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COPY NO ________

COURSE NAME: ERA-APP/MECH/NEA & DEDH

COURSES

SUBJECT TITLE: MACHINE DRAWING

The information given in this docket is not to be communicated either

directly or indirectly to any person not holding an official position in government of
India’s service. It should not be kept in rooms to which unauthorised persons have
access and it will only be issued to persons who require it for the performance of
their duty.

CENTRE OF MARINE ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

INS SHIVAJI (ITW)

LONAVLA-410402

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(i)

Copy No _______

SUBJECT TITLE: MACHINE DRAWING

COURSE NAME: ERA-APP/MECH/NEA & DEDH

COURSES

DATE OF PUBLICATION – SEP. 2003

The information given in this docket is not to be communicated either directly or

indirectly to any person not holding an official position in government of India’s service.
It should not be kept in rooms to which unauthorised persons have access and it will only
be issued to persons who require it for the performance of their duty.

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(ii)

MACHINE DRAWING
CONTENTS

CHAPTER No. TOPIC PAGE No.

INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING
01 1–7
DRAWING

02 LINES, LETTERING AND SCALES 8 – 13

03 PROJECTION 14 – 37

DIMENISIONING AND PRINCIPLES OF

04 38 – 59
DIMENSIONING

SECTIONING AND METHOD OF SECTIONING

05 60 – 69
& HATCHING

CONSTRUCTION OF NUT, BOLTS, WASHERS

06 70 – 76
AND GEAR TEETH PROFILE

SIMPLIFICATION AND CONVENTIONAL

07 77 – 88
REPRESENTATION OF COMMON FEATURES

TECHNICAL DRAWINGS FOR STRUCTURAL

08 89 – 97
METAL WORK

09 SURFACE TEXTURE AND TOLERANCES 98 – 108

10 PRACTICE DRAWINGS 109 – 148

APPENDIX BOOKS OF REFERENCES 149

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(iii)

RECORD OF AMENDMENTS

S.No Chapter & Page where Date of amendment

Amendment incorporated

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CHAPTER- I

INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING
DRAWING

1. DRAWING: - A drawing is a graphic representation of a real thing. To draw some thing as

figure by means of lines expressing some ideas on the paper is drawing. The purpose of a drawing is to
define and specify the shape and size of a particular object by means of lines. Other information’s about the
object, which can not be expressed by lines, are given by side of the drawing in a concise manner. A good
drawing gives full information about the object in a precise way. Hence drawing is the shortest of
shorthands.

A drawing worked out by an engineer, having engineering ideas for engineering purposes, is an
engineering drawing. It is the universal graphic language of engineers, a language of use and ever
increasing value. It is spoken, read, and written in its own way. Every language, has own rules of grammar.
Engineering drawing has also been devised according to certain rules and has its own grammar.

As a bad language is unpleasant to a master of the language, a wrong drawing will worry a trained
eye of drawing. We have to learn to write a language so that we may be able to read it. If we know how to
draw a drawing, we will be able to read and explain it. The knowledge 0f drawing is the most important
requirement of all technical persons working in an engineering environment.

Sketching is a free hand expression of the graphic; language, sketching is the most important tool
for engineers engaged in technical work. Technical ideas can be expressed quickly and effectively by
sketches without the use of instruments.

An engineer expresses his ideas of mind on paper through the medium of drawing. After a
complete working drawing of a job is prepared, it is followed by the workers who give accurate shape to
the raw materials according to the drawing. If the engineer commits a little error in the initial drawing
work, it is carried over to the practical work by the workers resulting in the loss of time, material and
labour and finally affects the production efficiency of the factory .Therefore, it is extremely important for
the engineers, designers, supervisors, draughtsmen, mechanics and other workers working in an
engineering environment to have a thorough knowledge of engineering drawing.

