American International Journal of Business Management (AIJBM)

ISSN- 2379-106X, www.aijbm.com Volume 2, Issue 6 (June- 2019), PP 39-53

Unlocking the Black Box: Exploring the Link between

Organizational Commitment and Organizational
Citizenship Behaviour

Kemo Badiane
The School of Foreign Languages of Nanfang College of Sun Yat-Sen University, 882, Wenquan Avenue,
Conghua District, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, Postal Code: 510970, China.
*Corresponding Author: Kemo Badiane

ABSTRACT: This paper seeks to investigate the relationships between Organizational commitment and
Organization citizenship behaviours among expats in Taiwan. Meyer and Allen’s items were used to measure
organizational commitment. Concerning Organizational citizenship behaviour, Organ’s items were used to
measure the construct. Self-administered questionnaire and online survey were the techniques employed to
collect data. Mean, Standard Deviation, t-Test, Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA), and Pearson’s Correlation
were utilized for data analysis. From a sample of 102 respondents collected, the findings indicated that: There
was a significant and negative correlation between sportsmanship and continuous commitment. There was also
a significant and positive relationship found between courtesy and affective commitment. Implications for
organizational behaviour researchers and human resource practitioners are highlighted and limitations and
future directions are presented.

KEYWORDS – Relationships, Organizational commitment, Organizational citizenship behaviours, attitudes.

I. INTRODUCTION
The study of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) and Organizational Commitment (OC) has
undergone several developments over the past decades. Relationship between these two concepts plays a
significant role in work-related attitudes for organizations to respond to their employee concerns or grievances.
This is the main reason why a growing number of organizations are attempting to survey their employees’
attitudes on-the-job (Greenberg, & Baron, 2002). Consequently, organizations are striving to build a strong
corporate culture.
Organizational scientists use different approaches to examine OCB, which have expanded ideas by
their forerunners who have focused on various instruments to measure each theory to evaluate and improve
peoples’ work attitudes and behaviours. Moreover, different methods have been employed to analyze
organizational constructs. Thus, it would be important to understand what their impacts should be on
management. Specifically, this study aims at exploring them to find out solutions and propose suggestions to be
taken to resolve these concerns and their costs on individuals and organizations.
This study addressed the expats’ job-related attitudes and behaviours in Taiwan and their relationship
between OC and OCB. Last but not least, this will lead to explore the relationships between OCB and OC.
With regard to the issue under study, organizations are employing expats to develop and expand their
services in order to reduce production and manpower costs and attract as many buyers as possible. With this in
view, expatriate human resources management is an important aspect in order to prepare them to the culture,
language, mastery and adjustment to the host country environmental conditions (Fukuda & Chu, 1994). In other
words, it helps the corporation grow globally better and more effectively.
With this perspective in mind, firms should take all the necessary measures to prepare the candidates
for their international responsibilities, which are of paramount importance in order to avoid frustrations, under
achievement, and somehow failure (Fukuda & Chu,1994). As international assignments are becoming more
common, corporations should get involved in supporting the expatriation and repatriation of their expats to
ensure a “safe landing back home.”
Because of the rapidly growing number of downsizings and layoffs that characterizes the work world
today, it is essential to ensure that those employees able to remain with their corporations can make the best of
their career development. Although this is not a new trend, the pace at which organizations flatten and
restructure continues to increase (Noe, 2002). With the increasing number of organizations and training
opportunities ranging from universities, vocational schools to job related courses (Sarnoff, 1984), including
corporate universities; they are getting more alert concerning problems occurring in today’s workplace.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between OC and OCB among expats in
Taiwan. Specifically, this research explores the correlations between the different sub-dimensions of the three
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 Unlocking the Black Box: Exploring the Link Between Organizational Commitment and …

variables in order to better understand the behaviours and attitudes of expats in Taiwan (e.g., affective
commitment and continuous commitment for OC; altruism, sportsmanship, consciousness, courtesy and civic
virtue for OCB).
Finding a good position within an organization has become concerns and worries for most of
employees expecting to make a “successful career development” and “upward progression” (Nicholson, 1993)
in their organization. Then, organization becomes an inevitable place for employees to meet and work to
increase the returns of the company, but also for achieving their goals (Bardwick, 1986). OC and OCB are very
important concepts in the field of organization behaviours, but also represent important human attitudes.
OCB is another attitude related to human behaviours. Some scholars have defended that satisfaction is
a key factor when dealing with OCB (Bateman & Organ, 1983; Puffer, 1987; Organ & Konofsky, 1989; Organ
& Lingl, 1992), and represents an efficient response to various work-related factors and the organization (Locke,
1976).
Organ (1988) used five scales to measure OCB, such as altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship,
courtesy and civic virtue. Bateman and Organ (1983) relied on various dimensions to measure OCB applying
constructs, such as compliance, altruism, dependability, housecleaning, complaints, cooperation, waste,
criticism, arguing with others and punctuality.
OC has been defined as the extent to which an individual identifies and is involved with his or her
organization and / or is unwilling to leave it (Greenberg & Baron, 2002), laying the emphasis on its conception.
OC has been studied by many outstanding behaviourist scientists who mentioned that they relatively differ from
one construct to another (Meyer and Allen, 1991; Hackett, Bycio, and Hausdorf, 1994; Meyer, Allen, & Smith,
1993; Shore & Tetrick, 1991; Shore & Wayne, 1993). Mowday, Steers and Porter (1979) found nine-item
scales to measure employees’ OC scale. Mowday et al. summarized a series of studies that show evidence of
their satisfactory reliability. Further, Meyer, Allen, and Gellatly (1990) persuaded using two constructs of OC
named affective commitment and continuance commitment. They have measured each OC dimension with
eight-item Likert-style scale.
Referring to the theory above-mentioned and focusing on the relationship between the two
organizational concepts and questionnaire content, this research contains the following variables and their sub-
dimensions: OC, OCB, and finally the demographic variables were composed of personal data, organizational
factors and job characteristics.
A research question guided this study which is presented with its related hypotheses as exhibited in the
section about statement of hypothesis.
- Is there a significant relationship between OC and OCB and their sub-dimensions for foreign expatriates in
Taiwan?
The next section presents the literature review of the two concepts proposed in the study. Section 2
describes the methodology, section 3 analyzes the research data, and finally section 4 concludes the study.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

Organizational Citizenship Behaviour
OCB has been an important focus to understand individuals or employees’ work attitudes; hence it
plays a significant role in organizations. OCB is becoming a place to develop a certain way consisting in helping
employees interact with each other, thereby benefitting the whole organization. OCB can contribute to creating a
good harmony and strengthen organizational relationship between employees while improving productivity and
organizational performance.

