Basic Building Blocks of Microwave Engineering

Prof. Amitabha Bhattacharya

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 19
Microwave Solid State Diode Oscillator and Amplifier

Welcome to the nineteenth lecture of this series of lecture on Basic Building Blocks of
Microwave Engineering. Now, we have seen the microwave tubes and tube based
amplifiers, now solid state devices also can make the oscillators and amplifiers. So, we
will see a diode based oscillator very popular amongst microwave engineers.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:55)

That is called GUNN diode, but remember the spelling GU double N, it is not GUN. It is
a diode having negative resistance and was invented by J B Gunn in 1963 and thus the
name GUNN diode. It is a low power oscillator in microwave transmitter, in local
oscillators, in microwave receiver front ends all must invariably use this GUNN diode.

In our laboratory microwave signal, we can get from GUNN diode and nowadays you
see the reflex lies on and that generally GUNN diode is much cheaper so, we use it only
problem is its power is not much but most of the experiments can be done with this
GUNN diode and there are some experiments where we require high power particularly
antenna experiments where we prefer to have a (Refer Time: 02:09) base source, but it is
a very good source of microwave signal in laboratory.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:14)

So, you look at the GUNN diode and if you look the energy versus momentum diagram
of GUNN diode, actually some semiconductors and generally semi conductors have a
valence band and conduction band and energy band diagram is to valleys which come
together the conduction band lower part and valence band upper part which come
together and that gap is called the energy gap, but some semi conductors like Gallium
Arsenide Indium Phosphide and Cadmium Telluride these three in the conduction band
they have closely spaced sub bands, closely spaced multiple energy valleys in the
conduction band. So, you see here this is not in general we get only one, but here this in
gallium arsenide we get these values for gallium arsenide.

So, the difference between these bands their energy is more, but you see that x axis is
momentum and momentum of the electron if it is here then its velocity will be less and
here also velocity will be less. So, when a dc bias is applied across the material, an
electric field is established.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:47)

So, let us say this is the gallium arsenide thing and at lower E field most of the electrons
because energy is small so you will decide in the lower valley gamma, but at higher E
field as we give more electric field that means, if we go on increasing the bias the
electrons will get energy from that bias and will transfer them to high energy satellite
valleys like L and X.

Now, in higher valleys effective electron mass is higher and mass higher means they are
obviously, from the momentum you have seen mass is higher. So, mass higher, now more
mass electron has lower mobility and these bands the electrons mobility are less and if
you go higher almost their immobile type of thing and we know this famous thing and
science equation that conductivity is proportional to mobility.

We can say that if electron mobility is less, their conductivity is also less and if the
conductivity is less then we can say the current will decrease.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:09)

So, we can say that if we go on giving more bias voltage there is a threshold so, more
voltage means more current that was ohm's law, but here you see you have a threshold
actually that energy transfers that is taking place and transferred electron become
predominant and then we get that as we are going on increasing V, it is no more ohm's
law then it is basically an decrease in the current which gives rise to the negative
electron. We are getting that above a threshold there is a negative resistance now GUNN
in gallium arsenide and could make out that we can make a diode oscillator from these.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:15)

This is a construction of a GUNN diode and basically you do not have any junction sort
of thing, you have a gallium arsenide crystal then you have n type these and only in the
two sides you have two different higher doping n plus regions. So, whole thing you see
same material, only doping level at the two ends for making electrons, they are making
in different, but you are connecting when you are biasing, connecting positive part here
connecting negative here. So, this will become cathode and this will become anode and
that is why it is called a diode, otherwise GUNN diode is not a diode, it is a bulk
semiconductor and there is no junction concept here, no junction but cathode and anode
so, diode. At threshold voltage E field is 3.2 kilo volt per centimeter for gallium arsenide
and for other two materials it is different.

You see this is a anode metal then n plus of sub state then active n layer and this is the
actual bulk semi conductor, its thickness is 10 micro millimeter for a 10 gigahertz diode,
n plus layer then there is again metal very thin silver but copper also used and cathode is
here. Here metal contact now gallium arsenide is basically its conductivity is poor.

A lot of heat is generated in the device which defines it is a poor conductor of heat and
that is why this metal contacts they should be put to a heat sink so that this heat can come
out this device.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:37)

Equivalent circuit of a GUNN diode again you see the junction capacitance and
resistance of diode and only change here is instead of Rj, it is a minus Rj because we
have seen the negative resistance and there are the Rs n L p that thing and then Cp. So,
Rs lead ohmic contacts, bulk resistance of diode and Cp and Lp at the package
inductance and package reactance and negative resistance typically of the order of minus
5 to minus 20 ohm.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:10)

Now, let us understand the modes of operation of GUNN diode. There are two principal
modes of microwave oscillation, one is called transit time mode or TT mode and the
other is called limited space charge mode or LSA mode, but there are two special modes,
generally these first two are the principal modes, but you can also operate it into other
special modes, one is called quenched domain mode, another is delayed mode. So, there
are four modes out of that two are principal and we will see all these modes.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:48)

So, let us see the TT mode first. We have this semiconductor material and that is biased
and then connected to an RF circuit. So, this is the GUNN diode, now this side is since
negative so it is cathode and this side is anode. Now, when applied bias voltage is
beyond the threshold voltage in the - i b curve and the electrons start getting transferred.
So, electrons transferred to nearly 0 mobility sub conduction band.

