatic source of light is
passed through the acoustical grating, the light gets diffracted. Then, by using the condition
for diffraction, the velocity of ultrasonic waves can be determined.
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Fig-2.9
Construction & Working:
The liquid is taken in a glass cell. The Piezo-electric crystal is fixed at one side of the wall
inside the cell and ultrasonic waves are generated. The waves travelling from the crystal get
reflected by the reflector placed at the opposite wall. The reflected waves get superimposed
with the incident waves producing longitudinal standing wave pattern called acoustic
grating.
If light from a laser source such as He-Ne or diode laser is allowed to pass through the
liquid in a direction perpendicular to the grating, diffraction takes place and one can
observe the higher order diffraction patterns on the screen. The angle between the direct ray
and the diffracted rays of different orders (θm) can be calculated easily.
According to the theory of diffraction,
d sin θm = m λ -----(1)
Where, m = 0, 1, 2, 3, … is the order of diffraction,

λ is the wavelength of light used and
d is the distance between two adjacent nodal or anti-nodal planes.
Knowing n, θm and λ, the value of d can be calculated from eqn. (1). If λa is the wavelength
of the ultrasonic waves through the medium, then
d = λa/2
or
λa = 2d -------(2)
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If the resonant frequency of the Piezo-electric oscillator isn, then the velocity of ultrasonic
wave is given by
v = n λa = 2nd .......(3)
This method is useful in measuring the velocity of ultrasonic waves through liquids and
gases at various temperatures. From these measurements, many parameters of the liquid
such as free volume, compressibility, etc., can be calculated.
LECTURE 12:
2.07: The chapter will remain incomplete without discussing the application part:
1. Medical applications
2. Engineering applications
Medical applications:
Ultrasonic waves have a large number of applications in the field of medicine. Some of the
important applications are as follows.
• Relieving neuralgic and rheumatic pain.

• Ultrasonic waves are used to give relieve pain due to arthritis.
• To restore contracted fingers.
• Proper treatment of broken teeth.
• Bloodless surgery
• Sterilization
• Ultrasonic waves are enemy of lower life.
• Detection of abnormal growth
• Ultrasound cavitation technology is used to restore body shape
• To remove kidney stone by Lithotripsy technique.
Two very important applications of ultrasonic waves in our daily life:
Sonograms:
A sonogram ,also known as an ultrasound in layman language,is acomputerised picture
taken by bouncing sound waves off organs and and other interior body parts.a transducer is
used to produce the ultrasonic wave here.
Sonar:
Sonar is simply making use of an echo. When an animal or machine makes a noise, it sends
sound waves into the environment around it. Those waves bounce off nearby objects, and
some of them reflect back to the object that made the noise. It's those reflected sound waves
that you hear when your voice echoes back to you from a canyon. Whales and specialized
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machines can use reflected waves to locate distant objects and sense their shape and
movement.
The range of low-frequency sonar is remarkable. Dolphins and whales can tell the
difference between objects as small as a BB pellet from 50 feet (15 meters) away, and they
use sonar much more than sight to find their food, families, and direction. The LFA sonar
being tested by the military can travel thousands of miles, and could cover 80% of the
earth's oceans by broadcasting from only four points. The frequency that both whales and
the military use falls between 100 and 500 Hz. Whales send signals out between 160 and
190 Db, the Navy has tested its sonar signals at levels up to 235 Db.
Applications of sonar
Fig-10
Applications in engineering
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing(Non Destructive Testing)
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and
make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation,
dimensional measurements, material characterization, and more. To illustrate the general
inspection principle, a typical pulse/echo inspection configuration as illustrated below will
be used.
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A typical UT inspection system consists of several functional units, such as the

pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices. A pulser/receiver is an electronic device
that can produce high voltage electrical pulses. Driven by the pulser, the transducer
generates high frequency ultrasonic energy. The sound energy is introduced and propagates
through the materials in the form of waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack)
in the wave path, part of the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The
reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical signal by the transducer and is
displayed on a screen. In the applet below, the reflected signal strength is displayed versus
the time from signal generation to when a echo was received. Signal travel time can be
directly related to the distance that the signal traveled. From the signal, information about
the reflector location, size, orientation and other features can sometimes be gained.
Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method. Some of the advantages
of ultrasonic inspection that are often cited include:
 It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.

 The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other
NDT methods.
 Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is used.
 It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating size and shape.
 Minimal part preparation is required.
 Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
 Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
 It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to flaw detection.
As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which include:
 Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.

 Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
 It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound energy
into the test specimen.
 Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or not
homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
 Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low sound
transmission and high signal noise.
 Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
 Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and the
characterization of flaws.
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The above introduction provides a simplified introduction to the NDT method of ultrasonic
testing. However, to effectively perform an inspection using ultrasonic, much more about
the method needs to be known. The following pages present information on the science
involved in ultrasonic inspection, the equipment that is commonly used, some of the
measurement techniques used, as well as other information.
Method of NDT
Fig-11
2.08: OUR NEXT APPLICATION IS CAVITATION
What is cavitation??
Cavitation is the formation of vapor cavities in a liquid – i.e. small liquid-free zones
("bubbles" or "voids") – that are the consequence of forces acting upon the liquid.
What is Acoustic cavitation??
Liquids exposed to high-intensity ultrasound can undergo acoustic cavitation. This

phenomenon can typically be seen as a cloud of bubbles forming in the vicinity of the
ultrasonic source (e.g., ultrasonic horn) and heard as an intense hissing noise. Cavitation is
the formation of low-pressure voids (a.k.a., vacuum bubbles or cavities) in the liquid,
which grow, briefly oscillate and then asymmetrically implode with great intensity.
Chemical and physical effects of cavitation
Violent bubble collapse during cavitation causes extreme local temperatures (up to ~
5,000 oC), heating/cooling rates (up to ~ 10 billion oC/sec) and pressures (up to ~ 1,000
atm), producing free radicals and giving rise to many chemical (sonochemical) reactions
(e.g., oxidation of pollutants, sterilization, polymerization, desulfurization, long-chain
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molecule degradation, etc.). At the same time, streaming currents, extremely fast micro-jets
(~ 500 m/sec) and enormous shear forces are generated in the cavitation filed, promoting a
wide range of physical (mechanical) effects (e.g., emulsification,
particle fragmentation, cell disruption, homogenization, dispersing, degassing, etc.).
Under the right conditions, cavitation events can even create light - this effect is
called sonoluminescense.
While purely chemical effects of ultrasonic cavitation intensify somewhat with frequency,
the mechanical action has a strong and opposite frequency dependence. Industrial
ultrasonic processors designed to introduce strong shear forces into the treated liquids,
therefore, tend to operate at the lower edge of the ultrasonic spectrum (~ 20 kHz).
An (oversimplified) explanation of the underlying mechanism
The underlying principle of the cavitation cloud formation can be explained using the
following example. Consider what happens to the liquid in a half-filled closed syringe after
a plunger is pulled back . Since the volume in the syringe increases, the liquid is stretched
and will rip apart at any imperfections it may contain (specks of dust, gas bubbles, etc.),
forming low-pressure voids. If the plunger is released, it returns to its original position on
its own, and the voids collapse. If the plunger is pushed back instead of just being released,
the intensity of the collapse increases. Note that during this "implosion", the walls of the
void bubbles travel much faster than the plunger does.
This effect requires the plunger to make a tight seal with the walls of the syringe. In an
open container, the liquid from outside of the area under the plunger would simply fill the
voids before they could be formed. In the case of an ultrasonic horn vibrating at 20,000
times per second , however, the liquid does not have time to flow into the area. This
situation, therefore, to some extent resembles that of the plunger in the syringe, and the
cavitation cloud (with much smaller vacuum bubbles) is formed.
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Fig-2.9
The cavitation bubble dynamics, schematically presented in the above figure, shows the
growth and asymmetric collapse of the low-pressure cavity, resulting in a micro-jet.
Bubble oscillation that takes place simultaneously with its growth is not shown. As the
bubble oscillates and grows, it draws the vapor of the surrounding liquid into its interior,
along with any dissolved gasses. This process is called "rectified diffusion". The pressure
in the bubble remains relatively low, which helps its final implosion. During the final stage
of implosion, the speed of the bubble's wall can exceed the speed of sound in its gaseous
interior. This creates a shock wave (similar to that created by an airplane when it
crosses the sound barrier) in the bubble, breaking it up into tiny fragments, which
subsequently become inception points for further cavitation events.
The last application we will discuss here is measurement of gauge by the application of
ultrasonic wave
2.09: ULTRASONIC WALL THICKNESS GAUGE MEASUREMENT
The use of Ultrasonic non-destructive testing (NDT) to check material properties such as
thickness measurement, is now extensively used in all facets of industry. The ability to
gauge thickness measurement without requiring access to both sides of the test piece, offers
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this technology a multitude of possible applications. Metals, plastics, ceramics, glass and
other materials can easily be measured by portable ultrasonic thickness gauges with a
common accuracy of.001”.
Ultrasonic thickness gauges measure the thickness of a part by measuring the time sound
travels from the transducer through the material to the back end of a part, and then
measures the time of reflection back to the transducer. The gauge then calculates the
thickness based on the velocity of sound through the material being tested.
A broad variety of piezoelectric transducers, operating at given frequencies are utilized to

generate sound when excited. Typically, a 5mhz frequency is standard on all Phase II
Ultrasonic Thickness Gauges. Optional transducers are always available for a myriad of
applications.
The direct contact method of pulse/echo type ultrasonic thickness gauges requires use of a
couplant. Propylene Glycol is common, but many other substances can be used.
Easy to configure and use, many gauges today have the ability to retain memory, output to
printers, PC’s, and handheld portable devices. With the combination of an easy menu driven
gauge and the data in memory, technician/operators have a world of technology at their
fingertips to obtain highly accurate and cost effective measurements for all types of
thickness applications.
Now the second segment of this chapter is all about infrasound
LECTURE 13:
2.09: INFRASONICS
Definition and introduction:
Infrasound is sound which extends below the range of human hearing (from 20 Hz down to
0.001 Hz), and it emits from many natural and man-made sources.
1. For example, some animals, such as whales, elephants and giraffes communicate using
infrasound over long distances.
2. Avalanches, volcanoes, earthquakes, ocean waves, waterfalls and meteors generate

infrasonic waves.
3. Some sources of man-made infrasound are nuclear and chemical explosions, engines,
machinery and airplanes (Figure 13).
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4. Infrasonic waves propagate with very little attenuation and hence are capable of
propagating over great distances.
5. The infrasound spectrum is filled with energetic sources and distinguishing between
these sources is important since their identification influences the decisions regarding the
response.
6. Figure 13 illustrates the many sources of infrasonic waves and figure 2 shows the
characteristics periods and wavelength scale for each type of infrasonic wave source.
Fig-2.10
How can we generate infrasonic wave
METHODS OF GENERATION
• Techniques used to generate infrasound signals can be differentiated from the

techniques used to generate acoustic waves in the audible spectrum by their method
of actuation or process employed to actually generate the wave.
• The average audio voice-coil speaker system cannot be used to generate infrasonic
waves because they are designed for sounds from the audible spectrum.
• Using these speaker systems to produce infrasonic waves would require their driver
to provide excessive power which may cause severe output waveform distortion or
damage the driver circuit or even the coils.
• Some manufacturers use a motor as a replacement of the voice coil to enhance low-
frequency audio performance.
• The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit used primarily as a timer, for pulse
generation, and for oscillator applications. It can be used to provide time delays, as
an oscillator.
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• For wave generation, the NE 555 IC can be used in Astable mode in order to obtain
fixed frequency square waves.
Fig-2.11
Circuit Diagram of a 555 timer configured in Astable mode
• In this mode, the 555 timer puts out a continuous stream of rectangular pulses
having a specified frequency. Resistor R1 is connected between VCC and the
discharge pin (pin 7) and resistance R2 between the discharge pin (pin 7), and the
trigger (pin 2) and threshold (pin 6) pins that share a common node.
• Hence the capacitor is charged through R1 and R2, and discharged only through R2,
since pin 7 has low impedance to ground during output low intervals of the cycle,
therefore discharging the capacitor in the Astable mode, the frequency of the pulse
stream depends on the values of R1, R2 and C; as seen from the formula below:
f=1/ (ln
(2)*C*(R1+2R2)) (1)
Where:
f = frequency in Hertz
C=capacitance in farads
R1, R2 = respective resistances in ohms
The
D= (R1+R2)/ (R1+2R2) (2)
Where:
D= Duty Cycle
R1, R2 = resistances in ohms
The output obtained when making use of the 555 circuit is a square wave of a particular
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duty cycle (which can be calculated using (2)) and frequency (1) as shown in the upper
waveform of figure 4.1.
• Another method of generation would involve the use of oscillators to produce a sine
wave output of the required frequency.
• In both analog and digital domains, a variety of approaches and techniques exist to
generate sine wave output.
• A phase shift oscillator using RC can be used in cost-sensitive applications.
• The transient state of the circuit is short and it has small starting and settling times.
• If low distortion and high precision is a requirement for the application, one can
also make use the Wein bridge oscillator circuit which is shown below.
Fig-15
• The Wein Bridge Oscillator is considered due to its stability and low
distortion as well as the ease with which it can be tuned.
• The circuit involves the use of operational amplifier with feedback to both inputs.
• The inverting input terminal is connected to the output providing negative feedback
via the resistor divider network of R2 (R1) and R4 (Rf) which allows us to control
the gain of the amplifier precisely (closed loop).
• The non-inverting input terminal is connected to the output to provide positive
feedback using the RC Wien Bridge.
• At the elected resonant frequency, (f) the voltages applied to the inverting and non-
inverting inputs will be equal and “in-phase” which leads to oscillations
• . For sustained oscillations, the gain of the amplifier must be selected to be greater
than or equal to three. The gain is set using resistances R1 and Rf. The frequency of
oscillations for the Wein bridge oscillator is given as:
f = 1/
(2*∏*R*C) (3)
Where:
f= frequency of output wave in Hertz R= Resistance in ohms
C= Capacitance in Farads
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The wave generated in such a manner is not of a sufficient decibel level (irrespective of
duty cycle) and must be amplified using a high fidelity audio amplifier
Fig-16
Waveforms of generated and amplified nfrasonic waves
Fig 2.11
Do you know???
It has been witnessed that in jungles, carnivorous beasts like tigers and lions are able
to generate sounds at infrasound levels. Herbivorous animals are able to sense these
signals especially when these carnivorous animals are too close to them. The generated
infrasound vibrations produce serious impact over these poor herbivorous animals –
they freeze with fear and are just not able to move an inch. This makes them like
sitting ducks and they are instantly grabbed by the deadly beasts.
Module 3: Display, Optical Instruments & optielctronic devices (10L)
3.01: Electron Optics: Operation and application of CRT, Physics of Liquid crystal
display (LCD), LED, Plasma display, Thin film transistor display. 4L
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3.02: Optical Instruments: Imaging-Types of imaging (PET, CT ), electron microscope.