Definition
Individuals working within an organization always used to collaborate in order to achieve some clear
goals. In fact, it has always been something simple because it is important for everyone to sacrifice for the
success of the organization. Employees working together can have different attitudes, behaviours and beliefs
towards their co-workers and organization. But by joining the company, employees need to learn a lot from their
organization and co-workers in order to change or adapt their attitudes even strengthen their cooperation for the
benefit and interest of the whole organization. Therefore, DeNisi and Griffin (2005) defined OCB as “those
behaviours that are beneficial to the organization but are not formally required as part of an employee’s job.
These behaviours include activities such as volunteering to carry out extra tasks, helping and cooperating with
others, following rules even when such behaviour is inconvenient, and endorsing and supporting organizational
goal.”
So, in the light of what has been said, OCB can be considered as employees’ work attitudes consisting
in helping others, staying late at job or working in weekends, executing very well one’s job, able to submit or
accepting inconveniences on the workplace as well as being totally engaged in company businesses (Organ,

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 Unlocking the Black Box: Exploring the Link Between Organizational Commitment and …

1988). In fact, OCB makes the organization more efficient and functional (Organ, 1988; Van Dyne, Cummings,
& Parks, 1995).
Operationalization
OCB can appear in different forms according to the organizational, political and cultural space we are
evolving because from one organization or environment to another, we can notice dissimilarities (Ronen &
Shenkar, 1985). To this end, helping co-workers to complete their work will not only contribute to making the
organization more functional (Organ & Ryan, 1995), but will also make stronger the relationships between
employees to go ahead and reach in a short time the visions, missions and goals of the organization. The act
itself is “entirely voluntary, constructive, not formally assigned, non-compensated but desired by the
organization” (Turnipseed & Murkison, 2000), because no rules constrain any employee to give such support
(Organ, 1988). But this appears to be just a moral ethic that pushes him/her to adopt and prescribe such
behaviour in his/her settings.

Related Studies
When employees are involved in OCB, their main objective is to promote the welfare of individuals,
group or organization to which the behaviour is directed (Witt, 1991). From that point of view, it is important to
know the impact of OCB in the running of any corporation because as shows Organ (1988) through his
conceptualization of behaviour as follows: “altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, conscientiousness, and civil
virtue”, OCB is in large part related to ethical behaviour at workplace consisting in abiding by the rules,
supporting others, not feeling guilty with others, not interfering with others, going out of one’s way to protect
other employees and organizational properties, and not wasting or harming company material or property
(Turnipseed, 2002 ), actions which are necessary for the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization. It is to
be mentioned that job satisfaction is a concept generally mentioned when dealing with OCB (Bateman & Organ,
1983; Puffer, 1987, Organ & Konofsky, 1989, Organ, & Lingl, 1995). With this in view, it can be noticed that
satisfaction remains an effective response to various work-related factors as well as to the organization (Locke,
1976).
For that purpose, one can see OCB as a factor correlated with ethics and morality leading our conduct
within the organization and giving us a clear picture in terms of how employees interact, communicate between
them, learning from each other to improve the quality of the service and enhancing the productivity of the
organization. The aforementioned behaviours of workers brought a great benefit for the organization (Van
Dyne, Cummings, & Parks, 1995). However, OCB can be analyzed in two angles due to its “multidimensional”
perception; extra-role behaviours - those directed toward the organization, and others oriented to the individuals
(Turnipseed, 2002). And it is a good thing to differentiate good actions from wrong ones for the implementation
of OCB in organizations to avoid conflicts because means and ends come into conflict and their conflict
constitutes the core of most dilemmas (Marcus, 1993). If well implemented and used in an organization, OCB
can be “positive for employees” (Organ, 1988) in the running of the organization as suggested by Podsakoff
(2000, p.545) that “OCB may enhance the organization’s ability to attract and retain the best people by making
it a more attractive place to work.”
Research on OCB has been extensive since its introduction nearly twenty years back (Bateman &
Organ, 1983). Mackenzie, Podsakoff and Praine (1999) stated several dimensions of OCB, such as “helping”
behaviours by employees (e.g. supportive actions to assist others and going beyond the requirements of the job);
“sportsmanship” (tolerating the work environment without excessive complaining); and “civic duty”
(constructive involvement in the processes of the organization beyond the requirements of the job).
Dispositional factors or psychological characteristics of individuals such as personality, psychological needs and
attitudes appear to be promising predictors of OCB. For instance, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and positive
affectivity were found to be significantly related to OCB (George & Brief, 1992; Konovsky & Organ, 1996).
Different kinds of personalities may display different degrees of OCB because individuals tend to differ in their
levels of pro-social behaviours, and it was reasoned that some employees would naturally be willing to go the
extra mile and help co-workers or organizations, whereas others would not (Konovsky & Organ, 1996;
Chompookum & Derr, 2004). Mischel (1977) argues that the effects of dispositional factors, namely personality,
should be related to OCB in “weak situations” that lack specific behavioural demands.
The majority of OCB researchers have focused on the effects of OCB on individuals and organizational
performance and found that OCB leads an organization to positive consequences (Podsakoff & Mackenzie,
1997; Barbuto, Brown, Wilhite, & Wheeler, 2001). Job satisfaction has been found to have a positive correlation
with performance and OCB. There is a consensus in this particular field that OCB addresses silent behaviours
for organizational enterprises (Barbuto et al., 2001). Successful organizations have subordinates who go beyond
their formal job responsibilities and freely give their time and energy to succeed at the assigned job. Such
altruism is neither prescribed nor required; yet it contributes to the smooth functioning of the corporation.

