J. metamorphic Geol.

, 1999, 17, 521–535

Complex microstructures preserved in rocks with a simple matrix:

significance for deformation and metamorphic processes
T . H. B E LL A ND K . A . H IC K E Y
School of Earth Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia

ABSTRACT Schists from the foothills of the Central Sierra Nevada contain one dominant matrix foliation and yet
four phases of growth of both cordierite and andalusite porphyroblasts can be distinguished. These
occurred early during four separate deformation events that formed successive steep and shallow foliations.
A fifth deformation event pre-dates the growth of all porphyroblasts studied. The multiple phases of
porphyroblast growth allow correlation of structures across and along the region. A repeated pattern of
deformation, in terms of the curvature of earlier foliations against the overprinting one, allows samples
containing porphyroblasts with simpler inclusion trail geometries to be interpreted with confidence. The
large-scale fold structures in this region formed before or during the second of the five deformation events
recorded by the porphyroblasts. However, the matrix foliation is predominantly a product of the fourth
deformation, which has commonly reactivated or re-used older foliations, and is dominated by east-side-
up shear. The intervening third deformation produced locally intense foliations and was accompanied by
top-to-the-east shear. The very weak fifth deformation produced weak crenulations with subhorizontal
axial planes and was coaxial. Multiple phases of episodic but synchronous growth of cordierite
and andalusite were produced by the KFMASH univariant equilibrium Ms+Chl+Qtz=
And+Crd+Bt+H O. The rocks crossed this reaction at a pressure just below the intersection with the
2
KFMASH divariant equilibrium Ms+Chl+Qtz=Crd+Bt+H O; the latter being overstepped in favour
2
of the former as there is no evidence for cordierite growth prior to andalusite in these rocks. Subsequent
multiple episodes of synchronous growth of cordierite and andalusite indicate that the possible variation
in P–T during subsequent deformations was not large. This requires the high-amplitude macroscopic fold
to form prior to porphyroblast growth and then be simply tightened and modified by the younger
deformations.
Key words: folding; foliation development; integrated deformation and metamorphism.

spatially oriented thin sections of rocks from these

I N T R O D U C T IO N
foothills, in this case vertical sections striking W–E
Advances in quantitative techniques for microstruc- and N–S with the strike accurately marked, as well as
tural research have generated considerable data indi- horizontal sections on which north has been accurately
cating that the history of deformation and marked, reveals a much more complex deformation
metamorphism preserved in porphyroblastic rocks is and metamorphic history than has previously been
far more complex than generally has been realised. recognized. The significance for structural and meta-
This has been particularly apparent from studies of morphic processes is addressed.
rocks containing porphyroblasts bearing spiral-shaped
inclusion trails (e.g. Bell & Hickey, 1997; Bell et al.,
G EO L O G I C A L S E TT I N G O F T H E S IE R R A
1997, 1998). However, application of these techniques
N EVA D A FO O TH IL L S
to rocks containing porphyroblasts with simpler
inclusion trail geometries has revealed more complex The Sierra Nevada foothills terrane in central
microstructural histories there also (e.g. Davis, 1993; California consists of a Late Jurassic, regionally
Adshead-Bell & Bell, 1999). metamorphosed, NW-trending sequence of slates and
The rocks of the Sierra Nevada foothills appear to greywackes called the Mariposa Formation, which
have undergone one main deformation forming a overlies meta-volcanic rocks (Fig. 1; Tobisch et al.,
foliation with a subvertical attitude that lies axial 1989). These rocks were intruded by a Late Jurassic
plane to large-scale folds (Tobisch et al., 1989; Vernon suite of isolated plutons and an Early Cretaceous suite
et al., 1993). Porphyroblasts in these rocks superficially that forms the western margin of the Sierra Nevada
appear to preserve simple inclusion trail microstruc- batholith (Paterson et al., 1991). The regional meta-
tures that one might associate with a simple defor- morphic assemblages in this terrane usually indicate
mation history. However, detailed examination of lower greenschist facies conditions (Tobisch et al.,
© Blackwell Science Inc., 0263-4929/99/$14.00 521
Journal of Metamorphic Geology, Volume 17, Number 5, 1999
522 T . H . B E L L & K. A. HI C K E Y

Fig. 1. (a) The location of the region shown in ( b) within a regional geological map of the Sierra Nevada. The location of this
regional map within the state of California is also shown.
( b) Geological map showing the geological, structural and spatial relationships between the Nora and Courthouse Rock regions.
The geological relationships to the east of western zone of amphibolite facies rocks were taken from Tobisch et al. (1989). Vergence
is of matrix foliations relative to bedding but direction to synform is shown rather than direction to antiform. The sample sites are
located to the right of the sample numbers.
1989). However, widely distributed cordierite and
M IC R O S T R U C TU RE S P R E S ER V E D IN
andalusite porphyroblasts indicate lower amphibolite
POR P H Y R O B L A ST S V E R S U S T H E MAT R IX
facies conditions in zones associated with the deformed
Nora (undated) and Courthouse Rock (around 138 Ma; The carbonaceous and non-carbonaceous pelites used in this study
Tobisch et al., 1989) plutons (Fig. 1b). The rocks were collected mainly from around the Nora and Courthouse
containing these porphyroblasts were ductilely plutons in metamorphic belt 1 of Tobisch et al. (1989; Fig. 1b). A
minimum of two vertical thin sections was cut from each sample,
deformed and metamorphosed during the period c. 145 one striking W–E, the other N–S. In many samples a horizontal
to c. 123 Ma (Tobisch et al., 1989). One regionally thin section, and, in some, an additional vertical section of different
developed set of NW-striking folds is apparent in the strike, were also prepared. The W–E sections consistently preserved
field (Fig. 1b). However, as shown below, there is the most complete portions of the deformation history in the form
microstructural evidence for a more complex history of inclusion trail and matrix foliation geometries. Consequently, the
majority of photomicrographs used in this paper are of vertical,
which suggests that the dominant fold pattern has W–E striking thin sections, oriented so the reader looks due north.
been modified rather than refolded by successive For all photographs used in this paper, the inclusion trails were
deformations (e.g. Adshead-Bell & Bell, 1999). drawn on a high-resolution digital image at high magnification on
 C OMPL E X M I CR O S T R U C T U R E S I N A S I MP L E M ATR I X 523