3L
3.03: Radiation therapy-radio activity, doses, strength, applications. 3L
Reference & Text: Storage devices & Applications

1 Introduction to solid state physics-Kittel (TMH)
2. Solid State Physics- Ali Omar (Pearson Eduction)
3. Solid state physics- S. O. Pillai
4. Solid State Physics-A. J. Dekker (Prentice-Hall India)
5. Materials Science-Raghavan
Module Lecture No Topic Application Reference Book

Lecture
3 1 Operation and Working 1 Introduction

application of principal of CRT to solid state
CRT and their physics-Kittel
2. Solid State
advantages and
Physics- Ali
disadvantages Omar
3. Solid state
3 2 Plasma Display Working physics- S.
principal of O.Pillai
Plasma Display 4. Solid State
and their Physics-A.
advantages and J.Dekker
5. Materials
disadvantages
Science-
3 3 Physics of Liquid Idea about LCD Raghavan
crystal display and their
(LCD) applications.
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3 4 Thin Film Display devices

Transistor Liquid
Crystal Display
3 5 LED Display Display devices
3 6 What is PET? In medical

purpose
3 7 What is In medical
computed purpose
tomography?
3 8 What is Electron Optical Shatendra

Microscopy? Instruments Sharma
3 9 Radio activity
3 10 Medical palliative therapy

application of
Radio activity
LECTURE 14:
3.01: DISPLAY DEVICES
Present day computer technology is going to see major advances in sophisticated 3-D
modelling and image processing; Even graphics capabilities would be available to the
average user at a reasonable cost. To make this, an ultra high resolution monitors will be
required. There are different display systems like cathode ray tubes (CRTs), liquid crystal
displays (LCDs), plasma displays and light emitting diodes (LEDs) available in the present
technology, are discussed in order as given below.
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) : Principle of working
The cathode ray tube was the workhorse of text and video display technology for several
decades until being replaced by plasma, liquid crystal (LCD) and solid-state devices such
as LEDs. It is a specialized vacuum tube in which images are produced when an electron
beam strikes a phosphorescent surface. Most desktop computer displays the output in a
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standard composite video signal making use of CRTs. The working of CRT depends on
movement of an electron beam which moves back and forth across the back of the screen.
A cathode ray tube consists of several basic components- the cathode, control grid,
deflecting plates and screen. A simple CRT is shown below.
Cathode
The source of the electron beam is the electron gun located in the narrow, cylindrical neck
at the extreme rear of a CRT which produces a stream of electrons through thermionic
emission. Actually in an electron gun, a metal plate-the cathode , is heated by a small
filament wire connected to a low voltage. The conduction electrons are free to move in the
metal and as the metal is heated, some of them gain sufficient kinetic energy to escape from
the metal surface. If the hot metal plate is in a vacuum, then the evaporated electrons are
free to move which can be pulled away from the hot surface of the plate by putting a
positive electrode (anode) nearby. The accelerating anode has a small hole at its center and
is maintained at a high potential, which is of positive polarity. The order of this voltage is 1
to 20 kV, relative to the cathode. This potential difference creates an electric field directed
from right to left in the region between the accelerating anode and the cathode. Electrons
pass through the hole in the anode travel with constant horizontal velocity from the anode
to the fluorescent screen. The electrons strike the screen area and it glows brightly. Now
moving electron behaves like a tiny magnet, and it can interact with an external magnetic
field and is deflected by the field which when reversed, the beam of electrons is deflected
in the opposite direction.
The Control Grid
The control grid regulates the brightness of the spot on the screen. By controlling the
number of electrons the focusing anode ensures that electrons leaving the cathode in
slightly different directions are focused down to a narrow beam and all arrive at the same
spot on the screen. The whole assembly of cathode, control grid, focusing anode, and
accelerating electrode is called the electron gun.
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Fig 3.1
Deflecting Plates
Two pairs of deflecting plates allow the beam of electrons. An electric field between the
first pair of plates deflects the electrons horizontally, and an electric field between the
second pair deflects them vertically, the electrons travel in a straight line from the hole in
the accelerating anode to the centre of the screen when no deflecting fields are present,
where they produce a bright spot..
Screen
Usually, A CRT has a fluorescent screen to display the output signal whose operation is
very simple. Screen is coated with special type of fluorescent material. Fluorescent material
absorbs its energy and re-emits light in the form of photons when electron beam hits the
screen. When it happens some of them bounces back which are called secondary electrons.
They must be absorbed and returned back to cathode, if it is not so they accumulate near
screen and produce space charge or electrons cloud. To avoid this, aquadag coating which
is a water-based colloidal graphite coating, .is applied on funnel part of CRT from inside.
Now a cathode ray tube consists of one or more electron guns along with internal
electrostatic deflection plates and a phosphor target. CRT has three electron beams – one
for each of Red, Green, and Blue. Thus CRT produces the three colour images which are
primary colours. In every monitor
device the entire front area of the tube is scanned repetitively and systematically in a fixed
pattern called a raster. An image (raster) is displayed by scanning the electron beam across
the screen. The phosphor’s impacts begins to fade after a short time, the image needs to be
refreshed continuously.
Advantages of CRT
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The use of CRT technology has quickly declined since the introduction of LCDs but they
are still unbeatable in certain ways. CRT monitors are widely used in a number of electrical
devices such as computer screens, television sets, radar screens, and oscilloscopes used for
scientific and medical purposes. Brightness, contrast ratio, high image quality, speed and
resolution were the main high standard specifications that CRTs were satisfied. But the
display device in a CRT monitor is a cathode ray tube which is inherently bulky and
powerthirsty. But in the last two decades there was a tremendous growth in small portable
applications which required the necessary adjustment of the display technology to them.
The large depth of the CRTs was the main disadvantage for preventing them to be used in
these kinds of applications. Flat Panel Displays seem to be the most attractive solution to
this problem. The first successfully established flat panel technology was the plasma
displays, which demonstrated to be of larger size and higher image quality compared to the
CRT technology where plasma screens emit light by itself, rather than relying on a
backlight.
LECTURE 15:
3.01.1: Plasma Display : Its working
Two plates of glass are taken between which millions of tiny cells containing gases like
xenon andneon are filled. Electrodes are also placed inside the glass plates in such a way
that they are positioned in front and behind each cell. The rear glass plate has with it the
address electrodes in such a position that they sit behind the cells. The front glass plate has
with it the transparent display electrodes, which are surrounded on all sides by a
magnesium oxide layer and also a dielectric material. They are kept in front of the cell.
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Fig 3.2
Working of Plasma Display
When a voltage is applied, the electrodes get charged and cause the ionization of the gas
resulting in plasma. This also includes the collision between the ions and electrons resulting
in the emission of photon light. The state of ionization varies in accordance to colour
plasma and monochrome plasma. For monochrome plasma panel a low voltage is applied
between the electrodes – even after the ionizing voltage is removed. This type of panel has
inherent memory and does not use phosphors. To obtain colour plasma, the back of each
cell has to be coated with phosphor. The ultraviolet photons emitted by the plasma excite
these phosphors to give off coloured light in the visible range. The operation of each cell is
thus comparable to that of a fluorescent lamp. Every pixel is made up of three separate sub
pixel cells, each with different coloured phosphors-the red, green and blue. These colours
blend together to create the overall colour of the pixel.
Advantages of Plasma Display
 The slimmest of all displays
 Very high contrast ratios [1:2,000,000] and resolution
 Weighs less and less bulky than CTR’s.
 Can be placed even on walls.
 High clarity and hence better colour reproduction.
 Has a life span of about 100,000 hours.
Disadvantages of Plasma Display
 Cost is much higher compared to other displays.
 Energy consumption is more.
 Produces glares due to reflection.
 These displays are not available in smaller sizes than 32 inches
 plasma display generate large amount of heat.
The first colour plasma display was introduced in the year 1992 by the Fujitsu company.
This technology began to overrule the CRT revolution for the coming years. However, the
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problem with the integration of plasma displays in small portable applications still exists.
Finally, the inroad of the thin-film transistors liquid crystal displays (TFT-LCD), in late
1990’s, was a milestone in the displays industry and technology and the demand for Plasma
TV became lesser. As the same configuration for a lesser price is available, the sale of
Plasma TV became lesser.
LECTURE 16:
3.01.3: Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
Liquid Crystal Display is one of the most popular display technologies currently. LCD
monitors are lightweight, compact, occupy less space, consume low power and are
available in a reasonable price. Currently there are two types of LCD technology in use –
Active matrix LCD technology or TFT and Passive matrix technology. The TFT technology
is more reliable with better image quality while the passive matrix technology has a slower
response and gradually becoming outdated.
As the name indicates, liquid crystals are the key elements of the display screen. There is a
display controller in the monitor which receives the display signals from the video adaptor
in the motherboard. The display controller controls two things – the electric signals to the
liquid crystals and the back light. Structure of an LCD is shown below.
Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two
transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters. Actually LCD configured to place a liquid
crystal in the two parallel sheets of glass, behind which the Cold Cathode Fluorescent
Lamp is designed as a backlight.
The liquid crystals used in the LCD are Twisted Nemantic (TN),
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Fig 3.3
a type of liquid crystals that are twisted at 90o with the surface. In this state, crystals allow
the light to pass through the polarizer but on applying a voltage, they get untwisted and
block the light to passing through the polarizer. The display controller starts the backlight
that passes through the first piece of the glass. At the same time the display controller also
send the electrical currents to the liquid crystal molecules to align and allowing the varying
level of light to pass through the second piece of glass, forming the desired picture on the
screen. In colour monitors, each pixel is made of three liquid crystal cells fronted with red,
green and blue filters. The light passing through the filtered screen forms the colour what
are seen on the monitor. A wide range of colours are formed by varying the intensity of
coloured pixels.
LCD Monitor
Fig 3.4
An active matrix liquid crystal display (AMLCD) is a type of flat panel display, currently
the overwhelming choice of notebook computer manufacturers, due to light weight, very
good image quality, wide colour gamut, and response time. The most common example of
an active matrix display contains, besides the polarizing sheets and cells of liquid crystal, a
matrix of thin-film transistors (TFTs) to make a TFT LCD.
LECTURE 17:
3.01.4: Thin Film Transistor Liquid Crystal Display
At the beginning, when LCDs were used in calculators, watches and small sized displays,
direct and passive matrix addressing were the applicable addressing methods. As the size,
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resolution and information content of the displays were increased, the number of the pixels
array was, also, increased leading the existing addressing methods to become non-
applicable. A solution to this problem was proposed as a switch TFT which was added at
each pixel of the display matrix and in this way the pixels were controlled independently
with the use of the external driving voltages. This addressing method is called Active
Matrix and the displays that used this method are called Active Matrix Liquid Crystal
Displays (AMLCDs) or TFTs.
TFT Display
The display device in a TFT monitor is a flat array of Thin Film Transistors which makes
the TFT monitors much smaller in size and also less power consuming. Now a thin-film
transistor is a special kind of field-effect transistor made by depositing thin films of an
active semiconductor layer as well as the dielectric layer and metallic contacts over a
supporting (but non-conducting) substrate. A common substrate is glass, because the
primary application of TFTs is in liquid-crystal displays. This differs from the conventional
transistor, where the semiconductor material typically is the substrate, such as a silicon
wafer.
Manufacture
TFTs can be made using a wide variety of semiconductor materials. A common material is
silicon. The characteristics of a silicon-based TFT depend on the silicon's crystalline state,
the semiconductor layer can be either amorphous silicon, microcrystalline silicon, or it can
be annealed into polysilicon. Other materials which have been used as semiconductors in
TFTs include compound semiconductors such as cadmium selenide, or metal oxides such
as zinc oxide or hafnium oxide.
Applications
TFT technology can be used to give one of the clearest pictures of any flat screen display
and it uses much less electricity than older screens. TFT displays are very fragile because
they aremade as thin and light as possible but this means they need far less space. TFT-
LCDs were rapidly grown and dominated the displays industry, especially in small portable
applications. They can be used in an extremely wide range of our everyday life products,
like mobile phone applications, ATMs, PDAs, navigation systems, notebook PCs and home
applications, such as wide screen TVs. The most beneficial aspect of TFT technology is its
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use of a separate transistor for each pixel on the display. Because each transistor is small,
the amount of charge needed to control it is also small. This allows for very fast re-drawing
of the display.
LECTURE 18:
3.01.5: LED Display
LED display refers to the light emitting elements which is composed by the LEDs. LED ,
the light emitting diode array is directly used as pixels to emit red, green, and blue light,
thereby forming coloured images, such as traffic lights, outdoor big screen.
Now a light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that emits incoherent narrow-
spectrum of light when electrically biased in the forward direction of the p-n junction. This
effect is a form of electroluminescence. An LED is usually a small area source. The colour
of the emitted light depends on the composition and condition of the semi conducting
material used, and can be infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet. An LED can be used as a
regular household light source.
In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative

transition which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap
materials. The materials used for an
LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-
ultraviolet light. LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached
to the p-type layer deposited on its surface.
So LED consists of a chip of semi conducting material impregnated or doped with

impurities to create a p-n junction. When this p-n junction diode is forward biased, carriers
are injected across the junction to establish excess carriers above their thermal equilibrium
values. These excess carriers recombine and release e.m. energy. The wavelength of the
light emitted, and therefore its colour, depends on the band gap energy of the materials
forming the p-n junction.
In the case of GaAs, the energy appears in the form of infra red radiation. For the alloy
semi conductor, GaAs-P, the energy appears is in the form of visible light. the p-n junction
diode constructed with such semi conductors is called the light emitting diode (LED). Here
we get optical energy from the biasing electrical energy. The electrons that are injected into
the p side make a downward transition from conduction band to the valence band and
recombine with holes , emitting photon with energy hν = Eg , corresponding emission
wavelength is so given by λ = hc / Eg , the symbols have their usual meaning.
Diodes built with GaAs-P are most commercially available because of lower cost and easy
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fabrication. These LEDs are used for in the manufacture of signals and displays. The infra
red LED is a potential source for optical fibre communication.
The LED display should be precisely called as “LED-backlit LCD monitor”, the principle
of which is converting the traditional CCFL into LCD backlight source is into LED. So far,
the advantages of LED backlit display is in the theoretical stage, the display is not as good
as what the display market advocated . The main advantages are: energy saving, ultra-thin,
light leakage control is better.
LECTURE 19:
3.02: OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS: IMAGING-TYPES OF IMAGING (PET, CT ),

ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
3.02.1: What is PET?
Positron-emission tomography (PET) is a nuclear medicine functional imaging technique

that is used to observe metabolic processes in the body. The system detects pairs of gamma
rays emitted indirectly by a positron-emitting radionuclide (tracer), which is introduced
into the body on a biologically active molecule. Three-dimensional images of tracer
concentration within the body are then constructed by computer analysis. In modern PET-
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CT scanners, three-dimensional imaging is often accomplished with the aid of a CT X-ray

scan performed on the patient during the same session, in the same machine.
Fig 3.6
Application of PET :
Unlike CT or MRI, which look at anatomy or body form, PET studies metabolic activity
or body function. As a result, PET can detect tumors in lymph nodes, for example, even
before they enlarge and are detectable with MRI or CT. In PET imaging, the patient
receives a small intravenous injection of a radio-active medication (a form of sugar). The
images show areas of abnormal metabolism, helping to detect tumors and other diseases
that are often not detectable by other means. Although PET is most often used in the
detection and staging of cancer, there is increasing use of PET in the brain for the diagnosis
of certain dementias like Alzheimer's diseaseand in the heart for evaluation of coronary
artery disease.
LECTURE 20:
3.02.2: What is computed tomography?
It is a method of producing a three-dimensional image of an internal body structure by

computerized combination of two-dimensional cross-sectional X-ray images —
abbreviation CT— called also computed axial tomography, computerized axial
tomography, computerized tomography.
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Fig 3.7
Application of computed tomography:
Unlike other medical imaging techniques, such as conventional x-ray imaging

(radiography), CT enables direct imaging and differentiation of soft tissue structures, such
as liver, lung tissue, and fat. CT is especially useful in searching for large space occupying
lesions, tumors and metastasis and can not only reveal their presence, but also the size,
spatial location and extent of a tumor.
LECTURE 21:
3.02.3: What is Electron Microscopy?
The electron microscope is a type of microscope that uses a beam of electrons to create an
image of the specimen. It is capable of much higher magnifications and has a greater
resolving power than a light microscope, allowing it to see much smaller objects in finer
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detail. They are large, expensive pieces of equipment, generally standing alone in a small,
specially designed room and requiring trained personnel to operate them.
Types of Electron Microscopy:
i)Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
The scanning electron microscope used a technique known as raster scanning to produce
magnified images of the specimen. It directs a focused electron beam across the rectangular
area of the specimen, which loses energy as it passes through. The energy is converted into
other forms of energy, such as heat, light, secondary electrons, and backscattered electrons.
This information can be translated to view the topography and composition of the original
specimen.
ii)Reflection electron microscope (REM)
The reflection electron microscope involves the detection of a beam of elastically scattered
electrons that is reflected off of the specimen that is being examined. The reflection high-
energy electron diffraction (RHEED) and reflection high-energy loss spectroscopy
(RHELS) techniques are often used in this type of microscopy.
Disadvantages of Electron Microscopy:
Electron microscopes are very expensive to buy and maintain. They are dynamic rather
than static in their operation: requiring extremely stable high voltage supplies, extremely
stable currents to each electromagnetic coil/lens, continuously-pumped high/ultra-high
vacuum systems and a cooling water supply circulation through the lenses and pumps. As
they are very sensitive to vibration and external magnetic fields, microscopes aimed at
achieving high resolutions must be housed in buildings with special services.
A significant amount of training is required in order to operate an electron microscope

successfully and electron microscopy is considered a specialised skill.
The samples have to be viewed in a vacuum, as the molecules that make up air would
scatter the electrons. This means that the samples need to be specially prepared by
sometimes lengthy and difficult techniques to withstand the environment inside an electron
microscope. Recent advances have allowed some hydrated samples to be imaged using an
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environmental scanning electron microscope, but the applications for this type of imaging
are still limited.
LECTURE 22:
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3.03: RADIATION THERAPY
3.03.1: Radio activity
Defination
Radioactivity defined as the spontaneous emission of particles (alpha, beta, neutron) or

radiation (gamma, K capture), or both at the same time, from the decay of certain nuclides
that these particles are, due to an adjustment of their internal structure.
Radioactivity can be natural or artificial. In natural radioactivity, the substance already has
radioactivity in the natural state. In artificial radioactivity, the radioactivity has been
induced by irradiation.
Radioactive half life

The time required for one half the atoms of a given amount of a radioactive substance to
disintegrate. 2. Also called biological half-life. Pharmacology. the time required for the
activity of a substance taken into the body to lose one half its initial effectiveness.
Laws of Radioactive Disintegration
The number of atoms disintegrated per second at any instant is directly proportional to the
number of radioactive atoms actually present in the sample at that instant.
If No be the total number of atoms at t = 0, N be the total number of atoms left in the
sample at time t then dN/dt will be the rate of disintegration.
(-ve sign indicates that the number of atoms left undecayed decreases with time).
(l is decay constant)
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Units of Radio activity
The original unit for measuring the amount of radioactivity was the curie (Ci)–first defined
to correspond to one gram of radium-226 and more recently defined as: 1curie =
3.7x1010 radioactive decays per second [exactly].
1 becquerel = 1 radioactive decay per second = 2.703x10-11 Ci.
LECTURE 23:
Medical application of Radio activity
There are many practical applications to the use of radioactivity/radiation. Radioactive

sources are used to study living organisms, to diagnose and treat diseases, to sterilize
medical instruments and food, to produce energy for heat and electric power, and to
monitor various steps in all types of industrial processes.
Tracers
Tracers are a common application of radioisotopes. A tracer is a radioactive element whose

pathway through which a chemical reaction can be followed. Tracers are commonly used in
the medical field and in the study of plants and animals.
Nuclear reactors
Nuclear reactors are devices that control fission reactions producing new substances from
the fission product and energy. Recall our discussion earlier about the fission process in the
making of a radioisotope. Nuclear power stations use uranium in fission reactions as a fuel
to produce energy. Steam is generated by the heat released during the fission process. It is
this steam that turns a turbine to produce electric energy.
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Non Medical application of Radio activity
Carbon dating is used to determine the age of biological artifacts up to 50,000 years old.
This technique is widely used on recent artifacts, but educators and students alike should
note that this technique will not work on older fossils (like those of the dinosaurs alleged to
be millions of years old). This technique is not restricted to bones; it can also be used on
cloth, wood and plant fibers. Carbon-14 dating has been used successfully on the Dead Sea
Scrolls, Minoan ruins and tombs of the pharaohs among other things.
Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon. The half-life of carbon-14 is approximately

5,730 years. The short half-life of carbon-14 means it cannot be used to date fossils that
are allegedly extremely old, e.g. dinosaurs the evolution alleges lived millions of years ago.
Levels of carbon-14 become difficult to measure and compare after about 50,000 years
(between 8 and 9 half lives; where 1% of the original carbon-14 would remain undecayed).
Radiation Therapy Dosage
Standard Dose
Gray (Gy) is the unit used to measure the total about of radiation the patient is exposed to.
This can also be recorded as centigray (cGy), which is 0.01 of a single gray unit.
Adjuvant therapy doses typically range from 45 to 60 Gy for cancer of the breast, head and
neck, which is divided into multiple smaller doses given over a period of one to two
months. The specific dose for each patient depends on the location and severity of the
tumor and is at the discretion of the oncologist responsible for therapeutic decisions.
application of Radiation therapy

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Radiation therapy can be used as the sole treatment or as part of a

multimodality treatment course to result in local or locoregional tumor control, or as
palliative therapy for pain control.
MODULE 4: QUANTUM MECHANICS-II (7L)
Formulation of quantum mechanics and Basic postulates- superposition principle,

orthogonality of wave function, expectation value; operator correspondence, Commutator.
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Measurements in Quantum Mechanics-Eigen value, Eigen function, Schrödinger’s equation

as energy eigen value equation. 4L
Application of Schrödinger equation – Particle in an infinite square well potential (1-D and
3-D potential well; Discussion on degenerate levels), 1D finite barrier problem and concept
of quantum tunnelling (solve only E<V0). 3L
Lecture Plan: Quantum Mechanics-II
Module Lecture Topic Application Reference Book

No No
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3 1 Introductory Lecture, Short recap of the topics of Recap 1. Introduction to Quantum

Quantum physics studied in 1st year and their Mechanics-S. N. Ghoshal
connection to the 2nd year Quantum Mechanics part. (Calcutta Book House)
3 1 Re-discussion on the basic parameter of Quantum Mathematical 2. Quantum Mechanics-

Mechanics. Wave function, Concept of probability formulation of Q. Bagde Singh (S. Chand
amplitude & probability density. Normalization Mech. Publishers)
condition & Probability interpretation.
3 2 Operators in Quantum Mechanics, need of Measurement of

introducing concepts of operators. Operator algebra, physical parameters in
Commutator bracket, Commutation relation. Q. Mech
3 3 Physical significance of various commutation Heisenberg’s

relations, examples of commutation relations of few uncertainty relations
known operators. and its applications
3 4 Operator correspondence, Eigen value of any Extracting information

operator, Expectation value of any operator. from wave function
Measurement of
3 4 Formulation and basic postulates of Qunatum Axioms of Q.Mech

Mechanics. Time dependent Schrӧdinger equation.
3 5 Time independent Schrӧdinger equation as the Avenue of getting

energy eigen value equation. wave function (state of
a system)
3 5 Applications of Schrӧdinger equation, particle in 1D Somefeld’s free

potential well. electron theory
3 6 Particle in 3D box. Degeneracy and degenerate Applications to

states. formation of energy
bands
3 6 Finite barrier problem-example of junction diode Connecting the

problem with electron
crossing voltage barrier
3 7 Solving the problem for E<V0, quantum tunneling Tunnel diode

and applictions
Text Book: Principles of Engineering Physics Vol 1 and Vol 2; by Md. N. Khan and S.
Panigrahi, Pub: Cambridge Univ. press
3.01: Quantum Mechanics-II

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‘Truth is stranger than fiction, but it is because fiction is obliged to stick to possibilities;
truth isn’t.’ - Mark Twain
LECTURE 24:
3.01.01: FORMULATION OF QUANTUM MECHANICS AND BASIC

