EDISES INGLESE-MANUALE PER PROVE SCRITTE E ORALI

Chapter 1- From the Origin to the Middle Ages-From the Origins to the Anglo-Saxon
Period
1.1 Historical and social background
In the Neolithic period, Britain was settled by pre-Celtic Tribes later known as the Iberians.
Around 700 BC new invaders from central Europe, called Celts reached Britain. Two
centuries later a second wave of Celts arrived, later called Britons.
The Celts were:
1. artisans Farmers and fishers
2. pagans
3. were organized according to a social system based on chieftains(capitribù), warrior
aristocracy and freeman farmers, although the most important caste was presented by
Druids.(druido, pagani)
In 55 BC Britain was invaded by the Romans under Julius Caesar's rule but the proper
Conquest of the country took place in 43 Ad, under Emperior Claudius Reign.
In 410 AD the Romans were forced to leave the country to defend Rome against the Barbarian
invasions. Britain left defenseless, was invaded by North German tribes: the Angles, the
Saxons and the Jutes.
The Anglo-Saxons brought their own culture and social habits:
 they abandoned the Roman towns to live in the moors or forests transformed into
cultivable lands.
 they are organized according to a pyramid like social system .(At the top the king,
followed by aristocracy and warriors.)
 They established strong pagan values.In 597 AD Pope Gregory I sent the Benedictine
monk Augustine to England to begin its conversion to Christianity.
In the late 8th century the Vikings or Danes from Scandinavia began their raids on England.
By the middle of the 9th century, the Vikings proper conquest of England has already started.
Only Wessex remained as Anglo-Saxon thanks to King Alfred the Great.
At the end of the 10th century the Vikings attacked England again and when Ethelred II died
their leader Canute controlled much of the country.
When Canute died, he was succeeded by his son Harthacknut. His brother, Edward the
Confesso,r succeeded him. Edward died in 1066, he left no successes and Harold of Wessex,
the Earl of East Anglia, was proclaimed King by the Witain.

1.1.2 Cultural and Literary Background

The most famous megalithic monument in Britain is Stonehenge on Salisbury plain, a great
feat of engineering work made up of huge stones placed in circles.
Stonehenge was probably used as a religious site to worship ancient gods or as an
astronomical observatory.
As a whole, Celtic Culture was based on a strong oral tradition transmitted by the Druids who
acted as scholars and used the runs, a system of symbols, for writing and for magical and
divination rites.
The Romans:
 Introduced the Latin Alphabet and Celtic Runes fell into disuse
 Reorganized the country by building roads and towns
 Adopted their administrative and legal systems and the official Roman, cults so the
Druid was weakened and eventually disappeared.
Old English was spoken by the Anglo-Saxons and their descendants from about the 5th
century to the mid 12th century. It underwent many transformations in its long life, being
influenced by Latin and Old Norse spoken by the Vikings.
At the beginning, it was written in the Anglo-Saxon alphabet but it progressively shifted to
Latin although it maintained some symbols from the runes.
When the Angles, Saxons and Jutes invaded England 410 AD they brought with them a new
language: the Anglo-Saxon or Old English.
The beginning of English Literature is associated with the Anglo-Saxons.
The most relevant features of Anglo-Saxon Literature are:
 It was oral and anonymous
 It was formed through a long process of collective memorization
 It included different genres such as epic and elegiac poetry, sermons, Bible
translations, legal works, chronicles and riddles(indovinelli).
 Anglo-Saxon poetry was based on alliteration and stress, not rhyme and meter, and
used formulaic phrases called kennings and litotes.
1.2 Anglo-Saxon Literature- Anglo -Saxon Prose Writing
The most important prose works of the Anglo-Saxon period included:
 Translations into Anglo-Saxon: the books translated by King Alfred The Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle
 Prose works by authors associated with the Benedictine reform such as Wulfstan
(Archbishop of York). Wulfstan’s most important work in his sermon Sermo Lupi ad
Anglos.