(a) (b)

(c)

Fig. 2. (a) Pinnitized cordierite with trails defined by graphite. Note the two potential stages of cordierite growth revealed by a
change in density and geometry of the inclusion trails. Sample SN114. Vertical section striking at 0° with horizontal and way up
shown by a single barbed arrow. Plane-polarized light. (b) Two deformed pinnitized cordierite porphyroblasts ( heavy white
outlines; only just distinguishable because of the extent of deformation since pinnitization), and one large andalusite porphyroblast
that contains three stages of growth. Inclusion trails (dash/dot lines) can still be distinguished in cordierite relics. Inclusion trail
density and orientation changes in andalusite suggest it contains two cores (A & B) that grew at an earlier stage in the deformation
history and were then overgrown by C. The trails in A are similar to those in the cordierite (or formed in cordierite that was
replaced by andalusite). They curve clockwise near the rim about a steep axial plane and the matrix truncates them, suggesting that
they grew in a deformation event forming a steep foliation. The trails in B curve clockwise about a shallow axial plane on the
lower rim and this portion may have grown during this event. They are truncated by a steep foliation, which anastomoses around
this core and is in turn crenulated relatively coaxially above and below B and has been overgrown by C, possibly during the same
event as no differentiation has developed. Sample SN112. Vertical section striking at 90° with horizontal and way up shown by a
single barbed arrow. Plane-polarized light. (c) Cordierite porphyroblasts preserve trails with different geometries that could be
interpreted to have resulted from porphyroblast rotation or a different growth timing. The largest porphyroblast contains sigmoidal
trails truncated by the steep matrix foliation on steep margins but which curve clockwise into the strain shadows above and below.
The foliation in the strain shadows is truncated by that in the matrix (below lower left side of right porphyroblast). The left
porphyroblast contains straight trails that curve clockwise towards the top and bottom rims. Its left rim has been partially replaced
by another cordierite porphyroblast that also has overgrown the more subtly truncational matrix foliation. Sample SN68. Vertical
section striking at 90° with horizontal and way up shown by a single barbed arrow. Plane-polarized light.

a computer screen, while observing the thin section at the same or cordierite–andalusite zone shown in Fig. 1(b) and a sillimanite zone
higher magnification on an adjacent microscope. This enabled trails, extends down the centre of the southern half of Fig. 1( b) to the east
visible at high magnifications, but difficult to see at low magnifi- of the alluvium. Garnet and staurolite porphyroblasts were observed
cations, to be drawn with considerable accuracy. The original images in metamorphic belt 2 (Fig. 1b) but not in these rocks. Unaltered
without the overlaid lines are available from one of the journal’s cordierite, andalusite and biotite are preserved in a belt parallel to
WWW sites. the isograds (Fig. 1b). Although cordierite outside these belts has
The matrix generally contains a single, steeply dipping, penetrative been pinnitized, inclusion trails are commonly preserved, being
foliation defined by biotite, graphite and quartz. Crenulation defined by graphite, biotite and quartz. Pinnitization generally
cleavages are locally developed and evidence presented below appears to post-date ductile deformation, as the typical egg shapes
suggests there has been an extensive history of multiple foliation of cordierites are well preserved in most thin sections (Fig. 2a),
development in this portion of the Sierra Nevada foothills terrane. although deformed porphyroblasts are present in some samples
Cordierite and andalusite porphyroblasts occur throughout the (Fig. 2b). Andalusite has locally been altered to muscovite ±chlorite,
524 T . H . B E L L & K. A. HI C K E Y