By means of drawing, the shape, size, finish, colour and construction of any object can be
described accurately and clearly in the simplest and shortest way. The best result can be obtained if we
develop engineering drawing skills keeping the following in view:
• Understanding of original drawing.
• Ability to think in three dimensions of the job and seeing its different views.
• A clear conception and appreciation of the shape, size proportion and design.
• Expressing ideas of mind on paper quickly and clearly by sketches.
• Developing speed and accuracy of the drawing work using pencil and other drawing instruments.
We should develop interest in engineering drawing so that we may learn it easily. Quick
understanding of an original drawing, really visualizing of a finished job from a look at the drawing, the
ability to make a sketch quickly can be achieved if we have a clear concept of engineering drawing. The
shape, size and manufacturing methods of the job can be easily understood from the drawing once we
develop the necessary skills. If we understand the drawing of a job we can express our ideas by sketches.
Accuracy and speed are developed by practice. Accuracy in the drawing must come first, quality must
come before quantity. Pencil and all the drawing instruments should be kept in good condition so that they

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may give maximum working efficiency. Every care should be taken to improve the quality of the drawing.

2. DRAWING INSTRUMENTS: - A neat and correct drawing is prepared with the help of good
drawing instruments, the list of which is given below:-
• Drawing board and stand.
• Tee square, mini draughter
• Set squares and protractor
• Instruments box.
• French curves or irregular curves.
• Pencil
• Rubber or eraser and erasing shield.
• Blade, pocket knife or pencil sharpener.
• Drawing pins, adhesive tape or clips.
• Drawing paper or drawing sheet, tracing paper, and tracing cloth.
• Handkerchief, duster or dusting brush.
• Sand paper
• Scales (cardboard scale or engineering scales.)
• Sketch book.
To record information on paper or another surface, instruments and equipments are needed.
Engineering drawing is entirely a graphic language hence instruments are essentially needed. Even for
freehand drawing, pencil, erasers and sometimes coordinate paper are used. To secure most satisfactory
result in drawing, the equipment should be of high grade to give accuracy and working efficiency. Drawing
must be clear, neat and legible in order to serve its purpose well. Drawing is a means of communication to
other, and so it must have a good appearance. Hence it is extremely important for draughtsmen, &
engineers to have good speed, accuracy, legibility and neatness in the drawing work.

Every care should be taken to maintain the drawing instruments in good working condition, and
they should be used in the correct way. A good speed in drawing work should be achieved because “Time
saved is money earned". Accuracy, neatness and legibility are of great importance in drawing work.

(a). FRENCH CURVES: - French curves or irregular curves are generally made of wood or plastic.
They are used to draw different curves other than circles of known radius. They are available in different
forms and sizes. They are composed of successive segments of geometrical curves, such as ellipse
parabola, hyperbola, involute, logarithmic, spiral, ship curves, rail road curves etc.

When it is required to draw the curved lines joining some points, French curves are used. Proper
use of French curves will require skill especially when the curves are to be drawn in ink.

(b). INSTRUMENTS BOX: - A drawing instrument box consists of the following instruments:-
• Compass
• Divider
• Bow pen
• Bow compass (centre or side wheel spring bow compass).
• Lengthening bar (for both pencil and bow compass).
• Case for lead.
Spare screws and pointers for various instruments.

Drawing instruments are generally made of nickel silver which has a silver lustre on the surface
and is corrosion resistant. Rolling pen spring parts, divider points and various screws of these instruments
are made of tool steel.

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(c). PENCILS: - Neatness, quality and accuracy of the drawing greatly depends upon the type and
condition of the pencil used for drawing. Pencil leads are made of graphite with clay added in varying
amounts to make 18 grades from 9H to 7B. These grades can be divided in 3 groups:
• Hard: 9H to 4H.
• Medium: 3H to B (3H, 2H, H, HB and B)
• Soft: 2B to 7B
Pencil 9H is the hardest and that of 7B is the softest. Harder pencils have leads of small diameters
and softer pencil of larger diameter to give adequate strength. The choice of grade of pencil depends upon
the type of work, texture of paper, atmospheric humidity etc. Following pencils should be used for drawing
work in class:-
2H pencil for drawing outlines, centre lines, break lines.
H pencil -for dimensioning arrowheads, hatching lines, printing, sketching, extension lines, circles
and arcs.
After having some practice, 3H and 2H pencils, should be used for the same work respectively. A
good type of the pencil must have the following five attributes.

