Constitutional / Neurobiological Theories of Child

Psychopathology

In a neurobiological perspective brain and nervous system functions can also be the cause for
psychological disorders in children and adults.
Due to the biological influence on young child’s brain development, neurobiological theories
like genetic and constitutional factors, neuroanatomy, neurotransmitters, and temperament
can recognize all variations, physical makeup, and individual differences are explained
through it.
Regions of the brain are highly influenced by the use of various biochemicals and
neurohormones, which interact differently to affect an individual’s psychological experiences
(Cicchetti & Cannon, 1999).
Below are few theories which explains in particular with child psychopathology

I. Genetic Contributions
A Genetic component of a person explains why he/she looks like their father/mother or
behaves like one of them.
 Through research and great scientific observation, scientists found that each person’s
unique genome is established at conception and consists of approximately 30,000
genes.
 Genes contain genetic information from each parent, and they are distributed on 22
matched pairs of chromosomes and a single pair of sex chromosomes.
 In males, the sex chromosome pair consists of an X and a Y chromosome (XY), and
in females, the sex chromosome pair consists of two X chromosomes (XX).
 Genetic factors are implicated in all of the childhood disorders because of some
genetic influences which are expressed early in development, such as behavioral
inhibition or shyness (Nigg, 2006), whereas others show up years later, such as a
depressive cognitive style (Garber & Flynn, 2001).
 Furthermore the expression of genetic influences is malleable and responsive to the
social environment (Ehringer, Rhee, Young, Corley, & Hewitt, 2006).
 Positive environmental circumstances can help a child “beat the odds” of developing a
significant disorder, despite genetic predisposition.
 Many genes have been implicated in childhood disorders, but very rarely is one gene
the single cause of a disorder (Moffi tt, 2005).
To know that how, why and what makes genes to be responsible for such behaviours first
we should understand the nature of a gene.
  The Nature of Genes
 A gene is basically a stretch of DNA and, by itself, it does not produce a behavior, an
emotion, or even a passing thought. Rather, it produces a protein.
 These proteins are vital for the brain to function, very rarely do they cause a behavior
to happen. They produce tendencies to respond to the environment in certain ways
(Sapolsky, 1997).
 Each of us may have genetic vulnerabilities, tendencies, and predispositions, but
rarely are the outcomes inevitable.
 Behavioural Genetics (a branch of genetics that investigates possible connections
between a genetic predisposition and observed behavior, taking into account
environmental and genetic influences.) researchers often begin their investigations by
conducting familial aggregation studies.
 They look for a non-random clustering of disorders or characteristics within a given
family and compare these results with the random distribution of the disorders or
characteristics in the general population (Rende & Waldman, 2006).
 For example, parents of children with childhood-onset schizophrenia tend to have
higher rates of schizophrenia spectrum disorders relative to normative prevalence
rates.
 Family aggregation studies cannot control for environmental variables that may also
contribute to a particular outcome. For example, a child may be anxious because of
his parents’ child-rearing methods rather than their genetic contributions.
 To increase scientific rigor following suggestive familial aggregation studies,
researchers may conduct twin studies to control for the contribution of genetic factors
(Ehringer et al., 2006).
 Twin studies may compare identical or monozygotic (MZ) twins, who have the same
set of genes, to fraternal—or dizygotic (DZ) twins, who share about half of each
other’s genes (the same as all first-degree relatives).
Studies on twins provide a powerful research strategy for examining the role of genetic
influences in both psychiatric and non-psychiatric disorders. However, the common or shared
environment presents a potential confound in any twin study unless the twins are reared apart
(Ehringer et al., 2006).
In contrast to the methods of behavioral genetics, methods of molecular genetics offer more
direct support for genetic influences on child psychopathology.
 Molecular genetics methods directly assess the association between variations in DNA
sequences and variations in a particular trait or traits.
 More than an association, variations in genetic sequences are thought to cause the
variations in the trait(s) (Pennington, 2002).
 Molecular genetics methods have been used to identify specific genes for many
childhood disorders, including autism, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and
learning disability.
 However, discovering that mutations in one gene or another causally influence a
particular form of child psychopathology is only the beginning. The longer-term goal
is to determine how genetic mutations alter how the genes function in the
development of the brain and behavior for different psychopathologies (Rende &
Waldman, 2006).
  Most forms of abnormal child behavior are polygenic, involving a number of
susceptibility genes that interact with one another and with environmental influences,
to result in observed levels of impairment (Rende & Waldman, 2006).
 Many genes influence much of our development and most of our behavior,
personality, and even intelligence. However, individual genes cannot account for the
major psychological disorders presented.
 Specific genes are sometimes associated with certain psychological disorders, such as
some forms of mental retardation. Genetic contributions to psychological disorders
come from many genes, and each makes a relatively small contribution.