and zones of altered andalusite occur in areas adjacent to both the

Nora and Courthouse Rock plutons (Fig. 1b). The pro-grade Matrix foliations
metamorphic assemblage present in these rocks is andalusite/
sillimanite, biotite, quartz, plagioclase, cordierite, graphite and The matrix generally contains only a single steeply dipping
tourmaline with retrogressive muscovite, chlorite and pinnite. penetrative foliation. However, evidence of other deformation events
is locally preserved in areas containing abundant porphyroblasts
(e.g. Figs 3 & 4). In Figs 3 and 4, relics of a coarsely partitioned,
Porphyroblast inclusion trail geometries but well-developed, subhorizontal differentiated crenulation cleavage
developed in the matrix prior to the main steeply dipping foliation.
Cordierite The upper right portion of Fig. 3 between porphyroblasts A and 3
also preserves evidence in the matrix of an even earlier subvertical
Most cordierite porphyroblasts contain simple inclusion trails that foliation. The subhorizontal differentiated foliation in Fig. 4 has
are slightly sigmoidal (Fig. 2a) or predominantly straight with been obliterated in the matrix outside the region of protection
curvature restricted to the porphyroblast rim. In W–E-oriented thin provided by the porphyroblasts in the centre of the photograph. In
sections, these inclusion trails tend to have one of several distinct Fig. 3, the intensity and partitioned character of this foliation has
geometries. Simple inclusion trails in the majority of porphyroblasts been destroyed by younger deformation on the left side of the photo,
are moderately to steeply inclined to the east (40–70°) and curve where little protection was provided by porphyroblasts. The role in
clockwise ( looking north) towards, but are truncated by, the steeply the preservation of matrix microstructures provided by porphyrob-
dipping matrix foliation on the porphyroblast margins (Fig. 2b,c; lasts is further revealed in Fig. 6. This figure shows how the remains
Fig. 3, porphyroblasts 2, 3 & 5; Fig. 4, porphyroblasts 2 & 3). The of a horizontal foliation are rotated and progressively disappear,
trails are sometimes continuous with foliations in the strain shadow away from the protection provided by two large andalusite
regions above and below the porphyroblast (Fig. 2c). Less common porphyroblasts, due to the overprinting effects of a younger intense
geometries are: subvertical foliation-forming event.
1. Subvertical inclusion trails that exhibit slight clockwise curvature
( looking north) on the upper and lower margins of the porphyroblast.
The trails may be truncated by the matrix foliation (Fig. 3, INT E R PR E TAT I O N O F M IC R O S T R U C TUR E S
porphyroblasts 8 & 9) or connect to a foliation that is truncated by
a matrix foliation (e.g. Fig. 3, porphyroblasts 6, 7, 10 & 12; Fig. 4, Sigmoidal trails and/or straight trails with curvature on the
top left side of porphyroblast 1, top of 2 and bottom of 3. porphyroblast rim
2. Trails parallel to, and continuous with, the subvertical matrix
foliation external to the porphyroblast (Fig. 2c, left edge of left In the samples collected from the Sierra Nevada
porphyroblast; Fig. 3, porphyroblasts 14 & 16; Fig. 4, porphyroblasts foothills, sigmoidal trails curving through the porphy-
5 & 6).
3. Shallow trails curving anticlockwise (looking north) towards, but roblasts and mainly straight trails, which curve only
being truncated by the steep matrix foliation (Fig. 4, right side of on the porphyroblast rim, are commonly observed in
porphyroblast 4). a single thin section (e.g. Figs 4 & 5a, also Fig. 3).
More complex truncational inclusion trail geometries are preserved Where these trails connect to the matrix, and the
locally within cordierite porphyroblasts, as shown in Figs 2(c) and
4. These truncational microstructures have similar geometries to
deformation event that produced the curvature has
simple inclusion trails in porphyroblasts in the same section and intensified against their margins, the porphyroblasts
provide evidence for several phases of porphyroblast growth in a are interpreted to have grown syntectonically (see
single rock (Fig. 4). Independent evidence for more than one stage Fig. 7a–e). In these rocks, the orientation of the axial
of cordierite growth is provided by porphyroblasts that exhibit a plane of the crenulation, or the foliation developed
change in density and orientation of inclusions, with or without a
change in the crystallographic orientation of the porphyroblast from during crenulation, against the rims of cordierite and
core to rim (Figs 2a,c & 4). andalusite porphyroblasts is typically shallow or steep
(e.g. Figs 2–6). This suggests that the porphyroblasts
grew during the cyclic development of subhorizontal
Andalusite and subvertical foliations.
Andalusite porphyroblasts may contain good inclusion trails, or be
chiastolitic and contain locally good, poor or no trails (Figs 3 & 4). Truncational microstructures
Andalusite porphyroblasts typically contain far more examples of
complex truncational inclusion trail geometries than cordierite (Figs The strongly truncational microstructures shown in Figs
3–5). Inclusion trails in andalusite tend to be straight to slightly 3–6 are interpreted as younger foliations overprinting
sigmoidal, with most curvature being restricted to the porphyroblast earlier formed ones. Such truncational microstructures
rims or to the region just inside the truncational microstructures can form in two ways (Bell & Hayward, 1991; Jones,
(Figs 4 & 5a,c). They show varying degrees of connection to matrix
fabrics, and there is intensification of the matrix foliation against 1994; Passchier & Speck, 1994; Williams, 1994; Spiess &
some porphyroblasts (Figs 3 & 4). In E–W-striking thin sections, Bell, 1996; Bell et al., 1997):
truncational microstructures commonly have a shallow or steep 1 as earlier formed foliations preserved in porphyroblast
pitch (Fig. 3, porphyroblast A; Fig. 4, porphyroblast A; Fig. 5a), cores that were truncated by development of a younger
except where controlled by crystal shapes (Fig. 6). Non-differentiated
crenulations of inclusion trails are also preserved within porphyrob-
matrix foliation, which was then overgrown in a sub-
lasts and these also tend to have a shallow (Fig. 2b) or steep (Fig. 3, sequent event (Figs 7a–e & 8a,b), or
porphyroblast A) axial trace. Truncational microstructures also 2 as crenulations in microfold hinges, bounded by
preserve the best evidence for multiple stages of andalusite growth, differentiated crenulation cleavages, overgrown by sub-
and up to four stages of andalusite growth can be seen in a single sequently crystallized porphyroblast rims during a
sample (e.g. Figs 4 & 5b), with two or three being more common
(e.g. Figs 2b, 3 & 5a). Complex inclusion trail geometries occur in younger event (Fig. 7f–i).
samples containing many porphyroblasts (Figs 3 & 4) and samples Truncational microstructures that have formed against
containing only two or three porphyroblasts (Fig. 5a–c). porphyroblast cores and then been subsequently
 C OMPL E X M I CR O S T R U C T U R E S I N A S I MP L E M ATR I X 525