It gives the most satisfying results in photo printing, technical, artistic and commercial work.
• It carries a very high density and firmness of leads.
• It has intense blackness and high covering power and gives blue prints.
• It has compressed leads which resist breakage and wear.
• It is available in many reliable standardised degrees, and is capable of producing any desired
shade, from the highest grey to the deepest black.
KEEP YOUR PENCIL SHARP: - Only a sharp pencil is capable of preparing neat and accurate
drawing. Conical point is used for printing, dimensioning, sketching and drawing circles, arcs and curves.
Straight lines should be drawn by chisels point pencil. It will draw a straight line of equal thickness and
darkness. The drawing of lines by pencil can be learnt after good practice. A perfect draughtsman may be
able to tell at once by inspection whether or not a line is correct in width and blackness.

2. DIFFERENT SIZE OF DRAWING SHEETS

(a). SELECTION AND DESIGNATION OF SIZES

The original drawing should be made on the smallest sheet maintaining the necessary clarity and
resolution. Drawing sheets may be used with their longer sides positioned either horizontally or vertically.
The choice of sizes of the original drawing and its reproduction shall be made from the series shown
below:-

(b). SHEET SIZES

The preferred sizes of the trimmed sheets as selected from the main ISO-A series, specified in
ISO-16, are given in table-l

TABLE-1

DESIGNATION DIMENSIONS-MM

A0 841 x 1189

A1 594 x 841

A2 420 x 594

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A3 297 x 420

A4 210 x 297

Special Elongated Size (Second Choice)

When a sheet of greater length is needed, one of the sizes in table 2 should be used.

TABLE-2

DESIGNATION DIMENSIONS, MM

A3 x 3 420 x 891

A3 x 4 420 x 1189

A4 x 3 297 x 630

A4 x 4 297 841

A4 x 5 297 x 1051

Exceptional Elongated sizes (third choice)

When a very large or extra elongated sheet is essential, one of the sizes in table 3 should be used.

TABLE-3

DESIGNATION DIMENSIONS, MM

A0 x 2 1189 x 1682

A0 x 3 1189 x 2523

A1 x 3 841 x 783

A1 x 4 841 x 2378

A2 x 3 594 x 1261

A2 x 4 594 x 1682

A2 x 5 594 x 2102

A3 x 5 420 x 1489

A3 x 6 420 x 1783

A3 x 7 420 x 2080

A4 x 6 297 x 1261

A4 x 7 279 x 1471

A4 x 8 297 x 1682

A4 x 9 297 x 1892

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(c). LAYOUT OF DRAWING SHEET & TITLE BLOCK: -

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Title Box

Figure1 Figure2

Figure3 Figure4

Figure Description
Figure 1 Type X Horizontal
Figure 2 Type Y Vertical
Figure 3 Type X Vertical
Figure 4 Type Y Horizontal

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CHAPTER- II

LINES, LETTERING AND SCALES

1. DIFFERENT TYPES OF LINES, USES & SIZE: - Only the types and thickness of lines
shown in the following table sha11 be used. In cases where other types of thickness of line are used for
special fields (for example electrical or pipe work diagrams), or if the lines specified in the table are used
for applications other than those detailed in the last column of the table, the conventions adopted must be
indicated in other international standards or explained by notes on the drawing concerned.

Typical applications of different types of lines are shown in Fig. 2.1 and Table I.

(a). THICKNESS OF LINES: - Two thicknesses of lines are used. The ratio of the thick to the thin
line should not be less than 2:1. The thickness of lines should be chosen according to the size and the type
of the drawing from the following ranges: 0.18, 0.25, 0.35, 0.5. 0.7,1, 1.4 and 2mm. The thickness and the
darkness of the lines should be the same in all the views to give a good look to the drawing.

(b). SPACING OF LINES: - The minimum space between parallel lines, including hatching, should
never be less than twice the thickness of the heaviest line. It is recommended that these spaces should
never be less than 0.7 mm.

