SYSTEMATIC AND DISPERSIVE PRESSURE:

A large random-mating population is stable with respects to gene frequencies and genotype
frequencies, in the absence of agencies tending to change its genetic properties.

There are two processes through which changes of gene frequency, and consequently of
genotype frequencies, are brought.

1. Systematic processes: tend to change the gene frequency in a manner predictable both in
amount and in direction. Also there are three types of these processes: migration,
mutation and selection.
2. Dispersive processes: arises in small population from the effects of sampling, and is
predictable in amount but no in direction.

--A-SYSTEMATICS PROCESS:

1-Selection:

Individuals differ in viability and fertility, and that they therefore contribute different numbers of
offspring to the next generation. This contribution is calls the fitness of the individual (can be
called adaptive value or selective value).

In the differences of fitness are in any way associated with the presen-ce or absence of
a particular gene in the individuals genotype, then selection operates on that gene. When a gene
is subject of selection its frequency in the offspring is not the same as in the parents. In this way
selection causes a change of gene frequency, and also of genotype frequency.

The strength of the selection is expressed as the coefficient of selection, s, which is the
proportionate reduction in the gametic contribution of a particular genotype compared with
a standard genotype (usually the most favored).

The fitness of a genotype with respect to any particular locus is not the same in all individuals. It
depends on the environmental circumstances in which the individuals lives, and also on the
genotype with respect to genes at other loci.

Evolution can be regarded as a change of the genetic constitution of a population. Two

independent reflections allow the understanding of selection and fitness:

1. It is necessary to have a good look at reproduction rates and growth functions.

2. The basis for further calculations has to be the HARDY-WEINBERG formulas of
population genetics.

If the fitness of the individual leads to a reproductive advantage then the alleles present in that
individual will be more prevalent in the population. In this manner the alleles of this individual
are selected. The process is called selection. In a Darwinian, context this is also called natural
selection.
Example:

If you have a genetic system for instance yellow coat colour in the Labrador Retriever, where the
recessive (yellow) have the fitness 1-s by selection you get:

Genotype EE Ee ee Total
Observed number 141 80 11 232
Frequency p2 2pq q2 1
Fitness 1 1 1-s
2
Proportion after selection p 2pq q2(1-s) 1-sq2

After selection the gene frequency q' can be calculated by the gene counting method, q' is the
gene frequency in the next generation, is calculated as half of the heteroygotes plus the surviving
recessive relative to half of the proportion of all surviving genes, that is equal 1-sq2.

q' = (2pq/2 + q2(1-s))/(1-sq2)

By -strong selection (s=1) the gene frequencies change very rapidly at high gene frequencies. If
the gene frequency in contrasts is low, the selection will hardly affect the frequency, the
population has parked the gene in waiting position so to speak. This causes some problems if it
concerns a recessive disease gene in an animal population. Selection can not really solve this
problem. Therefore there is great interest in finding a DNA test method to diagnose the
heterozygotic carrier. From Figure it also becomes evident that by weak selection pressure the
changes in the gene frequency are always very slow.
2-Migration:

Migration changes gene frequencies by bringing in more copies of an allele already in the
population or by bringing in a new allele that has arisen by mutation. Because mutations do not
occur in every population, migration will be required for that allele to spread throughout that
species. Migration requires that the movement be coupled with the introduction of new alleles
into the population. This will only occur after the migrant has successfully mated with an
individual in the population.

The island model of migration

I this model, a large population is split into many subpopulations dispersed geographically like
islands. We consider an allele A with an average allele frequency among the subpopulations
equal to p. Migration is assumed to happen in such a way that the allele frequency among the
migrants equals the average allele frequency among the subpopulations, called, p.

The amount of migration is measured by the parameter m, which equals the probability that
a randomly chosen allele in any subpopulation comes from a migrant. A particular subpopulation
with A allele frequency of pt in generation t. If we choose an allele from this subpopulation, the
allele could have come from the same subpopulation in generation t-1 with probability 1-m, in
which case there is an allele with probability pt-1.

At the same time, the allele could have come from a migrant in generation t-1 with probability m,
in which case there is an allele with probability p. p is the same in all generations because only
are considered migration processes.

pt= pt-1 (1-m) + pm

One-way: the population from which migrants come has stable frequency qm

q1 = mqm + (1-m)q0 = m(qm - q0) + q0

∆q = q1 – q0 = m(qm - q0)

At equilbrium, Δq = 0. So either m= 0 (uninteresting case) or qm = q0.

3-Mutation:

The effect of mutation on the genetic properties of the population differs according to if we are
concerned with a mutational event so rare as to be virtually unique, or with a mutational step that
recurs repeatedly. The first produces no permanent change in a large population, whereas the
second does.

 Non-recurrent mutation:

Consider first a mutational event that gives rise to just one representative of the mutated gene or
chromosome in the whole population. This kind of mutation is of very little importance as
a cause of change of gene frequency, because the product of a unique mutation has only a very
small chance of surviving in a large population. The original mutated gene is present in
a heterozygote and its chance of being lost in the next generation is one-half. If it survives, it
may be represented by one or more copies, but each copy has only a one-half chance of surviving
to the third generation. The loss is permanent.