Fig. 3. Several cordierite (numbered) and andalusite (lettered) porphyroblasts preserving evidence for multiple growth histories and
replacement of cordierite by andalusite. Cordierite porphyroblasts 1–5 contain similar oblique trails curving clockwise towards the
vertical. Those in 1 are truncated by a vertical foliation which is in turn truncated by a horizontal foliation. This porphyroblast has
been replaced on its left side by andalusite and the truncational vertical foliation is preserved in the andalusite. Cordierite
porphyroblasts 6–13 contain near vertical trails that curve clockwise towards and are locally truncated by a subhorizontal (right
half of photo), differentiated crenulation cleavage that has been rotated anticlockwise to a steeper oblique orientation on the left
side of the photograph. Cordierite porphyroblasts 14–16 contain a vertical foliation identical to the matrix that curves clockwise on
their rims and in the matrix about a subhorizontal axial plane. At least three phases of cordierite growth appear to be preserved.
Andalusite porphyroblasts A and B contain no inclusion trails in their cores but appear to have formed before or during
development of the first subvertical foliation as this foliation is preserved in the right rim of A and the earlier oblique foliation
appears to be preserved in the left upper rim of B. B, the right rim of A, probably the left rim of C, and the porphyroblast labelled
D grew before the development of the subhorizontal differentiated crenulation cleavage as this foliation wraps around them. The
latter foliation was crenulated about a vertical axial plane and a vertical foliation formed on the left side. The upper and lower rims
of A grew during this deformation as did the left half of D and E–I. Minor growth of andalusite also occurred during the youngest
weak shallow crenulation event when J, and the small porphyroblasts K & L near the margin of B, and the right side of E formed.
Thus four phases of andalusite growth are preserved. Sample SN68. Vertical section striking at 0° with horizontal and way up
shown by a single barbed arrow. Plane-polarized light. Scale bar is 0.4 mm.
526 T . H . B E L L & K. A. HI C K E Y

overgrown, commonly have a steep or shallow pitch in

Core–rim microstructures
both vertical W–E and N–S striking sections (e.g. Figs
2–6, 8 & 9), implying that the truncational foliations The microstructures shown in Figs 2(a,c) and 3–6 are
preserved within the porphyroblasts are typically sub- interpreted as evidence for multiple stages of cordierite
vertical and subhorizontal in three dimensions. and andalusite growth (e.g. Figs 7 & 8a,b; Jones,
 C OMPL E X M I CR O S T R U C T U R E S I N A S I MP L E M ATR I X 527

1994). Core–rim microstructures commonly develop

Matrix structures
where shear and foliation development against a
porphyroblast edge have been preserved by further Foliations within low strain zones adjacent to large
growth of the porphyroblastic phase. Such shear may porphyroblasts are protected from the rotational
cause dissolution of portions of the porphyroblast effects of younger deformations and preserve older
rim, resulting in local chemical zonation hiatuses geometric relationships. An example of this is shown
between different phases of growth (e.g. Spiess & Bell, in Fig. 6. The small distance over which the horizontal
1996). Strongly truncational core–rim microstructures foliation disappears away from the protection pro-
(e.g. porphyroblast A in Fig. 3; porphyroblasts A & 1 vided by the large porphyroblasts is striking. Rocks
in Fig. 4; Fig. 5a–c), develop where a younger foliation with isolated porphyroblasts of normal size will
preferentially forms against the rim of a pre-existing clearly preserve little evidence in the matrix of the
core, and are a particularly good indication of at least deformations they have undergone. In most samples
two phases of porphyroblast growth (Bell & Hayward, there are some porphyroblasts that preserve, in their
1991; Jones, 1994; Williams, 1994; Bell et al., 1997, strain shadows, evidence for a long history of matrix
1998). However, smoothly curving trails, with no deformation. The inclusion trails in the large cordierite
obvious truncation, do not necessarily indicate just porphyroblast on the right of Fig. 2(c) curve clockwise
one phase of growth (Bell et al., 1992). Two or more and then anticlockwise as they pass out of the strain
phases may have occurred, but insignificant partition- shadow and into the matrix. A slight indication of
ing of shear strain against the porphyroblast rim this feature can even be seen in the left porphyroblast
resulted in lack of dissolution and truncation where the trails inside curve clockwise, but as the
development (Spiess & Bell, 1996). foliation passes out of the top of the porphyroblast it
curves slightly anticlockwise in a manner that does
not accord with anastomosing of the matrix foliation
Multiple phases of porphyroblast growth
around the end of the porphyroblast. The difference
Core–rim microstructures suggest that there have been between the two porphyroblasts in Fig. 2(c) reflects
up to four phases of cordierite and andalusite porphy- either growth at different times, or differential
roblast growth in these rocks. Evidence for four phases rotation. The inclusion trails here curve clockwise and
of growth is locally preserved within a single porphyro- then steepen by curving anticlockwise. This switching
blast. Figure 4 shows four phases of growth preserved curvature is a strong indication of a longer history of
in both cordierite (porphyroblast 1) and andalusite deformation than that superficially obvious in the
(porphyroblast A). Figure 5( b) shows four stages of matrix of these rocks.
andalusite growth in another sample (see Fig. 8b). The
progressive development of these porphyroblasts
Interpretation of the microstructures and the foliation
during the four stages of growth is shown in Fig. 8(a–c).
succession
The orientation of the truncational microstructures
suggests these four phases took place during a The development of multiple truncational inclusion-
succession of deformations that sequentially produced trail microstructures and the intensification of the
strong subvertical, subhorizontal and subvertical foli- matrix foliation against porphyroblast rims has allowed
ations and finally a weak crenulation event with a two (Fig. 2a), three (Figs 2b,c & 5a,b), four (Figs 2c, 4
subhorizontal axial plane. & 5b) and locally five (Figs 3 & 5c) different