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2. LETTERING: - Lettering is very important in an Engineering drawing to give information’s

about size, surface finish etc. A good type of lettering improves the quality of the drawing giving it a
good appearance. Freehand lettering should be done on the drawing whenever possible because, it takes
less time. To give all the information necessary for the complete construction of drawing notes must be
added to the graphical language describing its shape, dimensioning, notes on material and finish, and a
descriptive title all of which must be lettered freehand in a style that is perfectly legible, uniform and
capable of rapid execution.

(a). CLASSIFICATION OF LETTER STYLE: - There are various forms of alphabets used in the
art of lettering and each suitable for some particular purpose. "Old Roman" style is the parent of all styles.
Though this letters have elementary strokes of even width, “Roman” letters have elementary strokes
“accented" or consisting of heavy and light lines.

Commercial gothic is a simplified form of original gothic and is mainly used for working
drawings. These letters are made in different ratios of width and height. The ratio of 6:5 is preferable.

(b). GENERAL PROPORTIONS: -Letter may be divided into three categories according to the
proportion of width and height.

• Normal letters.

• Compressed or condensed letters.

• Extended letters.

i. NORMAL LETTERS: - Normal letters have height to width, ratio of 6:5 and are used for general
purposes written in usual space.

ii. COMPRESSED OR CONDENSED LETTERS: - These letters are those, which are written
narrow in the proportion of width to height, that is height of these letters is more than the width. They are
used when the space is limited.

iii. EXTENDED LETTERS: - These letters are those which are written wide in the proportion of
width to height, that is, height of these letters is less or equal to the width.

The conventional sizes for some applications are:

• Main titles are written in 8mm size.

• Sub titles are written in 5mm size.

• Notes, dimension, figure etc in 3 to 5mm.

• Drawing no. is written in 10mm size.

(c). A GOOD STYLE OF SINGLE STROKE LETTERING SHOULD

AIM AT:-
i. UNIFORMITY OF THICKNESS:- By conical point pencil. Pencil should not be too hard as it
will pierce into the surface of the drawing paper.

ii. UNIFORMITY OF SHAPE AND SIZE: - The width of the stroke of the pencil or pen is the
width of the stem of the letter. Light guide lines for both top and bottom of letters should always be drawn
with a sharp pencil.

iii. UNIFORMITY OF STYLE: - One of the two styles, vertical or inclined, should be used, with
vertical lettering being preferable. Both can be used according to the practice and convenience. Student

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should, therefore, learn to execute both forms well. They may give more attention to the style they like
and in which they can do better.

iv. UNIFORMITY OF SPACING: - Uniformity in spacing of letters, whether they are vertical or
inclined is a matter of equalizing spaces by the trained eye. The back ground areas between letters, not the
distance between them, should be approximately equal.

v. UNIFORMITY OF SHAPE: - If inclined letters are used, all the letters must have the same
inclination and should be inclined towards the right hand side having slope of 67.5 deg to 75 deg with the
horizontal.

LETTERING SHOULD BE DONE WITH A FAIRLY SOFT, SHARP, & CONICAL POINT PENCIL.

(d). LETTERING ON DRAWING SHEET: -

The main requirements for "lettering" for engineering drawing are legibility, uniformity, ease
and rapidity in execution. Both the vertical and sloping styles of letters and numerals are suitable for
general use. The recommended sizes of letters and numerals to suit different purpose are given in table II
for general guldens.

TABLE- II
PURPOSE SIZE OF LETTERS AND NUMERICAL IN
MM

Main title and drawing no. 8 and 10

Sub titles and headings 5

Notes such as legends, schedules, 3,4 and 5

Materials and dimensions.

3. SCALES
(a). DEFINITION OF SCALES: - Scale is the ratio of the linear dimension of an element of an
object as represented in the original drawing to the real linear dimension of the same element of the
object itself. The different types of scales are:

i. FULL-SIZE SCALE: - A scale with the ratio of 1:1

ii. ENLARGEMENT SCALE: - A scale where the ratio is larger than 1:1.

iii. REDUCTION SCALE: A scale where the ratio is smaller than 1:1.

(b) DESIGNATION: The complete designation of a scale shall consist

Of the word "scale" (or its equivalent in the language used on the drawing) followed by the indication of
its ratio, as follows:

• Scale 1:1 for full size;

• Scale X: l for enlargement scales;

• Scale l: x for reduction scales.