POSTULATES:
Every physical theory is formulated in terms of mathematical objects. It is thus necessary to

establish a set of rules to map physical concepts and objects into mathematical objects that
we use to represent them. Sometimes this mapping is evident, as in classical mechanics,
while for other theories, such as quantum mechanics, the mathematical objects are not
intuitive. In the same way as classical mechanics is founded on Newton’s laws or
electrodynamics on the Maxwell-Boltzmann equations, quantum mechanics is also based
on some fundamental laws, which are called the postulates or axioms of quantum
mechanics.
We want in particular to develop a mathematical model for the dynamics of closed quantum
systems (a closed system any system that is isolated, thus not exchanging any input or
output and not interacting with any other system. An open system instead interacts e.g.,
with an external environment): therefore we are interested in defining
states – observables – measurements – evolution.
Some subtleties will arise since we are trying to define measurement in a closed system,
when the measuring person is instead outside the system itself. A more complete picture,
that can explain some of the confusion arising from the measurement process, is possible,
but we will not study it in this course. We are interested in giving a description of physical
phenomena and in particular in how they emerge during an experiment.
Experiments – A physical experiment can be divided into two steps: preparation and
measurement.
In classical mechanics (CM): - the first step determines the possible outcomes of the
experiment, - while the measurement retrieves the value of the outcome.
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In quantum mechanics (QM) the situation is slightly different:
- the first step (preparation) determines the probabilities of the various possible outcomes,
- the second step (measurement) retrieve the value of a particular outcome, in a statistic
manner.
This separation of the experiment in two steps is reflected into the two types of operators
that we find in QM.
- The first step corresponds to the concept of a state of the system,
- while the second step corresponds to observables.
In CM the state of a system is described by a set of properties. For example, if we

consider a ball, we can define its state by giving its position, momentum, energy, angular
momentum (if for example the ball is spinning), its temperature etc. We can then perform a
measurement on this ball, for example measuring its position. This will give us one value
for one possible observable (the position). We can express this process in mathematical
terms. The state of the system is defined by a set of values: {rr, r L, T, . . . p, E, }. r All of
these values (and there might be of course more that I haven’t written down) are needed to
fully describe the state of the ball. Performing a measurement of the position, will retrieve
the values {rx, ry, rz} = r (the same values that describe the state).
If we now consider a nucleus, we can as well give a description of its state. In quantum
mechanics, a complete description of the state of a quantum object (or system) is given
mathematically by the state vector |ψ) (or wavefunction ψ(r)). The situation is however
different than in classical mechanics.
The state vector is no longer a collection of values for different properties of the system.
The state gives instead a complete description of the set of probabilities for all the physical
properties (or observables). All the information is contained in the state, irrespectively on
how I got the state, of its previous history
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Quantum physicists are interested in all kinds of physical systems (photons, conduction
electrons in metals and semiconductors, atoms, etc.). State of these rather diverse systems
are represented by the same type of functions è STATE FUNCTIONS.
All of these considerations are made more formal in the axioms of quantum
mechanics that also indicate the mathematical formalism to be used.
i) The properties of a quantum system are completely defined by specification of its state
vector |ψ) (or wavefunction ψ(r)). The state vector is an element of a complex Hilbert space
H called the space of states.
ii) If |ψ) [or wavefunction ψ(r))] is the vector representing the state of a system and if |ϕ)
[or wavefunction φ(r))] represents another physical state, there exists a probability p(|ψ), |
ϕ)) of finding |ψ) in state |ϕ), which is given by the squared modulus of the inner product
on H: p(|ψ), |ϕ)) = |(ψ|ϕ)|2 (Born Rule).
iii) With every physical property A (energy, position, momentum, angular momentum, ...)
there exists an associated linear, Hermitian operator A (usually called observable), which
acts in the space of states H. The eigenvalues of the operator are the possible values of the
physical properties.[ ˆ. i.e. for an eigenfunction of A, ψ, A ψ = a ψ.]. Where ‘a’ is the eigen
value of the operator A.
iv) If A is an observable with eigenvalues an and eigenvectors |n) [such that the eigenvalue
equation is A |n) = an |n)], given a system in the state |ψ), the probability of obtaining an as
the outcome of the measurement of A is p(an) = |(n|ψ)|2. After the measurement the system
is left in the state projected on the subspace of the eigenvalue an (Wave function collapse).
(v) For a system in a state described by a normalized wave function, the average or
expectation value of the observable corresponding to A is given by:

ˆ =
A   ( x)Aˆ  ( x)dx
-
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Expectation value in general:
  ( x) Aˆ  ( x)dx
 a = -

-
  ( x) ( x)dx
=  ˆ  ( x ) dx
 ( x)A (if normalized)
-
The fourth postulates states what will be measured when large number of identical systems
are interrogated one time. Only after large number of measurements will it converge to
<a>.
In QM, the act of the measurement causes the system to “collapse” into a single eigenstate
and in the absence of an external perturbation it will remain in that eigenstate.
vi) The evolution of a closed system is unitary (reversible). The evolution is given by the
time-dependent Schrödinger equation,
 2   2ψ  
-  2  + V  x  ψ = -i ψ
2m  x  t
3.01.02: Illustrations of postulate 1:
 Every physically-realizable state of the system is described in quantum mechanics

by a state function  that contains all accessible physical information about the
system in that state.
– Physically realizable states è states that can be studied in laboratory
– Accesible information è the information we can extract from the
wavefunction
– State function è function of position, momentum, energy that is spatially
localized.
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If 1 and 2 represent two physically-realizable states of the system, then the linear
combination is  = C1 1 + C 2 2
where c1 and c2 are arbitrary complex constants, represents a third physically realizable
state of the system. Above relation is known as superposition principle and is applied in
the study of quantum computation.
According to the second postulate of quantum mechanics, the integrated probability density
can be interpreted as a probability that in a position measurement at time t, we will find the
particle anywhere in space.
Therefore, the normalization condition for the wavefunction is:
2 *
 PdV =  ( x, y, z ) dV =   ( x, y, z ) ( x, y, z )dV = 1
Limitations on the wavefunction:
– Only normalizable functions can represent a quantum state and these are
called physically admissible functions.
– State function must be continuous and single valued function.
– State function must be a smoothly-varying function (continuous derivative).
All first-order derivatives of the wave function must be continuous.
Following the same reasoning as in condition 3, a discontinuous first
derivative would imply an infinite second derivative, and since the energy of
the system is found using the second derivative, a discontinuous first
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derivative would imply an infinite energy, which again is not physically

realistic.
– The wave function must be square-integrable. In other words, the integral of
|Ψ|2 over all space must be finite.
Acceptable or Not ?? (little task to do)
Acceptable or Not ?? (little task to do)
(i )e - x (0,  )
(ii )e - x ( -,  )
sin x
(iii )
x
(iv ) sin -1 x
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Acceptable or not acceptable (few more examples) ??
Exp(x):
Sinx/x:
Sin-1x
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LECTURE 25:
To every physical property, observable in classical mechanics, there corresponds a

linear, Hermitian operator in quantum mechanics.
Operator: A rule that transforms a given function into another function
A little task to do:
Example. Apply the following operators on the given functions:
• (a) Operator d/dx and function x2.

• (b) Operator d2/dx2 and function 4x2.
• (c) Operator (∂/∂y)x and function xy2.
• (d) Operator −iћd/dx and function exp(−ikx).
• (e) Operator −ћ2d2/dx2 and function exp(−ikx).
Hermitian Operator: Hermitian operators have two properties that forms the basis of
quantum mechanics
(i) Eigen value of a Hermitian operator are real.

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(ii) Eigenfunctions of Hermitian operators are orthogonal to each other or can be

made orthogonal by taking linear combinations of them.
A Hermitian ˆ satisfies
operatorA :
f Âgdx =  g(Âf)
* *
dx ; if f and g are well behaved
A little task to do:
Check following are Hermitian operator or not ??
  2
(i ) (ii ) - i (iii ) (iv) x
x x x 2
Linear Operator:
• A linear operator has the following properties
  
A  f1 + f 2  = A f1 + A f 2
 
A  cf  = c A f
Examples of linear operators:
Derivative
integrals
log
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square root
Normalized wave function: N 2  * dx = 1
Orthogonal wave functions:
  d = 0
*
Orthonormal set wave functions:
 
-
n dx =  mn = 1 , if m=n
m
=0 , if m ≠ n
Correspondence principle 1913 (Niels Henrik David Bohr Danish ):

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For every physical quantity one can define an operator. The definition uses formulae
from classical physics replacing quantities involved by the corresponding operators
Quantum Mechanical Position and Momentum Operators
1. Operator for position in the x-direction is just multiplication by x: xˆ ψ = xψ
 d
2. Operator for linear momentum in the x-direction: pˆ x =  
 i  dx
Þ pˆ x ψ = p x ψ
 dψ
 = px ψ
i dx
(solve first order differential equation Þ  , px).
3. Constructing Kinetic and Potential Energy QM Operators
1. Write down classical expression in terms of position and momentum.
2. Introduce QM operators for position and momentum.
Examples
1. Kinetic Energy Operator in 1-D: T̂x
ˆT = pˆ x = -   d 
2 2 2
2m  dx 2 
x
2m
2. KE Operator in 3-D: T̂
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ˆ2
ˆ = p  2   2 2  2  2 2
T =- + + =- 
2m 2m  x 2 y 2 z 2  2m
 
3. Potential Energy Operator V̂ (a function of position)
\ PE operator corresponds to multiplication by V(x), V(x,y,z) etc.
Overall list of Quantum Mechanical Operators:
Observable Classical symbol Quantum Operation

operator
Position r r̂ Multiply by r
Momentum p p̂   
- i (iˆ + ˆj + kˆ )
x y z
Kinetic energy T Tˆ 2 2 2 2
- ( 2 + 2 + 2)
2m x y z
Potential energy V(r) Vˆ (r) Multiplying by V(r)
Total energy E H 2 2 2 2
- ( 2 + 2 + 2)+
2m x y z
V(r)
Angular lx  
lˆx - i ( y -z )
z y
momentum
ly
lˆy  
- i ( z -x )
x z
lz
lˆz
 
- i ( x - y )
y x
3.01.05: Concept of Measurement

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 In any measurement of the observable associated with the operator , the only
values that will ever be observed are the eigenvalues ‘a’ which satisfy the
eigenvalue equation:
For, An operator O is “the recipe to transform Y into Y’ ”
We write: O Y = Y’
If O Y = nY (n is a number, meaning that O does not modify Y, just a scaling
factor), we say that Y is an eigenfunction of O and n is the eigenvalue.
 This is the postulate that the values of dynamical variables are quantized in
quantum mechanics.
Eigen Function and Eigen value:
 
A f ( x ) = kf ( x ); f(x) is eigenfunction of A with eigen value k
Idea of Eigenvalue equation
(Operator)(function) = (constant factor)*(same function)
Example: eikx is an eigenfunction of a operator x  

^P = -ih
x
f(x) = eikx

- i exp(ikx) = (i )(ik ) exp(ikx)
x
pf ( x) = kf ( x)
Thus eikx is an eigenfunction of momentum operator.

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LECTURE 26:
Commutation relation and its Significance:
Consider any two operators, the eigenvalues of two commuting operators can be computed
by using the common set of eigenfunctions.
[ A, B ] = AB - BA; if
= 0, A & B commute with each other
and if
 0, A & B do not commute with each other
Physical significance:
If the two operators commute, then it is possible to measure the simultaneously the precise
value of both the physical quantities for which the operators stand for.
Small task to do: Find commutator of the operators x and p x . Is it expected to be a

non-zero or zero quantity?
Hint: Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Expectation value in general:
  ( x) A ( x)dx
 a = -

-
  ( x) ( x)dx
=   ( x ) A ( x ) dx (if normalized)
-
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The fourth postulates states what will be measured when large number of identical systems
are interrogated one time. Only after large number of measurements will it converge to
<a>.
In QM, the act of the measurement causes the system to “collapse” into a single eigenstate
and in the absence of an external perturbation it will remain in that eigenstate.
Schrödinger Representation – Schrödinger Equation
• The central equation in Quantum Mechanics.

• Observable = total energy of system.
•
Schrödinger Equation:
ˆ ψ = Eψ
H Ĥis Hamiltonian Operator
where E Total Energy; and E = T + V.
• Schrödinger Equation can be set up for any physical system.

• The form of Ĥ depends on the system.
• Solve Schrödinger Equation Þ  and corresponding E.
3.01.08: Getting the Time Independent Schrödinger Equation

i  ( x, y , z , t ) = H ( x, y , z , t ) ( x, y, z , t )
t
LECTURE 27:
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Try solution
 (x, y, z, t) =  (x, y, z)F(t)
product of spatial function and time function
Then

i  ( x, y , z ) F (t ) = H ( x, y , z ) ( x, y , z ) F (t )
t
 
i  ( x, y , z ) F (t ) = F (t ) H ( x, y, z ) ( x, y, z )
t t
divide through by
F = F
d
i F (t )
dt H ( x, y , z ) ( x, y , z )
=
F (t )  ( x, y , z )
depends only on t depends only on x, y, z
Can only be true for any x, y, z, t if both sides equal a constant. Changing t on the left
doesn’t change the value on the right. Changing x, y, z on right doesn’t change value on left
dF
i
dt = E = H
F 
Both sides equal a constant, E.

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H ( x, y , z ) ( x, y, z ) = E ( x, y , z )
LECTURE 28:
3.01.09:: Application of Schrödinger equation –
1. Particle Moving in 1-D Infinite Potential Well

ˆψ=T
H ˆψ+V
ˆ ψ = Eψ
 2   2ψ 
-   + V  x  ψ = Eψ
2m  x 2 
• The form of V(x) depends on the physical situation:

• Free particle V(x) = 0 for all x.
• Harmonic oscillator V(x) = ½kx2
3.01.10::. Particle in a 1-D infinite potential well:
System
– Particle of mass m in 1-D box of length L.

– Position x = 0L.
– Particle cannot escape from box as PE V(x)=  for x = 0, L (walls).
– PE inside box: V(x)= 0 for 0< x < L.
– V = 0 inside box).
–
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1-D Schrödinger Eqn. as V = 0 inside box).
 2   2ψ 
-   = Eψ
2m  x 2 
• This is a second order differential equation – with general solutions of the form:
•  = A sin kx + B cos kx
2mE
Where k = 2
2
•

i.e
2
 2kn
= En
2m
Between the kinetic energy Eigen value En and the wave number kn ( and the momentum pn
= ikn).
For a free particle there is no restriction on the possible energies,
En can be any positive number.
The solution to the eigenvalue problem is then the eigenfunction
•  = A sin knx + B cos knx
We see that there are two independent functions for each eigen value E n. Also there are two
distinct momentum Eigen values ±kn for each energy Eigen value, which correspond to two
different directions of propagation of the wave
ᶲ≡ᴪ [phi is equivalent to si]
Check the boundary condition
 ( o) = 0 = B
 ( a) = 0 = A sin ka
Hence we have the trivial solution unless

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ka = n
2mE
a = n
2
2
n 2 
En = ( )
a 2m
Hence E is developed an index and energy quantization came out.Note that k also has an
index:
Kn=n∏ The wave number is also quantized
nx
n = A sin
a
Now the energy level is rised rapidly they go as on n 2.Note we are dealing with a
homogeneous differ hence isn’t fixed yet.This can be done using the normalization
condition:
 a
n x
 n =  A 2 sin 2 (
2
) dx
- 0
a
a
A2 =1
2
Hence
2
A=
a
Notice that the normalized constant is independent of the particular quantum number n.
Therefore
2 n x n 2 2 2
 n ( x) = sin( ) , En =
a a 2ma 2
Since the energy increases with decreasing a it means that quantum mechanics opposes this
motion.
This can be thought of as a quantum mechanical pressure on the outside of the box.
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Note that n can equal any integer n = 1, 2, ... ( Infinity many bound states)
Note the dimensions of φ are 1/ √ L
And the dimensions of the P (the probability density) is 1/L. The energy levels
as well as the corresponding wavefunctions are shown in figure 1.
Typically there are as many quantum numbers as dimensions of the problem.
In any problem as h → 0 we recover classical physics. E
quivalently we can recover classical physics as E → ∞.