Fig. 4. Several cordierite (numbered) and andalusite porphyroblasts ( lettered) preserving evidence for multiple growth histories.
Interpretations of the progressive development porphyroblasts A and 1 are shown in Fig. 8(a,b), respectively. Porphyroblast 1
contains two cores with straight inclusion trails that curve clockwise towards a steep truncational foliation between them. This
foliation, plus the trails on the upper left rim, curve clockwise and are truncated by a shallow foliation overgrown by the upper
porphyroblast rim. This shallow foliation curves anticlockwise and is truncated by the matrix foliation between the porphyroblasts
1 and A. This truncational foliation was then overgrown by porphyroblast 1. Therefore, porphyroblast 1 preserves evidence for four
phases of growth. Porphyroblasts 2 & 3 preserve trails similar to those in the cores of 1, with 2 also overgrowing truncational
shallow foliation on its upper rim. Porphyroblast 4 contains shallow inclusion trails similar to those adjacent in A, which truncate
earlier foliations. They are shallowly dipping and crenulated, similar to the trails in B, C and the truncational trails in the upper
rims of 1 & 2, curving anticlockwise into, and being truncated by, the matrix foliation. Porphyroblasts 5 & 6 have both overgrown
the matrix foliation. Porphyroblast A contains a core with oblique trails (only visible in the carbon-rich portions defining the sector
zones) that curve clockwise towards and are truncated by a vertical differentiated foliation. This truncational foliation and the
remains of earlier trails above and below the core curve clockwise towards, and are truncated by, a shallowly pitching differentiated
cleavage in the top and bottom rims. This shallowly pitching truncational foliation then curves anticlockwise towards and is
truncated by the matrix foliation. The latter is overgrown by the andalusite porphyroblast on its upper left rim revealing a total of
four phases of andalusite growth. Porphyroblasts B & C have overgrown the shallow differentiated crenulation cleavage preserved
in the upper and lower rims of A. Porphyroblasts C & D contain straight trails that curve near the porphyroblast rim and
sigmoidal trails, respectively. The deformation causing this curvature intensifies in the matrix against the left rims of C & D.
Sample SN73. Vertical section striking at 90° with horizontal and way up shown by a single barbed arrow. Plane-polarized light.
528 T . H . B E L L & K. A. HI C K E Y

(a) (b)

(c)

Fig. 5. (a) Vertical foliations in andalusite core curve clockwise

and are truncated by a horizontal foliation in the upper rim
which in turn curves anticlockwise on the right rim and is
truncated by a vertical foliation in the matrix, which has also
been overgrown by andalusite, preserving evidence for three
stages of growth. Sample SN73. Vertical section striking at 90°
with horizontal and way up shown by a single barbed arrow.
Plane-polarized light. (b) Straight foliation in andalusite core
curves clockwise before being truncated by a differentiated
crenulation cleavage. This cleavage, plus the core cleavage, on
the upper and lower edges of the core, curve clockwise into a
shallowly dipping differentiated crenulation cleavage on the
upper rim and a zone of differentiation on the lower limb
(cross-hatching shows growth boundary where the inclusion
composition and density changes). This shallow cleavage was
overgrown early during development of the vertical matrix
foliation as revealed by anticlockwise curvature near the upper
and lower right rims and intensification of the matrix foliation,
which was then overgrown on the far left and right rims; four
stages of andalusite growth. Sample SN73. Vertical section
striking at 0° with horizontal and way up shown by a single
barbed arrow. Plane-polarized light. (c) Straight foliation in
andalusite core curves overall clockwise and is truncated by a
foliation that also curves clockwise. On the lower margin, this
same foliation curves anticlockwise before exiting into the
strain shadow region. Sample SN73. Vertical section striking at
0° with horizontal and way up shown by a single barbed
arrow. Plane-polarized light.

deformations to be distinguished (e.g. Fig. 8a,b), the foliation geometries for the microstructures featured in
last four of which lie sub-orthogonal to one another. Figs 2–6 as a succession of four foliations, S through
1
Yet only one foliation is commonly visible at the S , and one axial plane crenulation, S (matrix foliations
4 5
mesoscopic scale. Figure 9 summarizes the interpreted that have been rotated and reactivated by the effects
 C OMPL E X M I CR O S T R U C T U R E S I N A S I MP L E M ATR I X 529

chloritoid (Thompson, 1976; Rubenach, 1992). These

are:
1 Chl+Al silicate+Qtz=Crd+H O
2
2 Chl+Ms+Qtz=Crd+Bt+H O
2
3 Chl+Ms+Qtz=Crd+Al silicate+Bt+H O
2
4 Crd+Ms=Bt+Al silicate+Qtz
Reaction (1) is eliminated because no examples of
andalusite growth occurring before cordierite were
found. Definite examples of cordierite growth before
andalusite are uncommon, but examples of synchron-
ous growth of cordierite and andalusite are common
(see below), suggesting that reaction (3) dominates.
The significance of multiple phases of growth of both
cordierite and andalusite implied by Fig. 8(a,b) is
described and discussed below.