Since, they are immobile so, the electrons which are coming from cathode now, they start
coming in a group called domain. So, heavier electrons bunch to form electric field
dipole domain near the cathode and near the cathode you see this black one, this is the
domain.

So, like initially when the bias field is not there the domain was here that we will see
later, but now there is a domain created and that domain is moving with a very small
velocity field domain of the cathode since external applied voltage is constant. Now, this
applied voltage is constant because beyond threshold we are trying to see what
happened. E field across domain is higher than the rest of the crystal because here the E
field will be higher because the total voltage is same. So, there are many electrons whose
electric field is more than these. So, that electric field has that means that is opposing this
B so that is creating which prevents further domain creation.
Now, the domain obviously has a drift. So, we have to stop t but there is some small
velocity so, it is drifting with that lesser velocity and other lighter electrons drift with
higher velocity and they are going.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:11)

Now, current in presence of domain decreases because current means with velocity and if
the velocity is less, the current is small and that we have already seen from the ib curve
also. After the domain travels to anode then you see that to current returns to higher level
because now the anode is here and whatever electrons again a domain will be formed
here and that domain will start moving. So, each domain basically when it gets
connected by anode, we can say that it creates a pulse of current at the output of circuit y
when the anode is getting a suddenly you see a lot of current is there otherwise there the
domain is taking quite long time to come. So, no current and then suddenly a huge
current come.

So, RF circuit obviously, the other electron, they are few some current is there always,
but this is a pulse type thing over that. So, you get pulsed signals and each domain results
in a pulse of current at the output RF circuit, time period of that is equal to domain transit
time and the domain from here to here whatever time it takes. We are fortunate that
transit time of this GUNN diode for the domains that falls in microwave region that
means, in the microwave frequency so one by that frequency and this transit time is
fortunate and that is why we get microwave signal from this GUNN diode. So, TT mode
has low efficiency as you are saying that you need to give the voltage and that much
current you do not get and frequency cannot be controlled. So, there is no controlling
mechanism in TT mode and you cannot control the output frequency, whatever the transit
time of the domain by that only you can have this mode. So, this is the basic mode of
GUNN diode.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:25)

Now, what is a LSA mode, here we do some external thing, we connect that GUNN
diode to a resonant circuit RL C. So, GUNN works as a part of resonant circuit. Now,
resonant circuit frequency is much greater than TT mode frequency. So, whatever the
GUNN diode was producing in TT mode, the RL C circuit the resonant frequency is
much higher. So, the frequency of resonant circuit is much higher means time and only
part of that domain transit time by that one signal is coming. The domains are not been
able to form and do not have sufficient time to form because this frequency is much
higher and because domains require from electrons to domain creation that take some
time and by that time the whole thing is again repeating. So, domains do not get created
in the LSA mode, limited space charge mode that is why they are called that.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:40)

You are not applying the space to develop and applied dc voltage is greater than
threshold and in the middle of I-V negative resistance zone. So, you see that the b is not
BTH you are applying almost here BTI and Rl you are choosing so that oscillation can
start steady state after a thing at steady state RL becomes equal to RG. So, a steady
sustained oscillation takes place.

Now, peak to peak voltage of microwave oscillator is equal to voltage range of negative
resistance curve because this to this voltage range of negative resistance curve which is
equal to the peak to peak voltage of microwave oscillator and power efficiency is 20
percent, Output Power several Watts, Power decreases with frequency 1 watt at 10
gigahertz and if you want hundred gigahertz signal then several mega watt, but this a
good mode of operation.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:49)

Now, quenched domain mode, Resonant circuit tuning frequency is slightly greater than
TT mode. In LSA mode, it was much higher and here it is slightly higher than TT mode.
So, dipole will be creating here, but dipole domain is quenched before it arrives at the
anode because already when it is arriving, the resonant frequency is higher that is why
already a negative swing has taken place. So, we say that the domain is quenched, but
will have some TT mode some operations. So, there will be current, but it is a quenched
domain.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:33)

Then in delayed mode, Resonant circuit frequency less than TT mode and the other
option that in quenched domain mode the resonant frequency is slightly higher than TT
mode and here it is slightly lower.