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 Unlocking the Black Box: Exploring the Link Between Organizational Commitment and …

Organ (1988) noted that OCB was held to be vital to the survival of an organization. Organ further
elaborated that OCB can maximize the efficiency and productivity of both the subordinates and the organization
that ultimately contribute to the effective functioning of an organization. George and Brief (1992), prominent
organizational researchers, have supported Organ’s position regarding the importance of those behaviours for
effectiveness, which they labelled as OCB.
OCB is desirable from the organizational point of view because such behaviour is thought to increase
the available resources and decrease the need for costly mechanisms of control (Organ, 1988; Podsakoff &
Mackenzie, 1997). Kelley and Hoffman (1997) claimed that OCB can improve the performance of an
organization. They pointed out that a positive relationship exists between OCB and customer loyalty for service-
oriented organizations. They illustrated that the ground of such organizational success depends on the positive
relationship between the employees and the organization. In this line, OCB is viewed as a critical factor which
influences the quality of provided service by the employees and also customer satisfaction (Yoon & Suh, 2003;
Castro, Armario & Ruiz, 2004). This satisfaction induces the customers to be loyal. Thus, it can be concluded
that OCB can support to serve the best interests of the organization.

Organizational Commitment
There are many factors that interact in organization, but training, commitment of employees at work,
job performance and satisfaction are the main aspects influencing OC, OCB and work-related attitudes of
personnel. Employees working in an organization need necessary skills to deal with different situations they
face within the organization. Some companies may have corporate universities for training their human
resources and those training sessions will enhance the performance of employees and productivity. In fact, if
employees get rewards as compensation to their good performance and commitment to the job, this will support
the organization to gain competitive advantage.

Definition
OC is a very important concept in organizational existence. It is defined as “The degree an employee
identifies with an organization and is willing to exert effort on behalf of the organization. Employees lacking
organizational commitment are excellent candidates for turnover when workable alternative presents itself. They
are also unlikely to exert extra effort or even encourage others to join the organization” (DeNis & Griffin,
2005).
The level of OC when managing resources is an important factor because will help understand the
orientation of the corporation and apply to a more efficient and effective organization in a competitive market,
and at just the right time. There are various definitions of OC, but most definitions share the same conception as
OC is seen to be a system of links of the individuals to the organization. The difference in definition of terms
resides in the way this bond has been developed (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990). Mowday et al. (1979) have defined
OC as the employees’ strong belief in the organization’s goals and values, a willingness to exert considerable
effort on behalf of the organization and a strong desire to remain a member of the organization.

Operationalization
This study focuses on the following categories of OC: Continuance commitment, affective commitment, and
normative commitment.
1. Affective commitment
Affective commitment refers to an individual's identification with an organization and his/her
commitment to maintaining membership to pursue the organization's goals (Mc Gee & Ford, 1987). In affective
commitment, the employee’s goal and the one of the organization fit. So, this type of employee would be more
likely to stay longer with the organization and would be more involved in working hard to reach the missions
and visions settled by the organization.
2. Continuance Commitment
Continuance commitment is related to “the strength of a person’s desire to continue working for an
organization because s/he needs to do so and cannot afford to leave” (Greenberg & Baron, 2002). Individuals
with continuance commitment measure the fact of leaving the organization in terms of cost, benefits, disruption
of personal relationship, and may not have any other alternative than keeping their job.
3. Normative Commitment
Normative commitment refers to “employees feeling of obligation to stay with the organization
because of pressures from others” (Greenberg & Baron, 2002). Individuals with normative commitment care
about what will be the other people’s reactions or attitudes when it comes to quit their job.

Related Studies

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 Unlocking the Black Box: Exploring the Link Between Organizational Commitment and …

OC is generally related to the level of employees’ engagement within the organization. When entering
an organization, many criteria are taken into account, among which are commitment, citizenship behaviour,
performance, experiences, and skills etc… to do perfectly one’s duty on the job. People feel that a person ought
not to change his / her job too often and the employee who does it is considered as “erratic and untrustworthy.”
Becker (1960) has argued that side bets are also made through the operation of other social processes. Thus,
Becker (1960) has proposed that continuance commitment does not develop from calculative costs only, but has
normative bases as well. One very recent notable exception is the scale development study by Shore, Tetrick,
Shore, & Barksdale (1999). The two components of OC have differential job-related outcomes. Accordingly,
job satisfaction is considered as a significant factor of affective commitment. Affective commitment in turn is
hypothesized to predict desirable outcomes, such as higher levels of well-being and OCB, lower levels of
turnover intentions, and work withdrawal. It is important to indicate that among the three components of OC,
affective commitment is more positively related to OCB. Therefore, work experiences were perceived to have
much stronger relations in particular with affective commitment (Irving & Meyer, 1994). Furthermore, previous
studies have examined these three OC factors but they are relatively not the same from one construct to another
(Meyer & Allen, 1991; Hackett, Bycio, & Hausdorf, 1994; McGee, & Ford, 1987; Meyer, Allen, & Smith,
1993; Shore & Tetrick, 1991; Shore & Wayne, 1993). Then, it has been said that the distinct components have
been found to correlate in different ways with antecedents, consequences and correlates.

III. RESEARCH METHOD

This paper is based on an online questionnaire survey to study the relationship between OC and OCB.
Online questionnaire survey is innovative and becoming very popular thanks to new technologies and
information systems development compared to traditional survey method. Its advantage includes access to
individuals in distant locations, the ability to reach difficult to contact participants and the convenience of
having automated data collection, which reduces researcher’s time and effort. Moreover, online questionnaire is
time saving with a possibility to reach respondents anytime and anywhere.