ST R U C T U R A L R E LAT IO N SHI P S F R O M MI C R O
TO M A C R O S C A L E S
The asymmetry of overprinting of one foliation by
another can be defined as the asymmetry of curvature
from the earlier foliation into the later foliation (e.g.
magnified crenulations in Fig. 10a,b). This asymmetry
does not necessarily change across a fold formed at
the same time as the axial plane foliation (compare
Fig. 10a & b), and where this occurs (Fig. 10b), the
Fig. 6. Large andalusite porphyroblasts preserving relics of development of the fold involves two events (figure 14
earlier foliations and deformation events in the matrix in their in Bell & Johnson, 1992; Fig. 12 in Bell & Hickey,
strain shadows. They contain a shallow west-dipping foliation 1998), or the foliation may completely post-date the
that curves anticlockwise towards the vertical (trails in the fold and simply have formed parallel to its axial plane.
large lower right porphyroblast drawn across portion where Both phenomena are more common than has been
none are visible using the orientation in the graphitic portions
to either side and below) and is truncated on the left side of previously realized (Bell & Hickey, 1998). Timing a
the left porphyroblast by a steep foliation that runs along the fold relative to an ‘axial plane foliation’ is straight
crystal face of the core but wraps around the upper extremity, forward where this asymmetry changes across the
where it is overprinted by a crenulation with a shallowly hinge but less certain where it does not.
dipping axial plane. The right porphyroblast has a horizontal,
differentiated foliation, within as well as outside its upper rim, The asymmetry of overprinting of one foliation by
which, as it passes into the matrix, is rotated anticlockwise into another is different from ‘vergence’ asymmetry.
a more oblique orientation by the younger deformation with a ‘Vergence’ asymmetry always changes from limb to
vertical axial plane. Sample SN115.2. Vertical section striking limb across a fold hinge (cleavage seams relative to
at 90° with horizontal and way up shown by a single barbed folded layer in Fig. 10a–c,f–h) allowing macroscopic
arrow. Plane-polarized light.
folds to be distinguished relative to S and S in
2 4
Fig. 1(b). However, where a long history of porphyro-
blast growth is recorded by complex inclusion trail
of younger deformations are all shown with the same geometries, the succession of foliation overprinting
motif ). Figure 9(d,f–h) (from Figs 4, 5a–c) come from asymmetries is relatively consistent throughout the
one sample and Fig. 9(c,e) (from Figs 2c & 3) come Nora and Courthouse Rock areas, as shown in Fig. 9.
from another, allowing the effects of the various S curvatures into S are generally clockwise, S
1 2 2
deformation events to be readily compared in several curvatures into S are generally clockwise, S
3 3
porphyroblasts. The similarity of equivalent-age micro- curvatures into S are generally anticlockwise, S cur-
4 4
structures is striking in one sample as well as between vatures into S are coaxial (symmetrical) or clockwise.
5
samples (Fig. 9b–d,i are vertical thin sections oriented Therefore, the foliation overprinting geometry present
W–E and Fig. 9a,e,g,h are vertical thin sections ori- in this area for D and D is that shown in
2 4
ented S–N). Fig. 10( b,f ), making timing the macroscopic folds
present in this region, relative to this succession of
foliations, difficult.
P O S S IB L E ME TA M O R PH IC RE A C T I O N S
Where samples preserve less complex inclusion
Four possible reactions can have produced cordierite trails, assigning them to the different deformation
plus andalusite without involving staurolite, garnet, events is not possible without making inferences
530 T . H . B E L L & K. A. HI C K E Y

Fig. 7. Truncational microstructures formed against successive porphyroblast rims. The matrix foliation intensifies against and
wraps partially around the porphyroblast rim as shown in (b)–(e). (a) Horizontal differentiated crenulation cleavage S . The
2
porphyroblast grew in this event. (b) Differentiated cleavage S developed further in the matrix. (c) Vertical differentiated
crenulation cleavage S . The porphyroblast has grown on the upper,2 lower and left rims preserving differentiated S . Curvature due
3
to D is preserved in both rims. (d) Matrix foliation has further developed destroying remains of crenulation hinges.2 (e) Horizontal
3
differentiated crenulation cleavage S . The bulk of the porphyroblast has grown in this event, preserving S in its rims. Curvature
4
due to D is only preserved in the bottom rim. (f )–(i) show a porphyroblast that has overgrown a shallow3 cleavage, previously
crenulated4 to different degrees by a vertical cleavage, during a young shallow crenulation event. The subvertical crenulations (f )
and differentiated crenulation cleavages (g–i) pre-date the porphyroblast. Compare with (a)–(e) to distinguish the difference between
these situations and that when an earlier core is present. The differentiated crenulation should tend to wrap around a core if it was
present and relics of this should be preserved within the second stage of growth as shown in (b)–(e). (i) shows matrix intensification
against the porphyroblast rim after growth in ( h).