II. Neurobiological Contributions (Brain structure)

 Brain Structure and Function the brain is often divided into the brain stem and the
forebrain (telencephalon) because of their separate functions.
 The brain stem, located at the base of the brain, handles most of the autonomic
functions necessary to stay alive. It also contains the midbrain, which coordinates
movement with sensory input.
 The lowest part of the brain stem, called the hindbrain, contains the medulla, the pons,
and the cerebellum.
 The hindbrain provides essential regulation of autonomic activities such as breathing,
heartbeat, and digestion, and
 the cerebellum controls motor coordination.
 The midbrain houses the reticular activating system (RAS), which contributes to
processes of arousal and tension.
 At the very top of the brain stem is the diencephalon, located just below the forebrain.
 The diencephalon contains the thalamus and hypothalamus, which are both essential
to the regulation of behavior and emotion.
 The diencephalon functions primarily as a relay between the forebrain and the lower
areas of the brain stem.
 Next is the forebrain, which has evolved in humans into highly specialized functions.
At the base of the forebrain is an area known as the limbic, or border, system. It
contains a number of structures that are suspected causes of psychopathology, such as
the hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, septum, and amygdala.
 These important structures regulate emotional experiences and expressions and play a
significant role in learning and impulse control.
 The limbic system also regulates the basic drives of sex, aggression, hunger, and
thirst.
 Also at the base of the forebrain lies the basal ganglia, which includes the caudate
nucleus.
 Researchers are discovering that this area regulates, organizes, and filters information
related to cognition, emotions, mood, and motor function, and it has been implicated
in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders affecting motor behavior, such as tics and
tremors, and obsessive–compulsive disorder .
 The cerebral cortex, the largest part of the forebrain, gives us our distinctly human
qualities and allows us to look to the future and plan, to reason, and to create.
 The cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres that look very much alike, but
have different specialties, or functions.
  The left hemisphere (dominant in righthanded persons) plays a chief role in verbal
and other cognitive processes. The right hemisphere (dominant in left -handed
persons) is better at social perception and creativity.
 Researchers believe that each hemisphere plays a different role in certain
psychological disorders, such as communication and learning disorders.
 Around puberty, the brain develops new brain cells and neural connections, and then
once again begins to reorganize and consolidate (Benes, 2006). Th is new growth and
restructuring results in further maturation of the lobes of the brain.
 The frontal lobes show up most often in subsequent chapters on disorders and are
worth special attention. It contain the functions underlying most of our thinking and
reasoning abilities, including memory.
 These functions enable us to make sense of social relationships and customs and to
relate to the world and the people around us, which is why they have considerable
relevance in the study of abnormal child psychology.
 These critical brain areas perform their functions in an integrated, harmonious
fashion, aided by important regulatory systems and neurotransmitters, which permits
the whole to be much larger than the sum of its parts.
 However, for many disorders one or more of these brain areas are not performing
their functions as they should, either as a result of other problems or as a primary
cause of the disorder.

III. The Endocrine System

 The endocrine system is an important regulatory system that has been linked to
specific psychological disorders, such as anxiety and mood disorders, in both children
and adults.
 There are several endocrine glands, and each produces a particular hormone that it
releases into the bloodstream.
 The adrenal glands are most familiar because they produce epinephrine (also known
as adrenaline) in response to stress.
 Epinephrine energizes us and prepares our bodies for possible threat or challenge.
 The thyroid gland produces the hormone thyroxine, which is needed for proper
energy metabolism and growth and is implicated in certain eating disorders of
children and youths.
 Finally, the pituitary gland, located deep within the brain, orchestrates the body’s
functions by regulating a variety of hormones, including estrogen and testosterone.
 Because the endocrine system is closely related to the immune system, which protects
us from disease and many other biological threats, it is not surprising that it is
implicated in a variety of disorders, particularly health- and stress-related disorders
 One brain connection that is implicated in some psychological disorders involves the
hypothalamus and the endocrine system.
 The hypothalamus control center, coupled with the pituitary and adrenal glands, make
up a regulatory system in the brain known as the hypothalamic–p ituitary–adrenal
(HPA) axis
  This explains how it has been implicated in several psychological disorders,
especially those connected to a person’s response to stress and ability to regulate
emotions, such as anxiety and mood disorders.