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In our problem as E becomes large we should recover the classical distribution. The
classical distribution is given by
P(x)=1/a 0<x<a
=0 x≤0, x≥a
LECTURE 29:
3.01.11::. Particle in a 3-D box
We consider a particle in a box with lengths a, b, and c which is centered
with one corner at the origin. The potential is then given by
V(x,y,z)=0, 0<x<a
=0, 0<y<b
=0, 0<y<c
=∞ elsewhere
We know that the particle outside the box must be zero. Within the box the
potential is zero and the Schrödinger equation is given as
2  2 2 2  2 2
-  2 + +  ( x, y, z ) = -   ( x , y , z ) = E ( x , y , z )
2m  x y 2 z 2  2m
To solve this equation we assume that the wave function can be written as
Lets differentiate this function twice with respect to x, y, z

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 2 ( x, y , z )
= f " ( x ) g ( y ) h( z )
x 2
 2 ( x, y , z )
= f ( x) g " ( y )h( z )
y 2
Substituting this back into the Schrödinger equation gives
2 2 2
- f " ( x ) g ( y )h( z ) - f ( x ) g " ( y ) h( z ) - f ( x) g
2m 2m 2m
Dividing by the wave function we get,
 2 f " ( x)  2 g"( y )  2 h" ( z )

- - - -E =0
2mf ( x ) 2 mg ( y ) 2 mh( z )
 2 f "( x)  2 g"( y )  2 h" ( z )

- = EX = + + E
2 mf ( x ) 2 mg ( y ) 2 mh ( z )
Since the the two sides of the equations depend only different variables they
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can only be true if Ex is a constant. Thus, we get with a similar argument
for y and z
 2 f " ( x)
E x = -
2 mf ( x)
 2 g"( y )
E y = -
2 mg ( y )
 2 h" ( z )
E z = -
2 mh( z )
The total energy is then given by

E = Ex + E y + Ez
We have managed to use separation of variable to transform the 3D partial
differential equation into three 1D differential equations given
d 2 f ( x ) 2m
+ 2 E X f ( x) = 0
dx 2 
2
d g ( y ) 2m
+ 2 E y g ( y) = 0
dy 2 
d 2 h( z ) 2 m
+ 2 EZ H ( z) = 0
dz 2 
We know the solution to these equations of the 1D box, and the wave function
in the x direction is
n x
1
2
f ( x ) = ( ) 2 sin( x )
a a
and the energy

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2
nx h 2
Ex = , n x = 1,2,3
8ma 2
Similar the solutions in the y direction is,
1
2 2 n y y
g ( y ) = ( ) sin( )
a b
2
ny h2
EY = , n y = 1,2,3
8mb 2
and z direction
n z
1
2
h( z ) = ( ) 2 sin( z )
c c
2 2
n h
E z = z 2 , n z = 1,2,3
8mz
Thus the solution to the Schrodinger equation for the particle in a 3D box is
by an energy
2 2
h 2 nx ny n
E= ( 2 + 2 + 2z )
8m a b c
and a wave function
8 2
1
n x n y y n z
 ( x, y , z ) = ( ) sin( x ) sin( ) sin( z )
abc a b c
We also know that the wave function is normalized

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 2   
  ( x, y , z )     ( x, y , z )
2
d = dxdydz
- - - -
a b c
 dx  g ( y ) dy  h( z )
2 2 2
= f ( x) dz = 1
0 0 0
Now let’s consider a cube, i.e. a = b = c. The energy of a particle in cubic
box becomes
2 2 2
h 2 nx n y n z h2 2
E= ( 2 + 2 + 2 )= 2
(nx + n 2 y + n 2 z )
8m a a a 8ma
Ask for a volunteer to calculate the energy of quantum state (211), (121), (112).
This shows that the energy is the same for these three states due to symmetry,
we call this that the energy is degenerate. The degree of degeneracy is
the number of states with the same energy.
LECTURE 30:
3.01.12::.1D finite barrier problem and concept of quantum tunneling (E<V0 )
 Consider a particle of energy E approaching a potential barrier of height V0 and the

potential everywhere else is zero.
 We will first consider the case when the energy is greater than the potential barrier.
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2 ME
k I = k III =

 In regions I and III the wave numbers are:

In the barrier region we have
2m( E - V0 )
k II = where V=V0

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Reflection and Transmission
 The wave function will consist of an incident wave, a reflected wave, and a
transmitted wave.
 The potentials and the Schrödinger wave equation for the three regions are as
follows:
d 2 I 2m
Region I(x<0) V=0 + E I = 0
dx 2  2
d 2 II 2m
Region II(0<x<L) V=V0 + 2 ( E - V0 ) II = 0
dx 2 
d 2 III 2m
Region III (x>L) V=0 + 2 E III = 0
dx 2 
 The corresponding solutions are:
 I = Ae ik x + Be - ik x
I I
Region I(x<0)
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Region II(0<x<L)  II = Ce ik II x + De -ik II x
Region III (x>L)  III = Fe ikIII x + Ge -ikIII x
 As the wave moves from left to right, we can simplify the wave functions to:
Probability of Reflection and Transmission:
 The probability of the particles being reflected R or transmitted T is:
 The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons depends on the value of the
light frequency f and not on the intensity.
 Because the particles must be either reflected or transmitted we have: R + T = 1.

By applying the boundary conditions x → ±∞, x = 0, and x = L, we arrive at the
transmission probability
V 2 0 sin 2 ( k II L) -1
T = [1 + ]
4 E ( E - V0 )
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Notice that there is a situation in which the transmission probability is 1.
3.01.13: Tunneling:
 Now we consider the situation where classically the particle does not have enough
energy to surmount the potential barrier, E < V0.
 The quantum mechanical result, however, is one of the most remarkable features of
modern physics, and there is ample experimental proof of its existence. There is a
small, but finite, probability that the particle can penetrate the barrier and even
emerge on the other side.
 The wave function in region II becomes
2m(V0 - E )
k= Where  II = Ce kx + De - kx

 The transmission probability that describes the phenomenon of tunneling is
V 2 0 sinh 2 (kL) -1
T = [1 + ]
4 E (V0 - E )
Uncertainty Explanation:
 Consider when κL >> 1 then the transmission probability becomes:

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E E - 2 kL
T = 16 (1 - )e
V0 V0
 This violation allowed by the uncertainty principle is equal to the negative kinetic
energy required! The particle is allowed by quantum mechanics and the uncertainty
principle to penetrate into a classically forbidden region. The minimum such kinetic
energy is:
( p) 2  2 k 2
K min = = = V0 - E
2m 2m
3.01.14::. TUNNEL DIODE (Esaki Diode)
 It was introduced by Leo Esaki in 1958.

 Heavily-doped p-n junction
 Impurity concentration is 1 part in 10^3 as compared to 1 part in 10^8 in p-n
junction diode
 Width of the depletion layer is very small
(about 100 A).
 It is generally made up of Ge and GaAs.
 It shows tunneling phenomenon.
 Circuit symbol of tunnel diode is :
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WHAT IS TUNNELING
 Classically, carrier must have energy at least equal to potential-barrier height to

cross the junction .
 But according to Quantum mechanics there is finite probability that it can penetrate
through the barrier for a thin width.
 This phenomenon is
called tunneling and hence the Esaki Diodeis know asTunnel Diode.
CHARACTERISTIC OF TUNNEL DIODE

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ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM

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AT ZERO BIAS
Simplified energy-band diagram and I-V characteristics of the tunnel diode at zero
bias.
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AT SMALL FORWARD VOLTAGE
Simplified energy-band diagram and I-V characteristics of the tunnel diode at a slight
forward bias.
AT MAXIMUM TUNNELING CURENT

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AT DECREASING CURRENT REGION
Simplified energy-band diagram and I-V characteristics of the tunnel diode at a

higher forward bias producing less tunneling current
AT HIGHER FORWARD VOLTAGE

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AT REVERSE BIAS VOLTAGE

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TUNNEL DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
• This is the equivalent circuit of tunnel diode when biased in negative

resistance region.
• At higher frequencies the series R and L can be ignored.
• Hence equivalent circuit can be reduced to parallel combination of junction

capacitance and negative resistance.
Optical analogy
If light passing through a glass prism reflects from an internal surface with an angle greater
than the critical angle, total internal reflection occurs. However, the electromagnetic field is
not exactly zero just outside the prism. If we bring another prism very close to the first one,
experiments show that the electromagnetic wave (light) appears in the second prism The
situation is analogous to the tunneling described here. This effect was observed by Newton
and can be demonstrated with two prisms and a laser. The intensity of the second light
beam decreases exponentially as the distance between the two prisms increases.
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Potential Well:
 Consider a particle passing through a potential well region rather than through a
potential barrier.
 Classically, the particle would speed up passing the well region, because K = mv2 / 2
= E + V0.
According to quantum mechanics, reflection and transmission may occur,
but the wavelength inside the potential well is smaller than outside. When the width of the
potential well is precisely equal to half-integral or integral units of the wavelength, the
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reflected waves may be out of phase or in phase with the original wave, and cancellations
or resonances may occur. The reflection/cancellation effects can lead to almost pure
transmission or pure reflection for certain wavelengths. For example, at the second
boundary (x = L) for a wave passing to the right, the wave may reflect and be out of phase
with the incident wave. The effect would be a cancellation inside the well.
 The phenomenon of tunneling explains the alpha-particle decay of heavy,

radioactive nuclei.
 Inside the nucleus, an alpha particle feels the strong, short-range attractive nuclear
force as well as the repulsive Coulomb force.
 The nuclear force dominates inside the nuclear radius where the potential is
approximately a square well.
 The Coulomb force dominates
outside the nuclear radius.
 The potential barrier at the nuclear
radius is several times greater than
the energy of an alpha particle.
According to quantum mechanics, however, the alpha particle can “tunnel” through the
barrier. Hence this is observed as radioactive decayAlpha-Particle Decay
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Module 5: Statistical Mechanics (4L)
Concept of energy levels and energy states. Microstates, Macrostates and thermodynamic
probability, MB, BE, FD, statistics (Qualitative discussions)- physical significance,
conception of bosons, fermions, classical limits of quantum statistics, Fermi distribution at
zero & non-zero temperature, Concept of Fermi level. 4L
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Lesson Plan: Statistical Mechanics
Module Lecture Topic Application Reference Book

No No
4 1 Inadequacy of Newtonian Knowing about Fundamental of Statistical

mechanics, Concept of MB statistics it is Mechanics: B Laud
energy levels and energy possible to know
states. Microstates, about energy states Introduction to statistical
macrostates and of occupied gas mechanics : .Pathria
thermodynamic probability molecules. Fundamental of Statistical and
Thermal Physics: .F. Reif
4 2 Qualitative discussion of Knowing BE Fundamental of Statistical

MB, BE statistics, and their statistics it is Mechanics: B Laud
physical significance possible to know 4th
state of matter BE Introduction to statistical
Condensed state mechanics : .Pathria
Fundamental of Statistical and

4 3 Qualitative discussion of Quantum Tunne Fundamental of Statistical

FD statistics, physical Mechanics: B Laud
significance, conception of Knowing FD
bosons, fermions, classical statistics it is Introduction to statistical
limit of quantum statistics. possible to know mechanics : .Pathria
Fermi temperature
and Degeneracy Fundamental of Statistical and
pressure and Thermal Physics: .F. Rei
existence of stars .
4 4 Fermi distribution at zero In Band theory, Fundamental of Statistical

& non-zero temperature, Concept of metal, Mechanics: B Laud
Concept of Fermi level. insulator and
semiconductor. Introduction to statistical
mechanics : .Pathria
Fundamental of Statistical and

4 1 Qualitative study: Fermi Detail idea about 1.Fundamental of Statistical

level in metals, total energy metal and its Mechanics: B Laud
at absolute zero and total applications.
number of particles. 2.Introduction to statistical
mechanics : .Pathria
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3. Fundamental of Statistical and

Module 4: Statistical Mechanics (3L)
Module 4.1: Basics of Statistical Mechanics:-
LECTURE 31:
4.01: Concept of energy levels and energy states:-
Concept of energy levels and energy states:-
Consider a H2 atom, which has the simplest atomic configuration with a single electron
revolving round the nucleus. The total energy of such an electron is given by
4
me
8e0 h2 n2 ,
- where m and e are mass and charge of the electron respectively, ε0 is the
permittivity of free-space, h is the Planck’s constant and n is known as principal quantum
number. Thus the total energy for such an electron solely depends on n. We know that for a
given value of n, we get other three quantum three quantum numbers whose values depend
on n in the following manner:
l ( orbital quantum number) = 0,1,2,3,……..,(n-1)
ml ( magnetic orbital quantum number) = -l,(-l+1),(-l+2),….,-2,-1,0,1,2,…..,(l-1),l

1 1
ms ( magnetic spin quantum number) = - 2 , + 2 (for each value of ml)
All n, l, ml integers or zero.
A specific energy level corresponds to a specific value of n. For different integral values of
n, we get different discrete energy levels. On the other hand, each discrete set of the four
quantum numbers, i.e. {n,l,ml,ms}, designates each energy state. Let’s have an example to
make these concepts clear.
Consider n = 2 energy level. For n = 2, l = 0,1.