about timing using those samples preserving a more possibility of a more complex deformation history was
complex history. However, samples preserving less of acknowledged. Paterson et al. (1989) inferred that the
this history appear to be consistent with the structural presence of straight quartz fibres near pyrite grains
history observed. Figure 1(b) shows directions to D indicated penetrative strain during irrotational defor-
2
and D synforms determined from thin sections; these mation for the bulk rock. Because of partitioning of
4
are the events that produced subvertical axial plane the progressive shearing component of the deformation
microstructures. These suggest there is a D fold hinge around hard-to-deform objects such as pyrite and
2
present in the vicinity of the Nora Pluton (note that porphyroblasts, creating ellipsoidal islands of essen-
D vergences will commonly change across a D fold; tially coaxial progressive shortening strain (Bell &
4 2
see below). However, it is possible that this fold Hickey, 1997), this inference of irrotational strain
formed during an earlier deformation event than that cannot be applied to the bulk rock. This is strongly
preserved in the porphyroblasts because neither D or supported by the constant asymmetries of D and D
2 2 4
D asymmetries change across it. crenulations, into S and S seams respectively, across
4 2 4
fold hinges suggesting non-coaxial deformation (see
below).
D IS C U S SI O N A N D S I G N IF I C A N C E
We have shown a history of at least five deformations,
four of which produced locally preserved foliations, in
The apparently simple matrix foliation
rocks lying well away from younger shear zones.
The rocks from this area of the Sierra Nevada foothills Evidence for these events has been preserved in
have been interpreted as having a relatively simple porphyroblasts and some strain shadows but removed
ductile deformation history away from younger shear elsewhere from the matrix. Destruction of earlier
zones (Paterson et al., 1989; Tobisch et al., 1989). formed deformation events in the matrix has resulted
These workers suggested there was just one upright from reactivation (e.g. Fig. 6; Bell, 1986), rotation and
NW-trending vertical foliation, but their measurements re-use of matrix foliations (Fig. 8a–c; Davis & Forde,
show that the strain is very heterogeneous and the 1994; Davis, 1995). Differentiated crenulations that
 C OMPL E X M I CR O S T R U C T U R E S I N A S I MP L E M ATR I X 531

Fig. 8. (a)–(c) show the succession of deformations and growth phases of porphyroblasts required to produce the microstructures in
porphyroblast A in Fig. 3 (andalusite), porphyroblast 1 in Fig. 3 (cordierite) and the porphyroblasts in Fig. 5(b) (large andalusite
and two small cordierites), respectively. The successions involve (1) growth of the core over a crenulation hinge with development
of the matrix to a differentiated crenulation cleavage truncating the trails in the porphyroblast, (2) local growth of the rims during
a deformation event that (3) intensifies in the matrix producing a horizontal foliation that truncates the trails in the porphyroblast.
(4) Rim growth occurs during a deformation with vertical axial planes that (5) intensifies in the matrix producing a pervasive
foliation that (6) is weakly deformed by crenulations with horizontal axial planes accompanied by local rim growth of andalusite,
cordierite and andalusite in (a), ( b) & (c), respectively.

formed locally against porphyroblast rims, and possibly during the formation of shallow dipping foliations
in the more pelitic portions, did not necessarily ever (compare Fig. 10c & e), promoting reactivation of
become penetrative throughgoing foliations across the bedding.
lithological sequence. Reactivation of bedding and The succession of foliations does not imply a major
earlier foliations, a common path by which rocks time gap between each event. For a particular direction
accommodate shortening once folding commences of relative plate motion, a mountain belt reaches a
(Bell, 1986), frequently causes unfolding of larger scale height that results from a balance being achieved
folds, decrenulation, or prevents crenulations from between the rate of bulk shortening across it causing
developing in phyllosilicate-poor horizons. Unfolding uplift, erosion and isostacy. We suggest the mountain
is common in rocks deformed at <4 kbar, where shear range stays close to this equilibrium height, riding
senses tend to switch asymmetry from shallow to steep up and down a few hundred metres as successive
events (compare Fig. 10c & e), generating staircase- horizontal and vertical foliations form and higher-
shaped inclusion trails (Fig. 2a; Bell & Johnson, 1992). grade rocks are exposed by the progressive uplift and
This tends to unfold folds with steep axial planes erosion (Adshead-Bell & Bell, 1999).
532 T . H . B E L L & K. A. HI C K E Y

Fig. 9. The succession of foliations for all line diagrams on the microphotographs. (a)–(c) are Fig. 2(a–c), respectively. (d) & (e) are
Figs 3 & 4. (f )–(h) are Fig. 5(a–c), respectively. (i) is Fig. 6. S is shown with a solid line, S , with a dash/dot line, S with a small
dash line, S with a large dash line and S with a dotted line. 1 2 3
4 5

Fig. 10. Schematic diagrams showing

how the asymmetry of curvature of
the folded foliation into zones of
differentiation changes across the fold
hinge in (a) but not in (b). The latter
fold geometry develops by a two-stage
process (see Bell & Johnson, 1992;
Adshead-Bell & Bell, 1999). (c)
Schematic diagrams showing how
upright structures tend to be unfolded
by overprinting horizontal ones (d)
especially if they involve the opposite
asymmetry shear on the foliation (e).
(d) & (e) are not supposed to show
pervasive development of an S
foliation—rather they just shows3 the
shear sense during D . (f ) Schematic
3
diagrams showing a dextral shear
sense on S on all limbs of a regional
fold couplet2 overprinted (g) by top to
the east shear in D causing clockwise
3 (h) The effects
rotation of the D fold
of D are largely 2removed in the
3 by east-side-up shear during
matrix
D , generating the anticlockwise
4
asymmetry of curvature of pre-D
foliations towards S seams. This4
tightens the synform4 and uplifts the
rocks to the east. Note that the
deformation is actually extremely
heterogeneous for all events and that
this is readily accommodated by
progressive bulk inhomogeneous
shortening models where folds form
by shear along axial plane foliations
(Bell & Hickey, 1997).
 C OMPL E X M I CR O S T R U C T U R E S I N A S I MP L E M ATR I X 533