Sampling
The population of this research consists of expats who are currently working as full-timers and part-
timers in Taiwan. These expats belong to different multinationals and local firms in Taiwan including Corning
Company Taiwan, Nielsen Taiwan, American Chamber of Commerce, European Chamber of Commerce,
foreign embassies and trade missions in Taiwan, and other foreign entrepreneurs, freelancers, and those self-
employed in Taiwan. Therefore, a large majority of the respondents more than 50% of the participants are from
Corning Company which has a large pool of expats. The actual research population consists of 102 respondents.
Among 102 respondents, 69 were male and 27 women. Six (6) represented the missing data - that is to
say, people who forgot or decided not to fill out the section related to their gender. On the total, 25 were below
23 (22.5%), 41 of the population (40.2%) are between 26 - 30 and 38 above 30 (37.3%). At the educational
level, 63 participants (61.8%) of the respondents were undergraduates and the remaining 39 were graduates
(38.2%). On marital status, 72 were unmarried (70.6%), while 30 were married (29.4%) among the sample. On
employment level, 76 were full-timers (74.5 %) compared to 26 part-timers (25.5%). Moreover, it is easy to
notice the difference at income level because 76 of participants’ income are below 20K (71.6%) and 29 earn
above 20K (28.4%). For the number of years at current position, 51.0% are under one year (52) compared to
49.0% above one year (50). The majority of respondents held non-managerial position (82.4%), while 17.6%
held position in top management. For the size of the company, 58.8% belong to organizations under 200
employees (60) and 42.2% are working in companies above 200 employees (42).
Consequently, two main industries are the most dominant including services (30.4%) and
manufacturing (39.2%). The remaining (30.4%) belongs to organizations such as banking, human resources
management, R&D and entrepreneurship. At present time, we come to the conclusion that the majority of expats
in this survey are working in manufacturing where demands are higher because as we know Taiwan is very
famous for making electronic components and devices. Furthermore, Japan, Taiwan, Korea and China are the
world leaders and providers of electronic device components. Today, a lot of studies are being done in this field
about new product development and other engineering researches. On the one hand, the number of years at
current position 52 (51.0 %) were under one year, and 50 (49.0%) above one year. On the other hand, the
number of years for employees at current company, 45 (44.1%) were under one year and 57 (55.9%) were above
1 year.

Data Collection Procedures

Online survey questionnaire has been used to reach the respondents and inviting them to go online to
fill out the survey questionnaire. The main target as mentioned earlier was international organizations
established in Taiwan because of their large number of foreign employees and institutions in Taiwan such as

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 Unlocking the Black Box: Exploring the Link Between Organizational Commitment and …

embassies, trade missions and researchers and professors at university level in different higher educational
institutions throughout the country. To make it successful, contacts were first made by telephone and email
mainly to human resource managers for large organizations to explain them the purpose of the study by
requesting their good cooperation. After winning their approval, the questionnaire link has been forwarded to
each concerned organization.
Moreover, traditional paper-and-pencil survey method was used to reach as many as possible
participants working in different organizations throughout Taiwan. A cover letter accompanying the
questionnaire explained clearly the object, significance and importance of this research, its voluntary nature, the
research intent and the confidentiality of responses. The respondents were briefly informed prior to filling out
the online survey that the study was about how they feel about their jobs and organizations. They were given the
opportunity to clarify any doubts and ask questions. Finally, they were encouraged to answer all the questions
and full anonymity was assured, total safety and confidentiality. And when the survey questionnaire was filled
out online, all responses were forwarded straightly to website created for that purpose. All the two research
constructs (OCB and OC) in the study were measured using a five-point Likert-type scale labelled as follows:
1.Strongly disagree, 2. Disagree, 3.Uncertain, 4. Agree and 5.Strongly agree.

Measures
An online questionnaire was designed to collect data from participants. The survey instruments were
divided into three major sections. The first section was made of 16 items to measure OC; the second section
consisted of 26 items to measure OCB. In addition, the fourth and final section included 13 items relating to
demographic data such as gender, age, marital status, educational level, employment status, monthly income and
years at current position, years at current company, professionals, size of the organization, membership of
association and industry.

Organizational Commitment
Meyer and Allen (1991) developed a 16-item scale to measure employees’ OC. A higher score
indicated employees’ greater OC. Each item was measured using a 5-point scale ranging from (1. Strongly
disagree to 5. Strongly agree). Meyer and Allen summarized a series of studies that showed satisfactory
reliability.

Organizational Citizenship Behaviour

OCB of the participants was measured with the OCB scales developed by Organ (1988). The items
included in this scale were based on the definitions of the five sub-dimensions of OCB described, namely
Altruism (1), Conscientiousness (2), Courtesy (3), Sportsmanship (4) and Civic virtue (5). A higher score
indicated employees’ greater participation in extra-role behaviour in favour of the organization.

Reliability
A reliability test was conducted using Cronbach’s alpha to test the internal consistency of the
measurements based on the results of the 42 items (26 items for OCB and 16 items for OC) of the questionnaire
survey. The Cronbach’s alphas were 0.84 for OCB and 0.69 for OC. And the overall alpha was 0.76 which is
quite satisfactory because greater than 0.7.

Hypotheses
The research hypotheses of this study can be seen in the relationships among the two organizational
constructs: OC and OCB.

Research Question
Is there a significant relationship between OC and OCB for expats in Taiwan?
1. There is a significant relationship between Affective Commitment and Altruism for expats in Taiwan.
2. There is a significant relationship between Affective Commitment and Conscientiousness for expats in
Taiwan.
3. There is a significant relationship between Affective Commitment and Courtesy for expats in Taiwan.
4. There is a significant relationship between Affective Commitment and Sportsmanship for expats in
Taiwan.
5. There is a significant relationship between Affective Commitment and Civic Virtue for expats in Taiwan.
6. There is a significant relationship between Continuous Commitment and Altruism for expats in Taiwan.
7. There is a significant relationship between Continuous Commitment and Conscientiousness for expats in
Taiwan.
8. There is a significant relationship between Continuous Commitment and Courtesy for expats in Taiwan.

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 Unlocking the Black Box: Exploring the Link Between Organizational Commitment and …

9. There is a significant relationship between Continuous Commitment and Sportsmanship for expats in
Taiwan.
10. There is a significant relationship between Continuous Commitment and Civic Virtue for expats in
Taiwan.

Data Analysis
SPSS was used to analyze data such as descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, etc…), t-Test,
Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA) for differences, and Pearson Correlations in order to test the hypotheses
included in this study so as to fit the model to each variable and get a deeper understanding about the
relationships among the variables (OC, OCB, and demographic data), and their sub-dimensions. Additionally,
to examine the relationship between OC and OCB, Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient was used to test the
hypotheses in this research.

IV. RESULTS
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the two variables (OCB and OC).
This chapter focused on the findings of the data analysis. It presented the reports as far as descriptive statistics
(means, standard deviations etc…), deferential analysis (t-test, ANOVA), correlation coefficients between all
three variables in this study, and hypothesis testing regarding the research questions included in the first chapter.
Additionally, this chapter is the application of data analysis to hypotheses.
All the constructs in this research were measured using 5-point Likert-type scale labelled as follows:
1=strongly disagree to 5=Strongly agree. This section gave details about the reliability of the study. The
research data derived from various organizations in Taiwan and participants are from different nationalities, and
were expats presently working and living in Taiwan. SPSS was used to perform statistical analysis.