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1 1
For l = 0, ml = 0 and ms = - ,+
2 2
1 1
For l = 1, ml = -1,0,+1 and ms = - ,+ for each value of ml.
2 2
n-value l-value ml- value ms- value energy states no.of energy
states
-1, 1 {2,0,0, - 1 }
2 2 2
2 0 0
1
2
}
{2,0,0, + 2
1
1 1 {2,1,-1, - 2}
- ,
-1
2 2 1
{2,1,-1, }
2
1 }
{2,1,0, -
0 2
1 1
2 - , 1
1 2 2 {2,1,0, 2}
1
+1 {2,1,+1,- 2} 6
1 1
- , 1
2 2 {2,1,+1, }
2
Thus for n = 2 energy level, we get eight distinct energy states. But all these eight energy
states have the same value of the total energy because, the total energy, as already stated,
depends only on the principal quantum number. Such type of distinct energy states having
the same total energy are known as degenerate states and it is said that the energy level n
= 2 is 8-fold degenerate. Similarly we can show that n = 3 energy level is 18-fold
degenerate. Note that this type of degenerate states is direct consequence of the symmetry
of the respective system.
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4.02 Microstates:-
In statistical mechanics, a microstate is a specific microscopic configuration of a
thermodynamic system that the system may occupy with a certain probability in the course
of its thermal fluctuations
Since a gas consists of large number of particles, the state of a gas can also be characterized
in terms of the states of the constituent particles. The state of the particles can be specified
by ascertaining their positions (Coordinates qi) and velocities and momentum pi . Thus state
of the gas thus described in terms of the properties of constituent particles is called the
Microscopic state
Fig-2.a Microstates and Macrostates
4.03 Macrostates:-
Macrostate: the state of a macro system specified by its macroscopic parameters. Two
systems with the same values of macroscopic parameters are thermodynamically
indistinguishable. A macrostate tells us nothing about a state of an individual particle.
For a given set of constraints (conservation laws), a system can be in many macrostates.
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Macrostate refers to the state of the system as a whole. The quantities like pressure, volume
and temperature are macroscopic. They do not give the position momentum values of
constituent particles.
4.04 Thermodynamic probability:-
The total number of possible microstates of a system corresponding to given macrostate is

called thermodynamic probability
For n particles the number of microstates for its ( n1,n-n1 ) macrostate is
Wn1,n-n1 =
4.05 Phase Space:-
To describe both the position and the state of the motion of the particle, it is require to set
up a six dimensional space in which a point has six co-ordinates (three position co-
ordinates) and px, py, pz (three momentum co-ordinates) along six mutually perpendicular
axes in space. This combined position and momentum space is called phase spacel.
4.06 Formalisms in Statistical Mechanics

The various methods of statistical mechanics are applied to discuss some average or most
probable properties of large assemblies of electrons, atoms, molecules etc. Before the
advent of quantum mechanics, Maxwell, Boltzmann, gibbs etc, applied statistical methods
with the help of classical physics. These methods are collectively known as Classical
Statistics or Maxwell-Boltzmann (MB) Statistics. These statistics were proved to be
successful in explaining pressure, temperature etc. of gaseous systems. But these couldn’t
explain some experimental results like the energy distribution in case of black-body
radiation, specific heat at low temperature etc. For explaining such phenomena Satyen
Bose, Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, Paul A. Dirac had made use of some new statics with
the help of newly discovered quantum theories. The new statistics are known as Quantum
Statistics and can be divided into following two categories:-
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(i)Bose-Einstein (BE) statistics

(ii)Fermi-Dirac (FD) statistics
We’ll discuss the various interesting features of these three (MB,BE,FD) statistics
one by one in the following subsections.
LECTURE 32:
4.07 Maxwell-Boltzmann (MB) Statistics:-

The basic postulates of MB statistics are:-(i)The
associated particles are distinguishable.
(ii)Each energy state can contain any number of particles. (iii)Total

number of particles in the entire system is constant. (iv)Total energy
of all the particles in the entire system is constant. (v)Particles are
spinless.
Examples: gas molecules at high temperature and low pressure.
Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution Law
Consider a system composed of N distinguishable, non-interacting particles. Let out of

these N particles N1, N2,….., Ni particles are to be distributed in energy levels E1,E2,….,Ei
respectively and these energy levels have g1,g2,…...,gi number of quantum states
correspondingly. Since the total energy E and total number of particles N are constant for
the system, we can write
 N i E i = Ei…………………………………………….(2a)
 N i = Ni ………………………………………………...(2b)
The number of ways in which the groups of particles N1, N2,….., Ni could be chosen from
N particles is
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N! N!
W1= =n ………………………………(2c)
N1!N 2!...... Ni!
 Ni!
i
Where  denotes the product.
Ni
Now, Ni particles can be distributed in gi states in g i ways. Considering all
the values of i, total number of arrangement would be
W2 = 
n
 g i N i ……………………………………………..(2d)
Therefore, the total number of ways W by which all the N particles could be
distributed among the quantum states is
N! Ni
W = W1W2 = n g   …………………………...(2e)
n i
i
 N i!
Now calculating the ratio of we get
Ni 1
f ( Ei ) = = a + Ei ................................................. (2f)
gi e
Ni and gi are the no of particles and no of states respectively.

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4.08 Bose- Einstein (BE) Statistics:-
The basic postulates of BE statistics are:-:
(i)The associated particles are identical and indistinguishable.

(ii)Each energy state can contain any number of particles.
(iii)Total energy and total number of particles of the entire system is constant
(iv)The particles have zero or integral spin,i.e. 0 , 1 ,5 ,50 etc, where is the unit of spin.
(v) The wave function of the system is symmetric under the positional exchange of any two
particles.
Examples: photon, phonon, all mesons ( ,, ) etc., these are known as Bosons.
[Note: Symmetric and Anti-symmetric wave function
Suppose the allowed wave function for a n-particles system is ψ(1,2,3,…..,r,s,…n),

where the integers within the argument of ψ represent the coordinates of the n-particles
relative to some fixed origin. Now, if we interchange the positions of any two particles, say,
r and s, the resulting wave function becomes ψ(1,2,3,….s,r,…..n). The wave function ψ is
said to be symmetric when
ψ(1,2,3,…..,r,s,…n) = ψ(1,2,3,….s,r,…..n)
and anti-symmetric when
ψ(1,2,3,…..,r,s,…n) = - ψ(1,2,3,….s,r,…..n)]
Bose-Einstein Distribution Law:
Let Ni number of identical, indistinguishable, non-interacting particles are to be

th
distributed among gi quantum states each having energy E i. So, in the i energy level, there are
(Ni + gi) total objects. Keeping the first quantum state fixed, the remaining (N i + gi -1)
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objects can permuted in (Ni + gi - 1)! possible ways. But since the particles and the
quantum states are indistinguishable, we have to deduct Ni! ways and (gi – 1)! ways from
the all possible ways to get effective number of arrangements. Thus total number of
th
possible ways of arrangement for the i state is
Ni + gi -1!
Wi = ………………………………………(3a)
Ni! gi -1 !
Hence the total number of ways of the entire distribution of N particles in n number of
energy levels of the system is
Ni + g
n i -1!
W= ……………………………………(3b)
i N i!g i -1!
where  denotes the product symbol.
Now calculating the ratio of is given by
Ni 1
f ( Ei ) = = a + Ei …………………………(3c)
gi e -1
Where Ni and gi are no of particles and no of states respectively.
LECTURE 33:
4.09 Fermi-Dirac (FD) Statistics:-
The basic postulates of FD statistics are:-

(i)Particles are identical and indistinguishable.
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(ii)Total energy and total number of particles of the entire system is constant
1 3 37
(iii)Particles have half-integral spin, i.e 2 , 2 , 2 , etc .
(iv)Particles obey Pauli’s exclusion principle, i.e. no two particles in a single system can
have the same value for each of the four quantum numbers. In other words, a single energy
state can contain at best a single particle with appropriate spin.
(v) The wave function of the system is anti-symmetric under the positional exchange of any
two particles.
Examples: electron, proton, neutron, all hyperons (Λ,Σ,Ξ,Ω) etc., these are known as
Fermions.
Fermi-Dirac Distribution Law:
Consider a system of N indistinguishable, non-interacting particles obeying
Pauli’s exclusion principle. Let N 1, N2, N3, ….Ni,….Nn Particles in the system have
energies E1, E2, E3, ….,Ei,…En respectively and let gi is the number of degenerate quantum
states in the energy level Ei. According to Pauli’s exclusion principle a single quantum
state can be occupied by at best one particle. Since N i particles are to be distributed among gi
degenerate states (gi ≥ Ni) having the same energy Ei, Ni states will be filled up and (g i - Ni)
states will remain vacant. Now g i states can be arranged in g i! possible ways, . But since the
particles and the quantum states are indistinguishable, we have to deduct N i! ways and (gi –
Ni)! ways from the all possible ways to get effective number of arrangements. Thus total
th
number of possible ways of arrangement for the i state is
g i !
Wi =   ………………………………(4a)
N i! g i - N i !
Hence the total number of ways for the entire distribution of N particles in n number of
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energy levels of the system is

n gi!
W= ……………………………………(4b)
i N i !g i - N i!
where  denotes the product symbol.
Now taking natural logarithm on both sides of eqn.(7.30) and applying Stirling
approximation,
ln W = ln g i - ln N i - ln g i - N i 
Now calculating the ratio of is given by
Ni 1
f ( Ei ) = = a + Ei ……………………………………………….(4c)
gi e +1
Where Ni and gi are no of particles and no of states respectively.
4.10 Physical significance:-
Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics may be used to derive the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution

(for an ideal gas of classical particles in a three-dimensional box). However, they apply to
other situations as well. Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics can be used to extend that
distribution to particles with a different energy–momentum relation, such as relativistic
particles (Maxwell–Jüttner distribution). In addition, hypothetical situations can be
considered, such as particles in a box with different numbers of dimensions (four-
dimensional, two-dimensional, etc.).
Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics are often described as the statistics of "distinguishable"
classical particles. In other words, the configuration of particle A in state 1 and particle B in
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state 2 is different from the case in which particle B is in state 1 and particle A is in state 2.
This assumption leads to the proper (Boltzmann) statistics of particles in the energy states,
but yields non-physical results for the entropy, as embodied in the Gibbs paradox.
In quantum statistics, Bose–Einstein statistics (or more colloquially B–E statistics) is one of
two possible ways in which a collection of non-interacting indistinguishable particles may
occupy a set of available discrete energy states, at thermodynamic equilibrium. The
aggregation of particles in the same state, which is a characteristic of particles obeying
Bose–Einstein statistics, accounts for the cohesive streaming of laser light and the
frictionless creeping of superfluid helium. The theory of this behaviour was developed
(1924–25) by Satyendra Nath Bose, who recognized that a collection of identical and
indistinguishable particles can be distributed in this way. The idea was later adopted and
extended by Albert Einstein in collaboration with Bose.
The Bose–Einstein statistics apply only to those particles not limited to single occupancy of
the same state—that is, particles that do not obey the Pauli exclusion principle restrictions.
Such particles have integer values of spin and are named bosons, after the statistics that
correctly describe their behaviour. There must also be no significant interaction between
the particles.
In metal, the weakly attached conducting electrons are \free" to move in the lattice. The
electrons interact with the electrostatic potential of the positive ions in the lattice. If we
consider the periodicity of the potential, we will obtain the solution to the Schrodinger
equation in the form of Bloch waves. The energy will form a band. For perfect stationary
lattice, there is free propagation and infinite conductivity of electrons. However lattice
imperfections, lattice vibrations (phonons) and the scattering by the other electrons leads to
resistance in the lattice. In the free electron model, we apply Fermi-Dirac Statistics -
electrons of spin 1/2 and = 1/2 .
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4.11 Conception of boson & fermions :-

In quantum mechanics, a boson is a particle that follows Bose–Einstein statistics. Bosons make
up one of the two classes of particles, the other being fermions. The name boson was coined by
Paul Dirac to commemorate the contribution of the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose in
developing, with Einstein, Bose–Einstein statistics—which theorizes the characteristics of
elementary particles Examples of bosons include fundamental particles such as photons, gluons,
and W and Z bosons
An important characteristic of bosons is that their statistics do not restrict the number of them
that occupy the same quantum state. This property is exemplified by helium-4 when it is cooled
to become a super fluid.. Whereas the elementary particles that make up matter (i.e. leptons and
quarks) are fermions, the elementary bosons are force carriers that function as the 'glue' holding
matter together. This property holds for all particles with integer spin (s = 0, 1, 2, )etc.
In particle physics, a fermion (a name coined by Paul Dirac from the surname of Enrico Fermi) is
any subatomic particle characterized by Fermi–Dirac statistics. These particles obey the Pauli
exclusion principle. Fermions include all quarks and leptons, as well as any composite particle
made of an odd number of these, such as all baryons and many atoms and nuclei.
A fermion can be an elementary particle, such as the electron, or it can be a composite particle,
such as the proton. According to the spin-statistics theorem in any reasonable relativistic
quantum field theory, particles with integer spin are bosons, while particles with half-integer spin
are fermions.
4.12Classical limits of quantum statistics:-
The distribution functions for MB,BE and FD

statistics are respectively given by
N 1
[f(Ei) ]MB = g = ea + Ei
i
N 1
[f(Ei) ]BE = g = ea + Ei - 1
i
N 1
[f(Ei) ]FD = g = ea + Ei + 1
i
in above all the three cases β =KT