Correlation of matrix foliations

Because a large portion of the deformation history is
not preserved in all porphyroblasts from all rocks,
correlating foliations from rock to rock is difficult in
this region, in porphyroblasts and the matrix. Where
porphyroblasts preserve complex trails, the defor-
mation history appears similar from rock to rock and
is relatively easily resolved. Where simple trails are
preserved, correlation becomes difficult and subjective
and we have avoided it. A vertical foliation in the
matrix may be a product of S or S , or if steeply
2 4
dipping, a rotated version of S , S , S or S Similar
1 2 3 4.
problems exist with local zones of preserved shallow
foliations. S and S can generally only be distinguished
2 4
where porphyroblasts with complex trails are present,
adding to the problem of establishing the timing of
fold development discussed below.

Fig. 11. Rubenach (1992) plotted this phase diagram for a high
Multiple phases of porphyroblast growth and fold Mg content. We have modified his figure to show how the
development higher Fe content of our rocks lowers the univariant point for
reactions (2), (3) and (4), shifting the reaction boundaries as
Figures 2–6 and 8 show that cordierite and andalusite shown, or even lower.
grew episodically, but early during several successive
deformations with a more complex history of growth
than that recognized by Vernon et al. (1993). In some and andalusite early during D , D , D and D and
2 3 4 5
locations, these phases grew over earlier-formed cores, sillimanite in the matrix. Figure 8(a,b) shows that
and in other locations as the first local appearance of reaction 3 started and stopped early in each defor-
that mineral. Of particular significance are the similar mation event, before S , S , S and S developed into
2 3 4 5
microstructures preserved in cordierite and andalusite the differentiated crenulation cleavage overgrown by
porphyroblasts in Fig. 4 and their interpretation shown each successive stage of porphyroblast growth.
in Fig. 8(a,b), indicating simultaneous growth of cordi-
erite and andalusite at the start of four successive
Timing of fold development
deformation events. This requires the rocks to have
crossed reaction (3) in Fig. 11. However, this is a Establishing the timing of folds in multi-deformed
univariant reaction, which, if overstepped, should go terranes is straightforward where crenulations switch
to completion, rather than stop and start four times asymmetry of curvature into differentiated crenulation
as these microstructures suggest. Episodic growth cleavage across a fold hinge (Fig. 10a) but difficult
strongly supports Bell & Hayward’s (1991) contention where they do not as is the case in this region (e.g.
that the stage of crenulation development controls the Fig. 10b,c,f; Bell et al., 1997; Adshead-Bell & Bell,
micrometasomatic access of the constituents needed 1999). The poor preservation of S in graphitic schists
0
for porphyroblast growth to a growth site. They made timing this fold even more difficult. S and S
2 4
argued that porphyroblast growth commences very formed subvertically and D and D folds would have
2 4
early during deformation and ceases before through had subvertical axial planes. Local D folds were found
4
going differentiated crenulation cleavages develop on south of the Courthouse Rock and Nora plutons
the margins of the porphyroblasts, isolating them from (Fig. 1b). Both D and D vergences (direction to
2 4
access by further reactants (Spiess & Bell, 1996). synform is used rather than to the antiform) change
Because cordierite and andalusite growth commenced NW of the Nora Pluton (Fig. 1b). Although vergence
at the same time in the samples shown in Figs 3 and information on D is limited to zones where S in the
2 2
4, these rocks moved on a P–T path that allowed matrix can be distinguished from S using adjacent
4
them to rapidly overstep reactions (2) and (3) in porphyroblasts and outcrop ceases to the west, there
Fig. 11 by the start of D . This suggests that they does appear to be a macroscopic D or earlier fold in
2 2
crossed reaction (2) close to its intersection with this vicinity. A cross-section is drawn in Fig. 12 (along
reaction (3) (Fig. 11) where there is little P–T space A–A∞ in Fig. 1b) from our microstructurally obtained
for this reaction to occur. If this was the case, once data in the west, but showing the regionally mapped
the rocks crossed reaction (3) the pressure could not synform to the east.
have increased significantly during subsequent defor- Looking NW, the asymmetries of foliations crenu-
mations as reaction (4) did not occur (Fig. 11). For lated by D are generally anticlockwise into the
4
example, sample SN73 (Figs 1b & 4) grew cordierite differentiated cleavage throughout the areas mapped
534 T . H . B E L L & K. A. HI C K E Y

AC K N O W LE D G E M E N T S
We acknowledge the initial work on these rocks by
M. Matthews, who cut all of the thin sections that we
have used. We thank M. Rubenach for discussion and
Fig. 11. We thank K. Benn, R. Gibson and R. Miller
for the dramatic restructuring they suggested that
considerably improved the paper. We thank the
Department of Geoscience at Weber State University,
Utah, for providing facilities for the preparation of
this paper.

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macroscopic fold couplet shown in Fig. 12 has the from the Bolton Syncline, Connecticut: timing of porphyrob-
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