Descriptive Analysis
Analysis in this section was the description of the different variables, including OC and OCB. OC
variable presents means and standard deviations related to participants’ OC. It is based on two OC constructs:
affective commitment and continuance commitment. They include 16 items. As mentioned, each construct
includes 8 items and based on a five-point Likert-type scale. For affective commitment and continuous
commitment almost all the scores were around scale 3, which means most of participants still disagree or were
even uncertain to be “part of the family” in their organization and also did not care about what might happen if
they stop working in their organization. The highest score belongs to Continuous commitment (M=3.12, SD=.65)
and the lowest belongs to Affective commitment (M=3.11, SD=.61). This illustrates that a large number of
employees are engaged in continuous commitment. This might be due to the fact that expats in this study did not
have any other alternatives or did not want to lose the overall benefits related to their employment benefits.

Table 1 Descriptive Analysis for Organizational Commitment

Variables Items M SD
AC All items 3.11 .61
AC1 1. I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this
organization…………………………………………..................................... 2.94 1.07
AC2 2. My organization has a great deal of personal meaning for me…………… 3.25 1.04
AC3 3. I feel a strong sense of belonging to my organization……………………. 3.45 .95
AC4 4. I do not feel “emotionally attached” to this organization.*………………. 3.11 1.17
AC5 5. I really feel as if this organization’s problems are my own………………. 3.01 1.10
AC6 6. I think that I could easily become attached to another organization as I
am to this.*…………………………….......................................................... 2.76 1.11
AC7 7. I do not feel like “part of the family” in my organization.*……………… 3.22 1.08
AC8 8. I enjoy discussing my organization with people outside it………….......... 3.14 1.10
CC All items 3.12 .65
CC1 9. It would be very hard for me to leave my company right now even if I
wanted to……………………………….…………….……….…….…….… 3.24 1.18
CC2 10. Right now, staying in my company is as much as a matter of necessity
as desire………………………………………….…………….….…....…… 3.39 1.10
CC3 11. I am not afraid of what might happen if I stop working in my
company.*………………….……….……………………….…….…...…… 3.04 1.19
CC4 12. One of the few negative consequences of leaving my organization
would be the lack of available alternatives……………………..…………… 3.10 1.23

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 Unlocking the Black Box: Exploring the Link Between Organizational Commitment and …

CC5 13. It would be too costly for me to leave my organization in the near
future……………………………………………………………..……….…. 3.19 1.12
CC6 14. One of the major reasons I continue working in my company is that
leaving would require considerable personal sacrifice. Another organization
may not match the overall benefits I have…………………………………... 3.17 1.11
CC7 15. I feel I have to stay in my company. I do not have any options………… 2.90 1.21
CC8 16. Too much in my life would be disrupted if I decided to leave………….. 2.97 1.17
Note: The scale used in this study is the following five-point Likert Scale: 1=Strongly disagree, 2=Disagree,
3=Uncertain, 4=Agree, 5=Strongly disagree. All the questions with star are considered as reversed questions.

For OCB, its twenty six-items are measured on a Likert-type scale anchoring from “Strongly disagree”
(1) to “Strongly agree” (5) and included five dimensions corresponding to the five sub-dimensions of OCB as
follows: altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy and civic virtue. OCB for Altruism has the highest
score (M=4.06, SD=.59). It shows that most of 102 expats were willing to give a helping hand to their co-
workers. In many organizations, altruism plays an important role. This helping behaviour is acquired throughout
time and space because most of religious teachings and social norms encourage the promotion of altruism
between individuals. Although, altruism may be related to job factors such as job satisfaction in the sense that
employees most satisfied with their job or had higher levels of education are more altruistic than their
colleagues. OCB for Sportsmanship (M=3.03, SD=.76) has the lowest score. This illustrates that there is a need
for the organization where expats are working to enhance and promote this construct among employees.
Generally speaking, all the constructs of OCB included here except Sportsmanship, the overall score turns
around 4, supporting that most of the 102 respondents in this study were engaged in OCB. However, for
sportsmanship all 102 participants in this study disagreed or were uncertain.

Table 2 Descriptive Analysis for Organizational Citizenship Behaviour

Variables Items M SD
Altruism All items 4.06 .59
OCB1 1. Am willing to help others when they have heavy workloads………………. 4.02 .92
OCB10 2. Am always ready to give a helping hand to those around me………………. 4.19 .79
OCB13 3. Help others when someone is absent……………………………….............. 4.13 .86
OCB15 4. Willingly help others when they have work-related problems……………... 4.08 .88
OCB23 5. Help orient new people even though it is not required……………………... 3.97 .84
Sportsmanship All items 3.03 .76
OCB2 6. Am the classic “squeaky wheel” that always needs greasing.*…………….. 2.96 1.15
OCB4 7. Consume a lot of time complaining about trivial matters.*………………… 3.42 1.21
OCB7 8. Tend to make “mountains out of a molehills.*……………………………... 2.92 1.08
OCB16 9. Always focus on what is wrong, rather than the positive side.*……………. 2.94 1.21
OCB19 10. Always find fault with what the organization is doing.*………….............. 3.10 .98
C o n s c i o u s n e s s All items 3.90 .61
OCB3 11. Believe in giving an honest day’s work for an honest day’s pay………….. 3.81 1.13
OCB18 12. Have above normal attendance at work……………….…….…………..… 4.03 .85
OCB21 13. Do not take extra breaks…………………………………………………… 3.74 .93
14. Obey company rules and regulations even when no one is
OCB22
watching…………………………………………………………...................... 4.04 .92
OCB24 15. Am a conscious member of my organization……………………………… 3.93 .86
Courtesy All items 3.99 .61
OCB5 16. Try to avoid creating problems for others…………………………………. 4.07 1.01
OCB8 17. Consider the impact of my actions on co-workers………………………… 3.96 .84
OCB14 18. Help each other when someone is absent………………………………….. 4.29 .78
OCB17 19. Take steps to prevent problems with others……………………….............. 3.86 .92
OCB20 20. Am mindful of how my behaviour affects other’s jobs……………............ 3.76 .89
Civic Virtue All items 3.83 .49
OCB6 21. Keep abreast of changes in the organization………………………………. 3.69 .84
OCB9 22. Attend meetings that are not mandatory, but are considered important…... 4.03 .86
OCB11 23. Attend functions that are not required but help the company image……… 3.95 .88
OCB12 24. Read and keep up with organization announcements, memos and so on…. 3.83 .80
25. Provide constructive suggestions about how the organization can improve
OCB25
its effectiveness…………………………………………………………...…… 3.91 .92
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26. Am willing to risk disapproval to express my beliefs about what is best

OCB26
for the organization…………………………………………............................. 3.60 .97
Note: The scale used in this study is as follows: 1=Strongly disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Uncertain, 4=Agree,
5=Strongly disagree. All the questions with * are considered as reversed questions.