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If there is likelihood of misunderstanding, the word "scale" may be omitted.

(c). INSCRIPTION: The designation of the scale used on the drawing shall be inscribed in the title
block of the drawing. Where it is necessary to use more than one scale on a drawing, the main scale only
shall be inscribed in the title block, and all other scales adjacent to the item reference number of the part
concerned, or adjacent to the reference letter of a detail view (or section) .The recommended scales for
use on technical drawings are specified in table -III.

TABLE-III
RECOMMENDED SCALES
CATEGORY
ENLARGEMENT 50:1 20:1 10:1
SCALES 5:1 2:1
FULL SIZE 1: 1
REDUCTION SCALE 1:2 1:5 1:10
1:20 1:50 1:100
1:200 1:500 1:1000
1:2000 1:5000 1:10000

The scale to be chosen for a drawing will depend upon the complexity of the object to be depicted and
the purpose of the representation. In all cases, the selected scale shall be large enough to permit easy
and clean interpretation of the information depicted. The scale and the size of the object, in turn, will
decide the size of the drawing.
Details that are too small for complete dimensioning in the main representation shall be shown
adjacent to the main representation in a separate detail view (or section) which is drawn to a larger
scale.

(d). LARGE SCALE DRAWINGS: - It is recommended that a full size view be added to the
large-scale representation of a small object. In this case the full size view may be simplified by showing
the outlines of the object only.

4. HOW TO KEEP THE DRAWING CLEAN: - Cleanliness does not just happen but is to be kept
by an effort to observe correct procedure. Following factors are necessarily required to keep a drawing neat
and clean.
• Hands should be kept clean at all times during work. Dirty or oily hands should be washed
with soap and wiped properly. -
• All the drawing equipment’s such as drawing board, set squares, tee square, scale etc. should be
kept clean by a handkerchief. Dirty set-square should be cleaned with soap and water.
• Dirty and graphite particles from the pencil will make the drawing dirty. Hence every care
should be taken to remove them from the drawing sheet.
• The sliding equipment’s on the drawing sheet, such as mini draughtier tee-square and set-
square, must be cleaned properly every time, and sliding be reduced to a minimum.
• Pencil should be sharpened away from the drawing sheet and other equipment’s.
• Loose particles of graphite should be wiped out from the pencil point with a clean cloth or paper
after sharpening.
• The sand paper pad upon which the pencil is to be sharpened should be kept away from the
drawing sheet. Otherwise the loose particles of graphite will fly on to the drawing sheet and
make it dirty.
• Direct contact of hand with drawing sheet should be avoided. In lettering or dimensioning,
always place a piece of handkerchief under the hand. Never work with the sleeves or hand
resting upon the pencil area.
• Rubbing or erasing should be done properly with soft eraser. Erasing shield should where
required.

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CHAPTER III
PROJECTION

1. PROJECTIONS: - For the purpose of construction, a drawing should show the true shapes of all
parts of an object together with their sizes. The method of orthographic projection is universally adopted
for this purpose. By this method the description of the object regarding its shape and size is conveyed in
such definite an unmistakable terms that it can be constructed as required.

The object is shown in two or more views obtained by looking at it from different
directions and arranged in a definite manner.
(a). DEFINITION: - If straight lines are drawn from various points on the contour of an object to
meet a plane, the object is said to be projected on that plane. The figure formed by joining in correct
sequence the points at which those lines meet the plane is called a projection of that object. The lines from
the object to the plane are called projector.

(b). ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION: - When the projectors are parallel to each other and also
perpendicular to the plane. The projection is called an orthographic projection.
Imagine that a person looks at an object (Fig3-1) from theoretically infinite distance so that the
rays of sight from his eyes are parallel to one another and perpendicular to the front surface (shown
shaded) If these rays are extended further to meet, perpendicularly, a vertical plane (marked V.P) set up
behind the object and the points at which they meet the plane are joined in proper sequence, the resulting
figure (marked E) will be the projection of the object. It will be exactly similar to the view obtained by the
person and will show the front surface of the object in its true shape and size. The lines from the object to
the plane projector as the projectors an perpendicular to the plane on which the projection is obtained. The

projection is an orthographic projection. It is shown separately in fig 3.2. It can be seen that parallel edges
of the object are shown by parallel lines, right angles remain as such and the semi-circle also remain a semi
circle. But the figure shows only two dimensions of the object namely far width W and the height H. It
does not show the depth - the distance from the front the back. Thus we find that th.2 projection from the
front only it is not sufficient for complete descriptions of the object.