Anglo-Saxon Epic Poetry:Beowulf
By far the most important epic poem in English history is Beowulf, a long narrative poem
(3182lines) contained in the Nowell Manuscript which was composed by an unknown
Anglo-Saxon poet around 700 A.D.
Themes-:The most relevant features of Beowulf are:
 It revolves around the deeds of the title character who embodies the manners and
values of the Germanic heroic code such as bravery, loyalty, courtesy, pride, honour,
importance of family.
 It includes some Christian elements such as allusions to the Old Testament, use of
such words as “Father”, “Lord” and creator
 It gives prominence to nature
Language: Beowulf shows all the features of Old English verse. In fact
 it is an alliterative poem
 it is poor in similes but rich in kennings(metaphorical circumlocutions used)
 its tone is solemn

1.2.1 Anglo-Saxon Lyric Poetry: the Elegies

Anglo-Saxon Lyric poetry is represented by six pagan elegies which are preserved in the
Exeter Book
1. Deor’s Lament
2. The wife’s Lament
3. The Seafarer
4. The husband’s message
5. The wanderer
6. The ruin
All the elegies:
 Have a melancholic atmosphere and general tone of lamentation
 Are pervaded by a sense of fate
 Describe, as in Beowulf, a hierarchical society
The main themes of the pagan elegies are:
 Exile and banishment
 Loneliness and suffering caused by the departure of a loved one
 Looking back at happier times, now lost
1.2.2 Anglo-Saxon Religious Poetry
Caedmon: His only surviving work is his Hymn, the nine -line alliterative vernacular praise
poem in honour of God which he supposedly learned to sign in his initial dream.
Cynewolf: His production includes 4 major poems. The fates of the Apostles, Elene, Juliana
and Christ II.
While Christ II is a description of a devotional subject, the others all deal with the death and
or suffering of the central characters due to their religious values.
1.3The Middle Ages- Historical and Social Background
In 1066 Duke William of Normandy conquered England after the Battle of Hastings, where
Harold of Wessex was killed. The Norman Conquest marked the beginning of the Middle
Ages a period full of historical and social changes.
William of Normandy
 Introduced the feudal system in England (gave power to the barons with their knights)
 Carried out a survey of his pieces of land
 Separated the fields of ecclesiastical and civil justice
During the reigns of William’s successors-William II, Henry I and Stephen-the power of the
state was strengthened. In 1153 when Stephen died, Henry I’s nephew was proclaimed king
as Henry II.
Henry II:
 Changed the feudal system and reduced the power to barons
 Created a stronger system of justice by introducing Common Law (based on Custom
and comparison with previous cases and trial by jury.
Henry II was succeeded by his sons, first Richard I and then King John. Richard I, known as
the Lion-Heart preferred gaining fame rather than governing.
John, known as Lackland , was a tyrannical king who levied higher taxes to finance his
disastrous military campaigns in France which led to the loss of Normandy.
Nobility refused to grant him more money and he was forced to sign the Magna Carta
Libertatum=Great Charter of Liberty 1215.The document marked an important step towards
a more representative government.
The following years also saw the foundation of Parliament :
 During Henry III’s reign the barons rebelled because the king did not comply with the
principles of Magna Carta.
 During Edward I’s reign the king summoned the so-called Parliament(1295) to get
taxes from his wars
Edward I’s successor, Edward II tried to resume the war against Scotland but he was
prevented by internal struggles caused by his misgovernment which led to his disposition and
probable murder. The next king was Edward III whose reign was marked by:
 The first phase of the Hundred Years War(1337-1453)
During this time the English obtained important victories. The phase was concluded in 1360
with the Treaty of Brétigny. Edward III renounced the French Crown but he obtained part of
Southern France.
 The bubonic plague also known as Black Death. This plague brought about great social
changes, favouring the decline of the feudal society and the rise of a rural and urban
middle class.
 The rise of the religious reformist movement known as Lollardy founded by the
English priest John Wycliffe who attacked the church for its wealth and corruption.