Analysis
This section was based on the analysis of t-Test, ANOVA in order to know the difference between various
variables included in this research study.

Gender
Gender difference for consciousness and Courtesy, males are significantly higher than females. And for the
rest (like altruism, sportsmanship, courtesy, civic virtue, affective commitment and continuous commitment),
there were no significant differences between men and women. This findings suggest that men’s consciousness
(M=3.99, SD=.58, p<.01) and courtesy (M=4.09, SD=.58, p<.05) are higher than female consciousness (M=3.62,
SD=.58, p<.01) and courtesy (M= 3.80, SD=.62, p<.05). Men and women behaviours are somehow different.
Some scholars have even claimed that women were more committed to the organization than their male
counterparts (Steers, 1977). This may be connected to their social role in their family and the society as a whole.
Conscientiousness is directly linked to behaviours that are important for the long-term organizational
effectiveness. These behaviours arise from motivational processes which are influenced by personality
differences and perceptions of the work environment.

Table 3 t-Test for Gender Difference

Gender
Male Female
(n = 69) (n = 27) Mean
Variable Names Mean SD Mean SD Difference t

Consciousness 3.99 .58 3.62 .58 .37 2.81**

Courtesy 4.09 .58 3.80 .62 .29 2.14*

*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, two-tailed.

Age
Concerning age, there was no significant differences between age group for variables in this study.
Generally, older employees need more and longer time to learn new skills. They are more likely to make errors
in the training process and are less productive compared to young energetic workers (Agnew, & Suruda, 1993;
Park & Gutchess, 2000). Some studies have proved age to be highly associated with continuous commitment.

Marital Status
In the same way, there were no significant differences between married and not married for marriage status.
Generally, married and not married do not have the same perception of work and occupation. Married
employees preferred to have more flexible working hours (Almer & Single, 2004) in order to have enough time
to be with their children and family members.

Educational Level
On t-Test for educational level, for Civic Virtue Total there was a significant difference between
undergraduates and graduates. As education is mainly related to learning, the more an employee achieved a
higher level of education, the higher would be his/her job satisfaction. Undergraduates here face the lack of
promotion compared to graduates. As they are in a learning process, they developed higher scores in civic virtue.

Table 4 t-Test for Educational Level

Education
Undergraduate Graduate
(n = 63) (n = 39) Mean
Variable Names Mean SD Mean SD Difference t

CPTotal 2.56 .47 2.35 .47 -.21 2.15*

Civic Virtue 3.72 .51 4.01 .41 -.29 -2.98**

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 Unlocking the Black Box: Exploring the Link Between Organizational Commitment and …

*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, two-tailed.

Employment Status
As the result shows, for altruism, consciousness, and civic virtue, it was found that full-timers are
significantly higher than part-timers. Part-timers’ relationship with their organization is limited within time and
space. Therefore, they may not have a strong bond with their organization compared to full-timers. This
illustrates, in a similar vein, that full timers’ altruism, consciousness and civic virtue are higher than part-timers.
However, consciousness and civic virtue were considered to be good predictors of perseverance and job
performance.

Table 5 t-Test for Employment Status

Employment Status
Full Time Not Full Time
(n = 76) (n = 26) Mean
Variable Names Mean SD Mean SD Difference t

HPTotal 3.05 .63 2.75 .60 .30 2.09*

OCBTotal 3.86 .39 3.51 .52 .34 3.50**
Altruism 4.16 .52 3.75 .67 .41 3.23**
Consciousness 4.03 .57 3.48 .55 .55 4.29**
Civic Virtue 3.91 .46 3.62 .52 .29 2.72**

*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, two-tailed.

Income
For affective commitment, there is a significant difference between employees under 20K (M=3.03,
SD=.58, p<.05) and employees above 20K (M=3.29, SD=.65, p<.05). The impact of these findings showed that
income plays a significant role in OC and OCB. The higher the income, the more committed, motivated and
satisfied the employees. This will, in fact, increase the OCB of employees. Moreover, researchers and
practitioners of personnel and human resources management, industrial experts, organizational behaviour and
psychology scholars have acknowledged the importance of job satisfaction in human resource practices to
develop employee-job fit, improve organizational performance and build an employee’s affective response to
aspects of the job and the employer (Blau, 1964; Locke, 1976).

Table 6 t-Test for Income

Income
Under 20K Above 20K
(n = 73) (n = 29) Mean
Variable Names Mean SD Mean SD Difference t

AC 3.03 .58 3.29 .65 - .26 -2.00*

*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, two-tailed.

Years at Current Position

For years at current company, there was a significant difference for altruism between employees under 1
year (M=4.17, SD=.55, p<.05) and employees above 1 year (M=3.94, SD=.61, p<.05). It is known that
employees who have spent many years within a company will get involved in altruism and developed such
behaviours towards their co-workers. For instance, they will help beginners to better manage their job because
of their past working experiences in the industry. These employees are even supposed to have, most of the time,
higher affective commitment (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990) because of their position. But it can be noticed that the
scores of employees under 1 year are higher than those above 1 year. This may be due to the entry policy of
newcomers into the organization and other internal policies such as mentoring, organizational cultures and so
on.

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Table 7 t-Test for Years at Current Position

Years at Current Position
Under 1 Year Above 1 year
(n = 52) (n = 50) Mean
Variable Names Mean SD Mean SD Difference t

Altruism 4.17 .55 3.94 .61 .23 2.00*

*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, two-tailed.