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Let us further assume that a horizontal. Plane (mark H.P.) in winged to the
vertical plane so that the object in front of the V.P and above the H.P. (fig. 3.3). The

project on this plane, obtained in a similar manner, shown by the figure marked P.
If a person looks at the object from above, the view of the top surface (shown
shaded) of the object will be exactly the same as the figure P. This figure shows the
width W and the depth D of the object. It does not show the height H.
One of the planes may now be rotated or turned around so that it lies in extension with the other
plane. This can be done in two ways (I) by turning the V.P in the direction of the arrow A or (2) by turning
the H.P. in the direction of the arrows B. The H.P. when turned and brought in line with the V.P. is shown
by dashed lines. The two projections can now be shown an a flat surface in correct relation ship with each
other as shown in fig 3.4 when studied together the two views supply all information regarding the shapes
and size of the object.
Any object can be represented by means of orthographic projections or
views. The two planes employed for the purpose of orthographic projection are
called reference plane or principal planes of projection. They meet each other at
right angle. The projection on the vertical plane is called the front view or elevation.
The projection on the horizontal plane is called the top view or plan.
Very often two views are not sufficient to describe an object completely. An auxiliary vertical
plane (marked AVP) is therefore imagined to placed at right angles to both the principal planes of
projection (fig 3.5). The projection on this plane is shown by the figure marked. It is the view of the side-
surface (shown shaded) of the object. This surface, compared to the other side surface, is remote from the

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plane. This projection is called a side view, end view, side elevation or end elevations. When the AVP is
rotated and brought in line with VIP the views will be seen as shown in fig 3.6.

It is important to note that the view of the left side surface of the object is placed to the right of the
front view. Three additional views (1) another side view projected on another A VP placed to the left of the
object, (ii) a bottom view projected on a horizontal plane placed above the object and (iii) a back view
projected on a vertical plane placed parallel to the VP and in front of the object can also be obtained in the
same manner. All the six views are shown projected on the respective planes in fig 3 7.

Fig 3.8 shows those views laid out on a flat surface by rotating all the planes

around and bringing them in line with the VP ordinarily not more than four views.
The front view, top view and two of the remaining views are required to describe an
object completely only in exceptional cases, when an object of a very complex
nature, five or six views may be found necessary. The planes of projection being
imaginary they are usually described when drawing the views care must, however
be taken to place the view in correct relation ship i.e. the top view and the bottom
view must be vertically in line with the front view. The side views and the back view
should be horizontally in line with the front view.

i. FIRST -ANGLE PROJECTION: - If the two principal planes of projection are extended beyond
their line of meeting, they from four quadrant or dihedral angle. The object to be situated in front of the VP
and above the HP i.e. in the first quadrant and then projected on these planes. This method of projection is

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known as first-angle projection method. The object lies between the observer and the plane when the views
are drawn in their relative positions the top view comes below the front view, the view of projection are
assumed to be transparent they lies between the object and the observer. When the observer views the
object from the front the rays of sight intersect the V.P. The figure formed by joining the point of
intersection in correct sequence is the front view of the object. The top view is obtained in a similar manner
by looking from above when the two planes are brought in line with each other the views will be seen as
shown in fig 3. 9.

ii. THIRD ANGLE OF PROJECTION:- The top view in this case comes above the front view.
The side view in obtained by projecting on an AVP placed perpendicular to both the HP and the VP and
between the observer and the object. (fig 3.10).