Edward III was succeeded by Richard II the last Plantagenet king, whose reign was
characterized by :
 The peasant’s revolt(1381) caused by the king’s oppressive measures
 Internal struggles and rivalries
Richard II was eventually deposed by Parliament and later killed because of his despotism
and misgovernment. He was succeeded by his cousins Henry of Lancaster who became king
as Henry IV. His reign was marked by a series of rebellions and invasions in Wales, Scotland,
France and Northern England.
Henry IV was succeeded by Henry V who resumed the Hundred Year’s war against France
obtaining important victories and conquering Normandy.
The war went on during Henry VI’’s reign but the French were led to a series of successes
inflamed by Joan of Arc (Jean D’arc). By 1453 when the war ended, the English had lost their
possessions except Calais. Henry VI was a mentally unstable king dominated by unpopular
regents. This eventually led to a civil war known as the War of the Roses, between the house
of York and that of Lancaster.
The conflict included a series of battles with alternative results. In the following years the war
continued and the Lancastrians briefly managed to regain power in 1470.At the death of
Edward in 1483, Edward V was probably killed by Richard of York (Richard III).Richard
became very unpopular and in 1485 Henry Tudor, a Lancaster defeated and killed him
becoming king as Henry VII and finally ending the war of the Roses.
1.3.2 Cultural and Literary Background
The medieval frame of mind was deeply influenced by 2 cultural institutions and sets of ideas:
 The all-pervading role of religion and the church.
In fact Medieval philosophy was essentially theological . Churches and monasteries were the
main centres of culture and education.
 The spread of chivalry
Other important cultural events include:
 The foundation of a national spirit(As time passed Normans and Anglo-Saxons merged
and a sentiment of national unit gradually arose)
 The evolution of English Language
During the Norman Rule in England three languages were spoken side by side:
 French-the* language of the court and the upper social class
 Latin - the language of the church and learning
 Anglo -Saxon -the language of peasants and of common people
However the union between French and English was inevitable. By the 13th and 14th centuries,
in fact, Anglo-Saxon inflections were reduced, accent changed and many French words
enriched its vocabulary. The result was the rise of the Middle English:
 The birth of the first universities (Oxford and Cambridge)
 The birth of printing (in the 15th century credited to Johannes Gutenberg (1398-1468)
From a literary point of view the Middle Ages was marked by:
 The beginning of the age of the writer
 The massive presence of religious and didactic works
  The introduction and familiarization with French Literature (14th century English
began to replace French as the language of the government and there was a flourishing
of Middle English Literature).
1.3 Medieval Literature - 1.4.1 The Medieval verse Romance
Romances were the typical expression of chivalry: in fact they dealt with the heroic or
marvelous adventures of warlike and courtly knights, mainly focusing on their adventures
against robbers, giants and Saracens.
Three categories of Romance
Medieval romances can be divided into three categories:-
• The matter of Rome (romances about Roman heroes such as Caesar)
• The Matter of France (stories of Charlemagne and Roland)
• The Matter of Britain – about the tales of Great Britain and its kings , especially
King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table.
1.4.2William Langland (ca 1332-1386)
He was probably born in 1332 in the country of Oxfordshire, when he took Minor Orders,
although he could not make a career in the church because he was married , Langland is
considered the author of Piers Plowman, a long allegorical poem in alliterative verse made
up of a series of dreams or visions.
Pier Plowman is one of the most remarkable works of Middle English Literature because it
juxtaposes vision and actuality.
1.4.3 Geoffrey Chaucer (ca 1343-1400)
Geoffrey Chaucer was born in London, probably in 1343.In 1370 he was sent to Italy when
he probably met Petrarch and became familiar with the work of Boccaccio and Dante.
Chaucer is considered the “Father of English Poetry” because :
 he was the first poet to write all his work in the dialect of his native London.
 He greatly contributed to the prestige of English as a literary means
 He introduced continental accentual syllabic meter as an alternative to the alliterative
Anglo -Saxon metre.