Managerial Positions
For civic virtue and continuous commitment, there was a significant difference between managerial
(M=4.06, SD=.47, p<.05; M=2.80, SD=.55, p<.05) and non-managerial position (M=3.79, SD=.49, p<.05;
M=3.19, SD=.65, p<.05). As a result, many studies have demonstrated a little positive relationship between
position and continuous commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1984). In most cases, managers are more likely to be
higher in courtesy and civic virtue. As courtesy is, in general, intended to strengthen ethical issues and the chain
of command regarding “esprit de corps” within an organization.

Table 8 t-Test for Managerial and Non-Managerial

Managerial and Non-managerial
Managerial Non-managerial
(n = 18) (n = 84) Mean
Variable Names Mean SD Mean SD Difference t

Civic virtue 4.06 .47 3.79 .49 .28 -2.27*

CC 2.80 .55 3.19 .65 -.39 2.39*

*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, two-tailed.

Company Size
For OCTotal and continuous commitment, there was a significant difference between companies below 200
employees (M=3.03, SD=.49, p<.05; M=3.01, SD=.65, p<.05) and company above 200 (M=3.24, SD=.44, p<.05;
M=3.29, SD=.62, p<.05). It is important to note that employees’ benefits in a small company are limited due to
the financial capabilities of the organization. Naturally, there are more possibilities and resources for
employees’ career development and upward movement in a big size company. Therefore, those working in large
organizations would be more likely to keep on working even if they don’t have a true affection for their
organization because they may not accept to lose the fringe benefits of employment.

Table 9 t-Test for Company Size

Company Size

Below 200 Above 200

(n = 60) (n = 42) Mean
Variable Names Mean SD Mean SD Difference t

OCTotal 3.03 .49 3.24 .44 -.21 -2.20*

CC 3.01 .65 3.29 .62 -.28 -2.18*

*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, two tailed.

Industry
ANOVA for industry for affective commitment (F=3.93, p<.05), there was a significant difference between
employees working in manufacturing, services and other industries. Information Technology has made it
possible to attract more workers into manufacturing. In fact, the reward systems in manufacturing are somehow
interesting compared to service industries. However, there are more turnover, burnout and leaving capabilities in
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manufacturing than services. Thus, there is a large discrepancy among the three industries in terms of affective
commitment. Thus, the explanation of industry differences in the experience of employees and even the patterns
themselves are a little bit complicated and often difficult to interpret.

Table 10 ANOVA of Affective Commitment (AC) for Industry

AC N Mean SD

Service 31 3.26 .64

Manufacturing 40 2.90 .58
Other 31 3.21 .54
Total 102 3.11 .61

Source df SS MS F

Between 2 2.74 1.37 3.93*

Within 99 34.44 .35
Total 101 37.18

*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, two tailed.

Correlations Analysis
Pearson’s Correlation was used to describe the relationship between the two variables (OC and OCB). In
Research Question 3 stating there was a significant relationship between OC and OCB for expats in Taiwan.
There was a positive and significant correlation in hypothesis 3.3 between affective commitment, the sub-
dimension of OC, and courtesy (r=.21, p<0.01). The strength of the correlation is low. There was a negative and
significant correlation in Hypothesis 3.9 between continuous commitment, the sub-dimension of OC, and
sportsmanship (r=-.23 p<0.01). However, the strength of their correlation was low.
And for the remaining variables, no significant correlation was found. In hypothesis 3.1 the correlation
between affective commitment and altruism (r=.13, p<0.05) was not significant. Also, no significant correlation
was found in Hypothesis 3.2 between affective commitment, the sub-dimension of OC, and conscientiousness
(r=.17, p<0.05). In general, employees higher in affective commitment will have greater perceptions of courtesy
and consciousness because the goals of those employees and their organization’s goals usually match. Finally, in
Hypothesis 3.4, between affective commitment and sportsmanship (r=.01, p<0.05) the correlation was not
significant. There was no significant correlation in hypothesis 4.5 between affective commitment, the dimension
of OC, and civic virtue (r= .17, p<0.05). Generally speaking, employees higher in affective commitment may
develop a positive OCB, such as civic virtue. In Hypothesis 3.6, any significant correlation was found between
continuous commitment and altruism (r=.05, p<0.05). In Hypothesis 3.7 there was any significant correlation
between continuous commitment and consciousness (r=-.01, p<0.05). In the same manner, we didn’t find any
significant correlation in hypothesis 3.8 between continuous commitment and courtesy (r=-.09, p<0.05).
Moreover, no significant correlation was found in Hypothesis 3.10 between continuous commitment, the sub-
dimension of OC, and civic virtue (r= .13, p<0.05).

Hypotheses Testing
Hypothesis 1.1
There is a significant relationship between Affective Commitment and Altruism for expats in Taiwan. The
results did not support the hypothesis. There was no correlation between affective commitment and altruism.
Hypothesis 1.2
There is a significant relationship between Affective Commitment and Conscientiousness for expats in
Taiwan. The result did not support the hypothesis. There was no correlation between affective commitment and
conscientiousness.
Hypothesis 1.3
There is a significant relationship between Affective Commitment and Courtesy for expats in Taiwan. The
findings support the hypothesis. There was a positive and significant correlation between affective commitment
and courtesy. However, the strength of the correlation was low.
Hypothesis 1.4
There is a significant relationship between Affective Commitment and Sportsmanship for expats in
Taiwan. The results did not support the hypothesis. Therefore, there was no correlation between affective
commitment, the sub-dimension of OC and sportsmanship.

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 Unlocking the Black Box: Exploring the Link Between Organizational Commitment and …

Hypothesis 1.5
There is a significant relationship between Affective Commitment and Civic Virtue for expats in Taiwan.
The results did not support the hypothesis. There was no correlation between affective commitment and civic
virtue.