So, dipole domains arrive at anode well in time then they will have to wait because
formation of a new dipole is delayed until the oscillation voltage increases above
threshold voltage. Here, the mode that will be slightly delayed because after creation of a
domain and the domain is arriving getting a pulse, but then again sometime then the
whole operation again is starting.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:21)

So, GUNN diode oscillator, generally this whole RLC circuit which is called GUNN
diode oscillator and GUNN diode is mounted at the center you see this is the GUNN
diode perpendicular to the broad wall of the guide. We have seen that what is the broad
wall, so perpendicular to that of a rectangular guide, maximum E field of TEn mode is
there where it is placed and intrinsic frequency of oscillation is vd by l, drift velocity of
domain by effective length and this is intrinsic frequency or the TT mode of operation
frequency. For gallium arsenide this vd drift velocity of domain is typically 10 to the
power 7 centimeter per second and cavity is tuned to f naught by adjusting the short
position. So, if you move that short you can make the cavity frequency and a tuning
screw is inserted perpendicularly at center of the broad wall for again fine tuning.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:33)

External load is 20 percent higher than Rj. This 20 percent is a good one because when
the actual sustained oscillation is taking place this load is reduced because the Rj is a
negative value. So, RL and Rj combination will be balancing. GUNN diode is placed on
a metal post, top of the post as you have seen GUNN diode is, this is the post and post
means that has some inductive value insulated from wave guide to form RF bypass
capacitor.

So, top of the post is insulated and there is an RF bypass capacitor also and dc voltage is
applied to the post. DC voltage goes to here and the RF is choked, inductive iris
dimension controls degree of coupling to external waveguide and see this is the iris. So,
whatever this oscillator is producing, the external part iris means it is a capacitive thing
and from there by capacitive coupling it is taking to the outside RF.

Now, GUNN diode oscillator is in laboratory instead of reflex diode, we have GUNN
diode oscillator then this is producing microwave signal and that external load DC
voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:09)

Output power is few watts you can get like klystron you can also have this GUNN diode
power, pulse power output 100 to 200 watt pulse power you can get, bias voltage 10 volt,
bias current 1 ampere. So, quite good you can by 10 volt supply in laboratory we can
have that frequency 8 to 40 gigahertz and you can get frequency tuning and you can get
electronic tuning two percent quite at gigahertz range 2 percent means suppose 10
gigahertz. So, you get 200 mega hertz and that is quite good. Power output limited by
heat dissipation difficulty of small diode chip, gas is a poor conductor.

So, the power output, you cannot go on increasing the high power because heat
dissipation is a problem in the gas etc and advantage is small sized, ruggedness, low cost.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:12)

This is a typically GUNN diode oscillator. So, by moving this screw basically you can
change the tuning that this is the tuning screw and this is the iris from where power is
extracted and this side actually fits into the GUNN diode oscillator.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:40)

Now, we will see another diode, actually there is another effect Avalanche Transit-Time
Devices and in GUNN we have seen the transfer electron type, but avalanche process
which also gives a good transit time devices, these are called ATTD and they have three
varieties, Inventor was W T Reed in 1950 almost the much 4 years before the GUNN
invented that GUNN diode and these are p-n junction diode, these are junction diode
with highly doped p and n regions. So, p-n junction diode with highly doped p and n
region and these also produces negative resistance at microwave frequencies and this
operates under reverse bias condition. So, it is a reverse bias diode and gives sufficient
reverse bias so that, avalanche breakdown take place.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:39)

Now, there are three varieties of ATTD, one is called Impact Ionisation Avalanche Transit
Time and this is having 3 percent efficiency up to 100 gigahertz 1 watt power output. So,
quite good low frequency thing, Trapped Plasma Avalanche Triggered Transit TRAPATT
diode, low frequency these are low frequency diode 1 to 3 gigahertz only and Barrier
Injected Transit Time BARITT diode this has low noise figure less than 15 dB low power
and low bandwidth.
Actually, this ATTDs, they are generally having high noise figure because these are
avalanche process is lot of noise, but this barrier injected transit time this has low noise
figure, but 15 dB is also not a very good noise figure, but in this family it is a good one.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:35)

So, this is a thing that you see n plus p junction then there is an intrinsic junction p also
you can have other varieties p plus etc, but there is p n junction. So, material you can
have germanium, you can have silicon, you can have gas, you can have indium phosphite
and now gas provides highest efficiency, highest operating frequency and lowest noise
figure. So, IMPATT diode with gas is good.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:10)

Now, its a reverse bias operation. So, you have a junction diode. When reverse bias is
where greater than breakdown voltage of p n junction then high E field in junction as
shown that electric field is high. With this high field, there is sufficient energy. So, holes
in since we are describing with respect to these. So, holes acquire sufficient energy to
tear valence electrons of atoms and bring them to conduction band and then this is
greater.

Again these electrons with such high energy will collide with other atoms and they will
take that avalanche process. So, on set of avalanche multiplication of electron hole pair,
avalanche process creates noise and that is why you see noise figure of IMPATT diode is
30 dB. So, very noisy, but it is good if you want to have power you can also use impact
diode.

Thank you