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Fig.2b : Plot of distribution function ƒ(Ei) with

Thus in general the distribution function (α+βEi) for the three statistics
for all the three statistics can be written as
N 1
[f(Ei) ]FD = g = ea + Ei  
i
where, δ = 0 for MB statistics δ = -1 for BE

statistics, δ = +1 FD Statisiics.
It is obvious that the quantum statistics (BE and FD) would tend to the classical one
N « 1. Now the parameter α for both BE and FD
a E kT i
(MB) only when e e i » 1, then
gi
statistics is inversely proportional to T. Thus if very high value of the temperature T
the quantum statistics reduces to the classical one.
corresponds to very low value of
N
i
Here is the number of particles per unit state and can be treated as the particle
g
i
density. Hence under high temperature and low particle density the quantum statistics
tend to the classical one.
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MCQ for Statistical Mechanics:-
1. The number of macrostates for N particles in MB distribution are

(a) N+1 (b) N - 1 (c) N (d) N/2
2. The MB statistics is applicable for

(a) distinguishable particle (b) indistinguishable particle (c) semi distinguishable particle
(d) none of these
3. MB statistics
(a) obeys Paulies exclusion principle
(b)does not obeys Paulies exclusion principle
(c) Hunds principle
(d) None of these
4. In BE statistics each quantum state can accommodate
(a) Only one particle (b) one or more particle (c) two particles (d) none of these
5. FD statistics is applicable for
(a) Photon (b) electron (c) ideal gas (d) X-rays

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LECTURE 34:
4.13: FERMI LEVEL

“Fermi level is the term used to describe the top of the collection of electron energy levels at
absolute zero temperature. This concept comes from Fermi-Dirac statistics. Electrons are
fermions and by the Pauli exclusion principle cannot exist in identical energy states. So at
absolute zero they pack into the lowest available energy states and build up a “Fermi sea” of
electron energy states. The Fermi level is the surface of that sea at absolute zero where no
electrons will have enough energy to rise above the surface. The concept of the Fermi energy is
crucially important for the understanding of the electrical and thermal properties of solids. Both
ordinary electrical and thermal processes involve energies of a small fraction of an electron volt.
But the Fermi energies of metals are of the order of electron volts. This implies that the vast
majority of the electrons cannot receive energy from those processes because there are no
available energy states for them to go to within a fraction of an electron volt of their present
energy. Limited to a tiny depth of energy, these interactions are limited to ripples on the Fermi
sea.
At higher temperatures a certain fraction, characterized by the Fermi function, will exist
above the Fermi level. The Fermi level plays an important role in the band theory of solids. In
doped semiconductors, p-type and n-type, the Fermi level is shifted by the impurities, illustrated
by their band gaps. The Fermi level is referred to as the electron chemical potential in other
contexts.
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4.14: Fermi distribution at zero & non-zero temperature

The Fermi-Dirac distribution function is
Now for the fermions in statistical equilibrium at absolute temperature T, it is found that
α = - EF/ kT, and β = 1/kT
Where, EF is the Fermi energy of the system (i.e. the maximum energy at absolute zero) k is
-23
the Boltzmann constant = 1.38×10 Joule/Kelvin.
Here is known as Occupation index
Thus the F-D distribution function reduces to
Now, let us discuss two distinct cases.

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Case – 1 ( T= 0 K)
ƒ(Ei) = 1, when Ei< EF
= 0, when Ei> EF
Plot of Fermi-Dirac distribution function as a function of Ei
Thus at T = 0K, ƒ(Ei) is a step function (See the Fig) which implies all the energy states
upto Ei = EF are filled up and the states above EF are empty.
Case – 2 ( T> 0 K)
As the temperature increases beyond T= 0K, some of the electrons in the levels just
below the Fermi level go to levels just above EF resulting a gradual change in the
occupation index ƒ(Ei). If Ei = EF,
i.e. at a finite temperature Fermi energy of a system is that energy for which 50% energy
states are filled and 50% states are vacant.
4.15: Qualitative study: Fermi level in metals

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In a metal the conduction electrons are not bound to individual atoms. They are free to roam
within the entire crystal. (This is what allows metals to conduct electricity.) However, the states
the electrons can occupy are quantized. If we cool a metal down, the electrons would settle into
the available lowest energy states. However, due to the Pauli exclusion principle, each allowed
quantum state can only be occupied by one electron. Once the lowest energy state is filled, the
next electron has to drop into the second lowest energy state, and so on. The last state that would
be occupied (at zero temperature) is the Fermi level.
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Module 6: Physics of Organic semiconductors & Nanomaterials (6L)
Module 6.01: Physics of Organic semiconductors:

Exciton, bi-exciton, polaron, bipolaron, soliton, organic semiconductors (qualitative
discussions)-comparison with silicon based semiconductor electronics, applications. 3L
Module 6.02: Physics of Nanomaterials

Reduction of dimensionality, properties of nanomaterials, Quantum wells (two dimensional),
Quantum wires (one dimensional), Quantum dots (zero dimensional); Quantum size effect and
Quantum confinement. Carbon allotropes. Application of nanomaterials (CNT, grapheme,
electronic, environment, medical). 3L
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Lesson plan for Physics of Nanomaterials
Lect
Module No Topic Application Reference Book
ure
No
Module 1
Failure of Band theory with example, In organic materials Nanostructure and
6.01: electron-electron interaction Nanomaterials, B.K.
Physics of 2 Soliton, exciton with example Parthasarathy
Organic Polaron, bipolaron, advantages and
semicond applications of organic semiconductor
uctors: 3
Module 1 Reduction of dimensionality, properties of Bacterial sensors Nanostructure and

6:Physics nanomaterials, Quantum wells (two Bending of the wings Nanomaterials, B.K.
of dimensional) of morphing aircraft Parthasarathy
Nanomate 2 Quantum wires (one dimensional), Quantum Boron or gold doped Introduction to
rials dots (zero dimensional); Quantum size effect nanotubes to trap oil Nanotechnology, B.K.
and Quantum confinement spills, include smaller Parthasarathy
3 Carbon allotropes. Application of transistors Essentials of
nanomaterials(CNT, grapheme, electronic, Chemotherapy drugs Nanotechnology,
environment, medical). Graphene sheets as RishabhAnand
electrodes in Nanomaterials Handbook
ultracapacitors (Advanced Materials and
nanotube-polymer Technologies)-YuryGogotsi
nanocompositeuses to (Editor)
form a scaffold which
speeds up replacement
of broken bones
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MODULE 6.01: PHYSICS OF ORGANIC SEMICONDUCTORS:
LECTURE 35:
Failures and limitations of Sommerfeld Model Energy band theory

and Drude Model
i)electron-nucleus coulomb interaction only
i)All types of electrostatic interactions included.
neglected.
ii)Can not explain conduction properties of
ii)Only applicable for metals. oxide semiconductor like NiO.
iii)Successfully explain Gr-IV semiconductor
e.g. like Ge &Si , Gr III-V semiconductor e.g.
like GaAs ,but fails in case of II-IV
semiconductor.
iv)Can not explain conduction properly of
polar solids.
v)Can not explain conducting property of
organic semiconductor.
This failures of energy band theory is mainly due to poor description of e-e interaction and only
other related interaction with the other electron.Therfore to study oxide semiconductor; we need
to know such interactions;which plays instrumental role in generating some novel features of
organic semiconductor.
Few such effects are:

i) Electron(e) - Electron(e) interaction
Classified into 3 parts –

i) Electron(e) - Electron(e) coulomb interaction expressed by coulomb forces which ultimately
describes that a single electron will keep another electron will keep another electron at certain
distance apart from it.The separation length(radius in 3D) is detarmined by coulomb forces.
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Fig 6.01.1
ii) Electron(e) - Electron(e) exchange interaction

In many electron/single electron systems if we exchange the position of electron (in many
case)/atom (in single electron case); the system energy gets changed.This difference in energy is
attributed to Electron(e) - Electron(e)exchange interaction energy.This type interaction is called
Electron(e) - Electron(e) exchange.
iii) Electron(e) - Electron(e) correlation energy

It has been reportedexperimentally that in many of organic systems the electron – electron
separation between any 2 electrons is lesser than that predicted by coulomb’s law.Therefore apart
from coulomb interaction there is additional interaction which keeps 2 electrons a bit closer.This
new interaction between any 2 electrons is called Electron(e) - Electron(e) correlation &
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dominant particularly in a multielectron system.Till date no correct expression has been achieved
and researches has to work on some assumptions predicted over the years.
Applications:
Transpoly acetyle system
Prisitive (undoped)
Fig 6.01.2
It is a 1 D periodic system.By energy band theory it is semiconductor with band gap close to 201
Ev.Also confined experimentally.
Whendoped with Si =1s2 2s1
It was observed that system shows metallic feature.Therefore additional solitory electrons
contributed by dopant Si atoms are making interaction and resulting in Insulator – Metal
transition. The solitary electron contributed byb dopant are called soliton.
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Related band diagrams are
EG =2.1 eV (semiconductor) EG =0 (Metallic)

Fig 6.0
LECTURE 36:
Exciton
In a semiconductor when a electron moves from valence to conduction band, a hole is created in
the valence band.The negative electron & positive hole makes attractive coulomb interaction
between them & as a result of attractive interaction form a new quasi particle called
Exciton.More over due to attractive interaction electron slightly moves down in the energy scale
and hole slightly moves up in the energy scale.consequently the band gap as predicted by the
energy band theory gets reduced.This new band gap is called excitenic band gap.Excitonic effect
has been reported in organic semiconductor such as transpoly acetylene,polyphenylene.poly
thiophene etc.In such case the band gap is the excitonic band gap.
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Fig 6.01.4
LECTURE 37:
Polaron
According to band theory a 1D solid may be -
Describe by KP model
Fig 6.01.5
But in actual solid the arrangement is like

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Fig 6.01.6
This spring like vibration called lattice vibration.The quantized lattice vibration is called Phonon.
In polarized Gr II-IV semiconductor and some of the organic semiconductors it have been
observed that electron interacts with phonons and on interaction creates a new Quasi particle
called Polaron.The polaron formed contributes one additional energy level in the band structure
of the system called Polaronic level.The emergence of polaronic levels modifies the band gap of
the system and consequently conducting behaviour of the system.
If the polaronic size is smaller than the lattice constant,it is called small polaron.
If the polaronic size is larger than the lattice constant,it is called large polaron.
Fig 6.01.7
If electron surrounded by phonon we get electron polaron & if hole get surrounded by phonon
we get polaron.Electron – polaron and hole polaron due to attractive interaction forms polaronic
exciton.Due to formation of polaronic exciton the band gap of the system further reduces.
These are some of the effect that present some completely new features present in organic
semiconductor.
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Module 6: Physics of Nanomaterials

6.1 Reduction of dimensionality
LECTURE 38:
What is Nanomaterial?
Nanoscale: generally refers to the size scale of 1 –100 nm in at least one dimension.
1 nanometer (nm) = 10-9 m
Nanomaterials or the Nanoparticles are the set of particles or the substances where atleast one
dimension is less than approximately 100nm.
Note:Richard Feynman is known as the father of nanotechnology.
What are Low-Dimensional Structures?

When one or more of the dimensions of a solid are reduced sufficiently, its physicochemical
characteristics notably depart from those of the bulk solid. With reduction in size, novel
electrical, mechanical, chemical, magnetic, and optical properties can be introduced. The
resulting structure is then called a low-dimensional structure (or system). The confinement of
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particles, usually electrons or holes, to a low- dimensional structure leads to a dramatic change in
their behaviour and to the manifestation of size effects that usually fall into the category of
quantum-size effects. The low dimensional materials exhibit new physicochemical properties not
shown by the corresponding large-scale structures of the same composition. Nanostructures
constitute a bridge between molecules and bulk materials. Suitable control of the properties and
responses of nanostructures can lead to new devices and technologies.
Classificationofthenanomaterials:
Classification of Low-dimensional Materials Hence classification of the nanostructured
materials and systems essentially depends on the number of dimensions which lie within the
nanometer range.
a)Low-dimensional structures are usually classified according to the number of reduced dimensions
they have. More precisely, the dimensionality refers to the number of degrees of freedom in the
particle momentum. Accordingly, depending on the dimensionality, the following classification is
made:
Three-dimensional (3D) structure or bulk structure: No quantization of the particle motion
occurs, i.e., the particle is free.
Two-dimensional (2D) structure or quantum well: Quantization of the particle motion occurs in
one direction, while the particle is free to move in the other two directions.
Examples:discs;platelets;ultrathin films;super lattices; quantum wells; Film Graphene.
One-dimensional (1D) structure or quantum wire: Quantization occurs in two directions, leading
to free movement along only one direction.
Examples:Nanorods;Nanofilaments;Nanotubes;quantum wires; nanowires.
Zero-dimensional (0D) structure or quantum dot (sometimes called “quantum box”):

Quantization occurs in all three directions.
Examples:Nanoparticles;Nanograins;Nanoshells;Nanocapsulparticles;activatedcarbon;
nanoporous silicon;quasi crystals.
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 Nanomaterials can be metals, ceramics, polymeric materials, or composite materials.
6.2 Properties of Nanomaterials

What has happened when reduced to the nanoscale?
Now lets list out the various properties of the Nanoparticles