Suppose that there are two alleles, A1 and A2, with initial frequencies p0 and q0; A1 mutates to
A2 at a rate u per generation. The change of gene frequency in one generation is: ∆q = up0 .

 Recurrent mutation:

It is with the second type of mutation that we are chiefly concerned as an agent for causing
change of gene frequency, and in a large population the frequency of a mutant gene is never so
low that complete loss can occur from sampling.

Suppose that there are two alleles, A1 and A2, with initial frequencies p0 and q0; A1 mutates to
A2 at a rate u per generation, and A2 mutates to A1 at a rate v. Then, after one generation there is
a gain of A2genes equal to up0 due to mutation in one direction, and a loss equal to vq0 due to
mutation in the other direction.

Per generation mutation rates:

u = A1 → A2: 10-5 to 10-8

v = A2 → A1: 10-6 to 10-9

Frequency of allele q after mutations: q1 = up0 – vq0 + q0.

Then, the change of gene frequency in one generation is: ∆q = up0 - vq0 .
The point of equilibrium can be found by equating the change of frequency, ∆q, to zero, then:
pu = qv .

Two conclusions can be drawn from the effect of mutation on gene frequency:

 mutation rates are generally very low,

 it is usually much less frequent than forward mutation from wild type to mutant.

The dispersive process includes four consequences, random drift, differentiation between sub-
populations, uniformity within sub-populations and increased homozygosity. Due to lack of
scope we will discuss only systematic processes here.

B--DISPERSIVE PRESSURE:

GENETIC DRIFT:

Genetic drift is change in allele frequencies in a population from generation to generation It

occurs due to chance events
-
More Precisely, It is change due to "sampling error" from the gene pool of the current
generation.In each generation, some individuals may, increase in nu-mber than other
individuals.The genes of the next generation will be the genes of the "lucky" individuals, not
necessarily the healthier or "better" individuals. Genetic drift is much more likely in smaller
populations of organisms..Any of the alleles can quickly become fixed or extinct in the
population. Larger populations are unlikely to change this quickly as a result of genetic drift.
There is less of a chance of losing an entire allele, because many organisms carry the allele and it
is less likely they will all be wiped out. Genetic drift can easily be confused with natural
selection.The difference is whether or not the allele is actively participating in the change in
allele frequencies.If the allele affects an organism in a way that causes more reproduction of the
DNA, the allele will increase in frequency.

This is caused by the allele’s direct effects on the organism and the environment. This is natural
selection.When the allele is increased or decreased simply because it was present in the
organisms that survived, this is genetic drift. Unlike natural selection, genetic drifdoes not
depend on an allele’s beneficial or harmful effects. Instead, drift changes allele frequencies
purely by chance, as random subsets of individual are sampled to produce the next
generation.Every population experiences genetic drift, but small populations feel its effects more
strongly.Genetic drift does not take into account an allele’s adaptive value to a population, and it
may result in loss of a beneficial allele or fixation of a harmful allele in a population
 -

Genetic drift, unlike natural selection, does not take into account an allele’s benefit (or
harm) to the individual that carries it. That is, a beneficial allele may be lost, or a slightly
harmful allele may become fixed, purely by chance.A beneficial or harmful allele would
be subject to selection as well as drift.But strong drift might still cause fixation of a
harmful allele or loss of a beneficial one.
 TYPES OF GENETIC DRIFT
There are two types of genetic drift:

The bottleneck effect

Founder Effect

These are cases in which a small population is formed from a larger population. These “sampled”
populations often is not represent the genetic diversity of the original population. Their small
size mean-s they may experience strong drift for generations.

BOTTLE NECK EFFECT:

It is an extreme example of genetic drift that happens when the size of a population is severely
reduced. Events like natural disasters (earthquakes, floods, fires) can decimate a population
composition. Leaving behind a small, random assortment of survivors.

The allele frequencies in this group may be very different from those of the population prior to
the event, and some alleles may be missing entirely.
FOUNDER EFFECT:

The founder effect is another extreme example of drift

It occurs when a small group of individuals breaks off from a larger population to
establish a colony.The new colony is isolated from the original population, and the
founding individuals may not represent the full genetic diversity of the original
population.That is, alleles in the founding population may be present at different
frequencies than in the original population, and some alleles may be missing altogether.
The founder effect is similar in concept to the bottleneck effect, but it occurs via a
different mechanism (colonization rather than catastrophe).
 REFERENCES:

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_drift
• https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evolution
• https://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/random-genetic-drift-genetic-drift
• https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/genetic-drift
• https://www.britannica.com/science/genetic-drift
CONTENTS:

 Systematic and dispersive pressure

 Systematic process
o Selection
o Mutation
• Recurrent mutation
• Non recurrent mutation
o Migration
 Dispersive pressure
 Genetic drift
• Bottle nect effect
• Founder effect
 ASSIGNMENT NO: 02

SYSTEMATIC AND DISPERSIVE PRESSURE

SUBMITTED BY : NAILA ZULFIQAR

(16261514-001)
SUBMITTED TO : DR .SAIMA JABEEN

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF GUJRAT
RAWALPINDI SUBCAMPUS