Hypothesis 1.6
There is a significant relationship between Continuance Commitment and Altruism for expats in Taiwan.
The findings did not also support the hypothesis. There was no correlation between continuance commitment
and altruism.
Hypothesis 1.7
There is a significant relationship between Continuous Commitment and Conscientiousness for expats in
Taiwan. The findings did not support the hypothesis. There was no correlation between continuance
commitment and consciousness.
Hypothesis 1.8
There is a significant relationship between Continuance Commitment and Courtesy for expats in Taiwan.
The results did not support the hypothesis. There was no correlation between continuous commitment and
courtesy.
Hypothesis 1.9
There is a significant relationship between Continuance Commitment and Sportsmanship for expats in
Taiwan. The findings supported the hypothesis. There was a negative and significant correlation between
continuance commitment and sportsmanship. The strength of the correlation was low.
Hypothesis 1.10
There is a significant relationship between Continuance Commitment and Civic Virtue for expats in
Taiwan. The findings did not support the hypothesis. There was no correlation between continuance
commitment, the dimension of OC, and civic virtue.

V. CONCLUSION
Summary
The objective of this study was to examine the relationships between OC and OCB and their different sub-
dimensions for expats in Taiwan. Studies of OC and OCB have attracted for decades organizational scientists in
order to learn and understand the behaviours and attitudes of people in organizations. In this study, the author
borrowed those theories and measures to explore the relationship between OC and OCB for expats in Taiwan.
The first variable in this study was OC. The two dimensions of OC in this article were affective commitment
and continuance commitment. OC was measured using the eight- items scale from Meyer and Allen (1991).
Each item was measured using a 5-point Likert-scale ranging from 1. Strongly disagree to 5. Strongly agree.
The second construct in this paper was OCB measured adapting the instruments and measures developed by
Organ (1988). The items included in this scale were based on the definitions of the five dimensions of OCB (e.g.
altruism, conscientiousness, courtesy, sportsmanship, and civic virtue) adapting the 5-item-Likert-type scale.
Demographic data were presented and made of 102 participants (e.g. 69 males, and 27 females, missing data 6).
Participants were expats working in Taiwan during the time of the survey and pen-and-paper based
questionnaire survey was used to collect data from various organizations located in Taiwan. In order to analyze
the data, descriptive statistics were used. Moreover, t-Test and Analysis Of Variance were used to conduct the
deferential analysis. The findings of the study can be summarized as follows:
As far as gender difference is concerned for consciousness and courtesy, it was found a significant
difference between males and females. The results showed that for consciousness and courtesy, males were
significantly higher than females.
No specific difference was found between age groups, married and not married for marriage status, and
civic virtue, between undergraduates and graduates. There was a significant difference in civic virtue for
education.
For the dimensions of OCB, altruism, consciousness, and civic virtue it was found that full-timers are
significantly higher than part-timers. This illustrates that part-timers’ relationship with their organizations is
limited compared to full-timers. There is a significant difference for affective commitment between employees
under 20K and above 20K. For altruism, there was a significant difference for years at current position between
employees under 1 year and employees above 1 year. Concerning Courtesy, Civic virtue and Continuous
commitment, there was a significant difference between managerial and non-managerial position.
For OC and Continuous commitment, there was a significant difference between companies below 200
employees and above 200 employees.
The findings of Pearson’s correlation are the following:

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 Unlocking the Black Box: Exploring the Link Between Organizational Commitment and …

There was a significant and negative correlation between sportsmanship, the dimension of OCB, and
affective commitment. However, the strength of the correlation was low.
General Discussion
The purpose of this study was to analyze the relationships among OC and OCB and their sub-dimensions
for expats in Taiwan.
Therefore, organizational managers would need to address a clear picture to help those employees perform
well. There are many alternatives about that, specifically organizations can use outside services, such as career
managers and other specialists in order to assist them with their organizations. A certain number of interventions
can be made through job design and / or enrichment and job rotations. This uncertainty and unclear goal setting
of expats might have significance in accordance with the educational level of employees because the more they
have higher level of education, the fewer their satisfaction and affective commitment. Other job factors such as
employment status and income might have effects on affective commitment as aforementioned. There was a
significant difference between employees under 20K and employees above 20K for affective commitment.
The definition of OCB proposed by Organ (1988) was more discretionary and is explicitly neither rewarded
(Turnipseed & Murkison, 2000), nor punished but only participated in the organizational functioning. This study
also supported hypothesis 3.3 on the relationship between OC and OCB. There was a significant relationship
between Affective commitment and Courtesy. It also supported hypothesis 3.9 about a significant relationship
between Continuous commitment and Sportsmanship for expatriates.

Limitations of the Study

The findings of this research should be considered in light of its limitations. The first concern is the sample
size as a possible limitation of the study because many organizations did not accept to participate in this study,
and sometimes after sending them the email or calling, they did not feel interested in participating in the study.
Another possible reason is that they may have been worried to share with the outside world the information
about their organization because of the ever increasing and fierce market competition. They even believe that
someone would steal their data. This condition makes it difficult for the researcher to be accepted to conduct the
study. In light of this, future research should attempt to collect data from a wider number of companies and
expats in order to improve both sample size as well as generalization of the study. The second limitation of this
research was related to the peculiarity of online questionnaire making it harder to control the whole respondents
of the online survey in order to make sure if the questionnaire survey was filled out by the right respondents. To
this end, a clear data collection mechanism should be set up to avoid any negative impacts on the process to
ensure and enhance the validity and reliability of the findings.

Recommendations for Future Research

Based on the results of our study, we recommend future research to be conducted on the relationship
among the variables included in this study and other organizational variables (such as job satisfaction,
organizational politics, workplace flexibility, organizational culture, work environment, work motivation, etc.)
as they represent important concepts of the black box leading to organizational performance. For instance,
culture plays a significant role in expatriation because expats are working in foreign countries with different
economic, cultural and political environment. If those aspects are not seriously taken into account, they could
influence their OC and OCB. Future studies should collect more data from single and larger organizations with
many expats, so that the results will help top management team to see clearly the problem within their
organization and find means and ways to provide senior managers with more relevant data. For more
consistency in future research, other instruments from outstanding organizational scientists can be utilized to
verify their validities and reliabilities among different measurement systems. Finally, it is important for future
research to collect data using personnel of different ages so that it will become easier to identify the relationship
between different peer groups in relation to their ages, type of organizations and social environment.

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*Corresponding Author: Kemo Badiane

The School of Foreign Languages of Nanfang College of Sun Yat-Sen University, 882, Wenquan
Avenue, Conghua District, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, Postal Code: 510970, China.

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