The three views obtained after the planes are rotated and brought in line with the VP are shown in
fig 3.11. The left side view of the object is placed on the left side of the front view. fig 3.12 shows all the
six v views obtained by the method of third-angle projection careful study of the views will show that each
projection shows the view of that surface of the object which is nearest to the plane on which it is
projected. In other words the views seen from any side of the object is placed on the same side of the front
view.

iii. SYMBOLS FOR METHOD OF PROJECTION: For every drawing is absolutely essential to
indicate the method of projection adopted. This is done by means of a symbolic figure drawn with in the

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little block (fig) on the drawing sheet. The symbolic figure for the first angle projection method is shown in
fig 3.13 which that for the third angle projection method is shown in fig 3.14.

(c). PICTORIAL PROJECTION: - In engineering drawing three methods of pictorial

projection are commonly used they are (1) isometric (2) oblique and (3) perspective projection.

(d). ISOMETRIC PROTECTION: - This method of projection has been exhaustively dealt with in
chapter XV of the book "Engineering Drawing" by the author. A summary of the principle of the same is
given below:-

Isometric projection the three edges of a solid right angle of an object are shown by means of three
lines drawn from a point and parallel to, the three isometric ones, which meet at a point and make an angle
of 120 degree with, each other (fig.3.15). The vertical edge of the solid right angle is shown by a vertical
line, while the two horizontal edges are shown by two lines inclined at 30 degree to the horizontal (fig.
3.15). Rectangle are drawn as parallelograms, having sides parallel to two of the three exes and having
included angle of 600 and 1200 .Thus in an isometric view a right angle Is shown by a 600 or 1200 angle and
circles are shown as ellipses. Irregular figures and curves are show by enclosing them within rectangles.

(e). OBLIQUE PROJECTION: - In oblique projection, the object is assumed to be placed with one

face parallel to the plane & projection hence that face appears in its true shape and size (3.11). This gives
two main dimensions of the object.

Lines drawn at a conver1lent angle, ger1erally 30° or 45° with the horizontal,
show the third dimension. To give a natural appeara1ce these lines are drawn 3/4 or
1/2 the actual lengths. Thus in an oblique projection also there are three axes -a
vertical, a horizontal and a third included at an angle of 30˚ or 45˚ with the
horizontal rectangular surface and circles parallel to the third axis are shown as
parallelograms and ellipses respectively. When an object has curved surfaces or
long edges, the face containing such surfaces or edges is usually so placed that it may
appear in its true shape. By doing so, the drawing is simplified and the amount of
distortion is considerably reduced. Fig 3.17 shows the guide with its longer edges
parallel to the included exes. Comparing fig. 1.20 with this view it can be seen that

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the former gives a clearer idea of the shape of the guide.

(f). PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION: - This method of pictorial projection is used mainly in

architectural drawing.

2. ISOMETRIC PROJECTION: To make the drawing more understandable, several

forms of one plane' one Plane' conver1tional or projectional drawings are used to supplement the
orthographic drawings. This one plane drawings which can be easily understood by persons without
technical training, are called pictorial drawings. Such drawings reveal face on an object at once,
approximately as they appear to the observer. It must be emphasized, however, that so far as engineering is
concerned, all one-plane drawing methods are normally used as auxiliaries to the standard method of
orthographic projection. An engineering student is required to obey proficient at drawing the 'pictorial
views' of objects and also to convert given orthographic views.

The isometric projection of objects is a single orthographic projection, with the object so placed
with respect to the plane of projection, that all the three axes of the object are equally inclined to it. The
principle involved in isometric projection can be explained by considering the case of a cube.
Two methods used to obtain isometric projection of a cube are, briefly, explained below: -