Modern scholars generally divide Chaucer’s literary career into 3 periods:
1) French Period:
• The Romaunt of the Rose (written before 1373),
 • The Book of the Duchess(1368-69)
2) Italian Period
• The House of Fame (c.1370s)
• The Parliament of Foules (c.1380)
• The legend of Good Women(1385)
• Troilus and Criseyde (c. 1382-85)
3) English period: It is marked by greater realism and is represented by Chaucer’s
masterpiece
• The Canterbury Tales (c. 1387-1400)
The most important features of The Canterbury Tales:
 It offers a realistic portrait of Medieval Society and its individuals which are at the
same time literary types. The pilgrims come from different social classes
 Chaucer’s descriptions are gently humorous and ironical
 It covers a wide range of medieval narrative poems, such as the parable and the
romance and themes such as love, marriage, corruption, hypocrisy and chivalry
 Although realism is its important characteristic, the work has also a metaphorical
meaning. The pilgrims’ journey symbolizes the passage from worldly pleasures to a
sacred destination, Canterbury which is the symbol of the celestial city and the end of
life
 Chaucer used rhyming couplets made up of ten- syllable lines.
1.4.5 The Medieval Ballad=Oral narrative poems
Medieval Ballads are oral narrative poems intended for common people which are originally
accompanied by music and dances. Most of them were composed between the 13th and the
16th centuries. The ballad began to decline with the introduction of printing which marked the
transition from an oral to a typographical culture.
Medieval ballads are classified into:
1) Border ballads 8about the chivalry between the English and the Scots)
2) Ballads of magic and supernatural
3) Ballads of crime (Robin Hood)
4) Ballads of Love and domestic tragedy
5) Religious ballads
6) Historical and legendary ballads
Traditional ballads Features:
1) They are short and focus on a single episode or situation
2) The structure is often in the form of question and answer
3) there is alternation between dialogue and narration
4) They often open abruptly
 5) Little attention is paid to the description of the setting and there is no character
development or psychological motivation
6) Their language is simple
7) They are impersonal, in fact the narrator /singer rarely interferes and there is no
comment
1.4.6 Medieval Prose Writing
Early Middle Ages Prose Writing :Geoffrey of Monmouth
His work Historiae Regum Britanniae is remarkable because it contains the first narrative
account of King Arthur’s life.
John Wycliffe (ca 1330-1384)
He tracts and treatises in Latin about political ideas even about church(church-no property)
Medieval Prose writing: Thomas Malory
Thomas Malory wrote a cycle of Arthurian tales published as Le Morte D’Arthur by William
Caxton in 1485.The book revolves around the rise and the fall of King Arthur and the Knights
of the Round Table. The most important features of the work are:
 The emphasis Malory gives to the brotherhood of the knights
 The use of an impressive language
1.4.7The Origins of the English Drama
The origins of English drama are to be found in the religious celebrations of great Christmas
festivals. As the performances moved outside the church:
 Latin was replaced by English
 Longer scripts were invented which introduced homely and comic characters and
situations that didn’t exist in the Bible
 Scenic effects were progressively added
 Lay people took the place of priest and monks
In this way Mystery and Miracle Plays were created in the 13th and 14th centuries.
Mystery Plays mainly dealt with Biblical Stories, while Miracle Plays were concerned with
the lives of the Saints. Both Mysteries and Miracles:
 Were performed on decorated , movable stage wagons called pageants
 Were staged by trade guilds
 Were mainly performed during the Feats of Corpus Christi
 Were performed by amateur actors
Miracle plays were grouped into four cycles: Chester, York, Coventry and Wakefield.
The third type of vernacular drama produced during the Middle Ages was the Morality Play.
Morality plays :
 Did not focus on Biblical events but on the struggle between good and evil
  Used invented plots
 Were performed by actors grouped under associations
The oldest morality play surviving in English is the Castle of Perseverance (1425), about the
battle for the soul of Humanum Genus. The greatest morality play is Everyman.
The moral purpose of the play is that earthly things are not useful to man in the moment of
his death except for his heavenly after life.
Morality plays in the 15th century were gradually replaced by Interludes, shorter and more
realistic theatrical pieces which bridge Medieval Drama and Elizabethan Theatre.