IV. Neurotransmitters

 Neurotransmitters are similar to biochemical currents in the brain.

 These currents develop in an organized fashion to make meaningful connections that
serve larger functions such as thinking and feeling.
 Neurons that are more sensitive to one type of neurotransmitter, such as serotonin,
tend to cluster together and form brain circuits, which are paths from one part of the
brain to another (R. R. Dean, Kelsey, Heller, & Ciaranello, 1993).
 Brain circuits and neurotransmitters have been tied to particular psychological
disorders, but they also offer possible avenues for treatment. Psychoactive drugs
work by either increasing or decreasing the flow of various neurotransmitters—for
example, increasing dopamine in the case of stimulant medications for ADHD
(Vitiello, 2007).
 However, like the influence of genetics, changes in neurotransmitter activity may
make people more likely or less likely to exhibit certain kinds of behavior in certain
situations, but they do not cause the behavior directly.
 Genetic influences depend on the environment. Genetic endowment influences
behavior, emotions, and thoughts; environmental events are necessary for this
influence to be expressed.
 Neurobiological contributions to abnormal child behavior include knowledge of brain
structures, the endocrine system, and neurotransmitters, which perform their
functions in an integrated, harmonious fashion.

V. Temperament and Early Personality Styles

 Temperament refers to the child’s organized style of behavior that appears early in
development, such as fussiness or fearfulness, which shapes the child’s approach to
his or her environment and vice versa (Henderson & Wachs, 2007).
 The development of emotion regulation or dysregulation is thought to derive from
both socialization and innate predispositions, or temperament.
 Temperament is a subset of the broader domain of personality, so it is oft en
considered an early building block of personality (Stright, Gallagher, & Kelley, 2008).
 Such constitutional predispositions do not imply a certain destiny leading to a
psychological disorder; rather, a particular outcome appears to be based on a series of
reciprocal interactions between innate predispositions (debilitative or protective) and
situational circumstances, such as a supportive or stressful environment.
 Three primary dimensions of temperament have relevance to risk of abnormal child
development (Rothbart & Posner, 2006):
1. Positive affect and approach- This dimension describes the “easy child,” who is
generally approachable and adaptive to his or her environment and possesses the
 ability to regulate basic functions of eating, sleeping, and elimination relatively
smoothly,
2. Fearful or inhibited- This dimension describes the “slow-to-warm-up child,” who is
cautious in his or her approach to novel or challenging situations. Such children are
more variable in self-regulation and adaptability, and may show distress or negativity
toward some situations.
3. Negative affect or irritability-This dimension describes the “difficult child,” who is
predominantly negative or intense in mood, not very adaptable, and arrhythmic. Some
children with this temperament show distress when faced with novel or challenging
situations, and others are prone to general distress or irritability, including when
limitations are placed on them.
 These temperament dimensions, or early self-regulatory styles, may be linked to
the development of psychopathology or risk conditions in several ways.
 In some instances, a temperamental style may be highly related to a particular
disorder. In other instances, the condition may develop from the features closely
related to temperament, but the condition itself may appear unrelated (Rothbart &
Posner, 2006).
 For example, an infant’s extreme sensitivity to emotional stimuli may contribute
to a tendency to withdraw from others as a toddler or pre-schooler; over time, this
tendency may transform into an interpersonal style characterized by a self-
reported lack of feeling toward others and, consequently, peer rejection or other
risk conditions.
 Also, infant negative affect can contribute to maternal withdrawal or indifference,
leading to insecure attachment and its associated risk conditions.
 There is growing empirical evidence linking early behavioral styles to adult
personality characteristics.
 The degree of interference with these tasks depends on the fit between the child,
her or his environment, and the interaction between the child and the environment.
 Emotion dysregulation is believed to be the result of interference in the associated
developmental processes.