Magnetic properties:
1. Magnetic nanoparticles are used in a range of applications like imaging, bioprocessing,

refrigeration as well as high storage density magnetic memory media.
2. The large surface area to volume ratio results in a substantial proportion of atoms having
different magnetic coupling with neighbouring atoms leading to differing magnetic
properties.
3. Bulk gold and platinum are non magnetic but at the nano size they act as magnetic
particles.Au nanoparticles become ferromagnetic when they are capped with the
appropriate molecules such as thiol.
4. Giant magnetoresistance(GMR) is a phenomenon observed in nanoscale multilayers

consisting of strong ferromagnet (Fe,Co,Ni)and a weaker magnetic or non magnetic
buffer(Cr,Cu).It is usually employed in data storage and sensing.
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Optical properties:
1. In small nano clusters the effect of reduced dimensionality on electronic structure has the
most profound effect on the energies of highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO)
which is valence band and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital(LUMO),essentially
the conduction band.
2. The optical emission and adsorption occurs when the transition of the electrons occur
between these two states.
3. Semiconductors and many metals show large changes in optical properties such as color,
as a function of particle size.
4. Colloidal suspension of gold nano particles have a deep red color which becomes
progressively more yellow as the particle size increases.
 Gold spheres of 10-20nm exhibit red color
 Gold spheres of 2-5nm exhibit yellow color.
 Gold spheres of >20nm exhibit purple color
Similarly,
 Silver particles of 40nm exhibit blue color

 Silver particles of 100nm exhibit yellow color
 Prism shaped Silver particles red color.
Other properties which may be affected by reduced dimensionality include photocatalysis,

photoconductivity, photoemission and electroluminescence.
Electronic properties:
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1. The changes which occur in electronic properties as the system length scale is reduced
are related mainly to the increasing influence of the wave-like property of the electrons
(quantum mechanical effects) and the scarcity of scattering centres.
2. As the size of the system becomes comparable with the de Broglie wavelength of the
electrons, the discrete nature of the energy states becomes apparent once again, although
a fully discrete energy spectrum is only observed in systems that are confined in all three
dimensions.
3. In certain cases, conducting materials become insulators below a critical length scale, as
the energy bands cease to overlap. Owing to their intrinsic wave-like nature, electrons can
tunnel quantum mechanically between two closely adjacent nanostructures, and if a
voltage is applied between two nanostructures which aligns the discrete energy levels in
the DOS, resonant tunnelling occurs, which abruptly increases the tunnelling current.
4. Conduction in highly confined structures, such as quantum dots, is very sensitive to the
presence of other charge carriers and hence the charge state of the dot.
5. These Coulomb blockade effects result in conduction processes involving single electrons
and as a result they require only a small amount of energy to operate a switch, transistor
or memory element.
6. All these phenomena can be utilised to produce radically different types of components
for electronic, optoelectronic and information processing applications, such as resonant
tunnelling transistors and single-electron transistors.
Overall
Small size effect (Quantum size effect) Quantum Mechanics
--Contain very small number of atoms (molecules)
-- Electromagnetic forces are dominant.
-- Wave particle duality. The electrons exhibit wave behavior.
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-- Quantum confinement.
-- Discrete energy levels
LECTURE 39:
6.3 Introduction about Quantum Wells, Quantum Wires and

Quantum Dots
6.3.1 Quantum Wells
The most significant nanostructures required to design nanoelectronic devices are Quantum
Wells, Quantum Wires and Quantum Dots. They are the basic building blocks of nanoelctronic
devices.
Quantum wells are real-world implementation of the “particle in the box” problem; they act as
potential wells for charge carriers and are typically experimentally realized by epitaxial growth of a
sequence of ultrathin layers consisting of semiconducting materials of varying composition. A
quantum well is a potential well with only discrete energy values. The classic model used to
demonstrate a quantum well is to confine particles, which were originally free to move in three
dimensions, to two dimensions, by forcing them to occupy a planar region.quantum well — flat
thin layer of semiconductor material (typically between 1 and 10 nm thick) within which the
potential energy of an electron is less than outside the layer, therefore the motion of the electron
is limited in one dimension. The motion of the electron perpendicular to the quantum well plane
is quantised, and its energy can take on only discrete values.
Two dissimilar semiconductors with different band gaps can be joined to form a heterojunction. The
discontinuity in either the conduction or the valence band can be used to form a potential well. If a
thin layer of a narrower-band gap material 'A' say, is sandwiched between two layers of a wider-band
gap material 'B', then they form a double heterojunction. If layer 'A' is sufficiently thin for quantum
properties to be exhibited, then such a band alignment is called a single quantum well. Additional
semiconductor layers can be included in the heterostructure, for example a stepped or asymmetric
quantum well can be formed by the inclusion of an alloy between materials A and B.
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6.3.2 Quantum Wires

In condensed matter physics, a quantum wire is an electrically conductingwire in which
quantum effects influence the transport properties. Usually such effects appear in the dimension
of nanometers, so they are also referred to as nanowires.
If the diameter of a wire is sufficiently small, electrons will experience quantum confinement in
the transverse direction. As a result, their transverse energy will be limited to a series of discrete
values. One consequence of this quantization is that the classical formula for calculating the
electrical resistance of a wire,
R = rl/A
is not valid for quantum wires (where ris the material's resistivity, lis the length, and Ais the
cross-sectional area of the wire).
Instead, an exact calculation of the transverse energies of the confined electrons has to be
performed to calculate a wire's resistance. Following from the quantization of electron energy,
the electrical conductance (the inverse of the resistance) is found to be quantized in multiples of
2e2/h, where eis the electron charge and h is the Planck constant. The factor of two arises from
spin degeneracy.
The importance of the quantization is inversely proportional to the diameter of the nanowire for a
given material. From material to material, it is dependent on the electronic properties, especially
on the effective mass of the electrons. Physically, this means that it will depend on how
conduction electrons interact with the atoms within a given material. In practice, semiconductors
can show clear conductance quantization for large wire transverse dimensions (~100 nm)
because the electronic modes due to confinement are spatially extended. As a result, their Fermi
wavelengths are large and thus they have low energy separations. This means that they can only
be resolved at cryogenic temperatures (within a few degrees of absolute zero) where the thermal
energy is lower than the inter-mode energy separation.
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For metals, quantization corresponding to the lowest energy states is only observed for atomic
wires. Their corresponding wavelength being thus extremely small they have a very large energy
separation which makes resistance quantization observable even at room temperature.
6.3.3 Quantum Dots:

Quantum dots (QD) are very small semiconductor particles, only several nanometres in size, so
small that their optical and electronic properties differ from those of larger particles. They are a
central theme in nanotechnology. Many types of quantum dot will emit light of specific
frequencies if electricity or light is applied to them, and these frequencies can be precisely tuned
by changing the dots' size, shape and material, giving rise to many applications.
In the language of materials science, nanoscale semiconductor materials tightly confine either
electrons or electron holes. Quantum dots are also sometimes referred to as artificial atoms, a
term that emphasizes that a quantum dot is a single object with bound, discrete electronic states,
as is the case with naturally occurring atoms or molecules.
Quantum dots exhibit properties that are intermediate between those of bulk semiconductors and
those of discrete molecules. Their optoelectronic properties change as a function of both size and
shape. Larger QDs (radius of 5–6 nm, for example) emit longer wavelengths resulting in
emission colors such as orange or red. Smaller QDs (radius of 2–3 nm, for example) emit shorter
wavelengths resulting in colors like blue and green, although the specific colors and sizes vary
depending on the exact composition of the QD.
Because of their highly tunable properties, QDs are of wide interest. Potential applications
include transistors, solar cells, LEDs, diode lasers and second-harmonic generation, quantum
computing, and medical imaging. Additionally, their small size allows for QDs to be suspended
in solution which leads to possible uses in inkjet printing and spin-coating. These processing
techniques result in less-expensive and less time consuming methods of semiconductor
fabrication.
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LECTURE 40:
6.4 Application of nanomaterials:

 The tensile strength of high carbon steel is around 1.2 GPa but the tensile strength of
carbon nanotubes (CNT) is 63 GPa. Also they are known to be one of the strongest
materials having been produced by nanotechnology so far. Graphene is the world's
strongest material, and so can be used to enhance the strength of other materials. ... Such
graphene-enhanced composite materials can find uses in aerospace, building materials,
mobile devices, and many other applications.
 CNT has been used for applications in energy storage, automotive parts, boat hulls,
sporting goods, water filters, thin-film electronics, coatings, actuators and
electromagnetic shields. CNT-related publications more than tripled in the prior decade,
while rates of patent issuance also increased.Most output was of unorganized
architecture. Organized CNT architectures such as "forests", yarns and regular sheets
were produced in much smaller volumes. CNTs have even been proposed as the tether for
a purported space elevator.
 A Carbon Nanotube is a tube-shaped material, made of carbon, having a diameter
measuring on the nanometre scale. Carbon Nanotubes are formed from essentially the
graphite sheet and the graphite layer appears somewhat like a rolled-up continuous
unbroken hexagonal mesh and carbon molecules at the apexes of the hexagons.
Nanotubes are members of the fullerene structural family.
Recently, several studies have highlighted the prospect of using carbon nanotubes as building
blocks to fabricate three-dimensional macroscopic (>1mm in all three dimensions) all-carbon
devices. There is a report that a novel radical initiated thermal crosslinking method to fabricated
macroscopic, free-standing, porous, all-carbon scaffolds using single- and multi-walled carbon
nanotubes as building blocks. These scaffolds possess macro-, micro-, and nanostructured pores
and the porosity can be tailored for specific applications. These 3D all-carbon
scaffolds/architectures may be used for the fabrication of the next generation of energy storage,
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supercapacitors, field emission transistors, high-performance catalysis, photovoltaics, and

biomedical devices and implants.
 Nanotechnology in Electronics - Nanoelectronics refer to the use of nanotechnology on
electronic components, especially transistors. Nanoelectronics often refer to transistor
devices that are so small that inter-atomic interactions and quantum mechanical
properties need to be studied extensively.
 Nanotechnology is being used in several applications to improve the environment. This
includes cleaning up existing pollution, improving manufacturing methods to reduce the
generation of new pollution, and making alternative energy sources more cost effective.
 Nanotechnological products, processes and applications are expected to contribute
significantly to environmental and climate protection by saving raw materials, energy and
water as well as by reducing greenhouse gases and hazardous wastes. Using
nanomaterials therefore promises certain environmental benefits and sustainability
effects. Note, however, that nanotechnology currently plays a rather subordinate role in
environmental protection, whether it be in research or in practical applications.
Environmental engineering companies themselves attach only limited importance to
nanotechnology in their respective fields.
 Nanomedicine is the medical application of nanotechnology. Nanomedicine ranges from
the medical applications of nanomaterials and biological devices, to nanoelectronic
biosensors, and even possible future applications of molecular nanotechnology such as
biological machines.
Nanotechnology in medicine involves applications of nanoparticles currently under development,
as well as longer range research that involves the use of manufactured nano-robots to make
repairs at the cellular level (sometimes referred to as nanomedicine).

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JIS College of Engineering (An Autonomous Institute)

Narula Institute of Technology (An Autonomous Institute)

Objective of the Physics II Course: Paper Code: PH (BME) 401

The Physics II course will

 Form the foundation of ultrasound, infrasound, radio activity for Biomedical

 Narrate the scientific details of various electronic &optical devices.

nanomaterials related areas of applications.

Course Outcome of Advanced Physics Course (Theoretical: PH (BME) 401)

At the end of the course students’ should have the

CO1: ability to apply the knowledge of PO1

 Electrostatics to explain actions of dielectrics

 Magnetism and semiconductor physics in data storage

 Schrödinger equation in physical problems including semiconductor devices

 Band theory explain electrical conductivity of metal, insulators and semiconductor

CO2: Ability to analyze PO2

 Role of defected solid structure in perspective of Biomedical engineering

CO3: ability to design and realize PO3

 Mathematical frame work for making measurements in quantum mechanical situation\

 Biomaterials using new generation materials like Graphene

CO4: Ability to conduct experiments using PO1, PO9

 Dielectric under alternating field

 Intrinsic semiconductor under electric and magnetic field

 Various types of magnetic materials

 Semiconductor Photovoltaic cell, Light emitting diodes, Light dependent resistor

 Band theory and electron transport in a semiconductor

Pre-Requisites: 1st year Basic Physics knowledge

H:3 , M:2, L:1

Minimum CO attainment: 10/15=0.66

Module 1: Electric and Magnetic properties of materials (9L)

Module 1.01: Insulating materials:

Dielectric Material: Concept of Polarization, the relation between D, E and P,

Lesson plan for Electric and Magnetic properties of materials

Module Lect Topic Application Reference Book

1:Electric 1 Dielectric Material: Concept of Capacitor Insulating Materials:

MODULE 1: ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

MODULE 1.01: INSULATING MATERIALS:

 Electronic Polarization is due to the shift of positively charged nucleus and

1.01.2: IONIC, ORIENTATION AND SPACE CHARGE POLARIZATION,

1.01.3: CLAUSIUS–MOSSOTTI EQUATION, FERROELECTRIC AND

But, P = ε0 (εr-1)E ………………………… (2)

From equations (1) and (2) we get,

Inverse Piezoelectric Effect

1.02: MAGNETIC MATERIALS AND STORAGE DEVICES:

3. Sometimes, either spontaneously, or owing to an applied external magnetic field—

1.02.1 MAGNETIC FIELD & MAGNETIZATION M

1.02.2 Relation between B, H, M

The vacuum permeability μ0 is, by definition, 4π×10−7V·s/(A·m).

1.2.4 Diamagnetism- &Paramagnetism

In a paramagnetic material the magnetization of the material is (approximately)

where, M is the resulting magnetisation

1.02.6 Ferromagnetism - Curie law

The Curie–Weiss law describes the magnetic susceptibilityχ of a ferromagnet in the

whereC is a material-specific Curie constant, T is absolute temperature, measured in

1.2.5 Weiss molecular field theory, Curie-Weiss law

1.2.8 Hard ferromagnets

SI No. Hard magnetic Material Soft magnetic Material

1.02.10 Applications of permanent magnets (storage devices)

Soft ferromagnets (Permalloys, Ferrites etc.)