(a). ROTATION METHOD: In fig. 3.2.1(a) show three orthographic views of a cube when placed
with one of its faces parallel to the principle vertical plane of projection. At (b) the three orthographic
views of the cube are shown when it has been revolved so that the vertical faces make equal angle (45°)
with the principle vertical plane of projection. At (c) the two views are obtained by rotating the revolved
cube in such a way that all the three edges meeting at the front corner (1) are equally inclined to the
vertical plane of projection. In this position of the cube the body diagonal (1c) will also be perpendicular to
the picture plane. The three front edges are called the isometric axes and their angle of inclination with the
vertical plane of projection is 35° 16΄. The front view obtained in this way shows three faces of the cube
equally in shape and is called isometric (equal measure) projection.
In these types of projection the angles between the projections of the front three edges, or between
the three isometric axes are 120˚ and their projected lengths are approximately 82% of their true lengths. It
should be observed that 90˚ angle of the cube, in the isometric projection, appear as 120º or 60°. Any line
which is parallel to one of the isometric axes is called an isometric line. A line which is not parallel to
either of the isometric axes is called a non-isometric line. In an isometric projection of a cube, the faces of
the cube, of any planes parallel to them, are called isometric planes.

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(b). ISOMETRIC SCALE: Fig. 3.2.2 (a) Shows the isometric projection of a cube, the top of which
appear as a rhombus a1' b1' f1' e1', the true shape of this face is represented by a1' b1'f 1' e1'. It can be
noted that all the four sides of the top square are foreshortened in isometric. Thus a1' b1', is the isometric
length of a1' b1' and the actual measurement would show that the isometric length is about 82% of the true
length.

b1' a1' f1' = 45°

a1'b1'/ a1' 0 = Where 0 is the centre of rhombus a1' b1' f1' e1'
b1'a1'f1' = 30°
a1 ' b1 '/ a1' 0 =
a1'b1'/ a1 'b1 =
= 0.817 (approx)

How to achieve: -
To draw the isometric scale, any point on horizontal line drawn two lines inclined at 30° and 45°
respectively. Along the 45° line set out a true length scale, and from it drawn vertical lines (900 is

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horizontal line) to cut the 30° line, then the corresponding scale projected on 30° line is the isometric scale.
(c). ISOMETRIC DRAWING: As discussed above, the lines in isometric projection do not show the
true lengths of the object edges, but all foreshortened by some amount. In making such projections, either it
should be projected from the orthographic views of the object, as discussed already, or a special isometric
scale should be used. To avoid this tedious construction, if the foreshortening of the lengths is ignored and
the true lengths are laid off long the isometric axes or along the isometric lines, the view obtained is called
isometric drawing.

(d). RECTANGULAR CONSTRUCTION: The step is making an isometric drawing of a simple

rectangular object are illustrated in figure 3.2.4. The axes are first drawn at angle of 120˚ with each other;
the measurements are made equal size along the axes, and the remaining lines drawn parallel to the
corresponding axes.

(e). INVISIBLE LINES: The use of hidden lines in isometric drawing is governed by the same rules
as in and other type of projection, i.e. Invisible lines are omitted unless they are needed to make the
drawing clear. A case where invisible lines are needed in figure 3.2.5, in which a projecting part can not be
clearly described without the use of invisible or dotted lines.

(f). CENTER LINES: The use of centre a line in isometric drawing is governed by the same rules as

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in multi-view drawing, i.e., centre lines are drawn if they are needed to indicate symmetry or if they are
required for dimensioning. In general, centre lines should be used sparingly and be omitted in case of
doubt. The use of too many centre lines may produce a confusion of lines which detracts from the clearness
of the drawing.

(g). NON-ISOMETRIC LINES: Since the only lines of an object which have true length in an
isometric drawing are isometric axes or the lines parallel to them (isometric lines, non-isometric lines
cannot be set off directly accordingly to length. For example, in the given views of figure 3.2.3, the
inclined lines AC and AB are projected true length in the top view but since non of them, is parallel to
either of the isometric axes they will not be true length in the isometric. Such lines are drawn in isometric
by means of box construction of off set measurement in which the end points of the lines are located. Point
A, is located after drawing the enclosing box, by means offset measurement 'X' (step I), and construction
lines are then drawn to complete the rest of the construction (step II). Finally the required lines are made
heavy to complete the isometric (step III) fig. 3.2.3.

It will be realised on measuring that AB is shorter and AC is longer, in the

isometric than the corresponding lines in the given views.
(h). OFFSET LOCATION MEASUREMENTS: One part is located with respect to another in
isometric drawing by taking off lines, like CA and BA in the multiview drawing and then transferring those
lines to the isometric. Those measurements are called offset measurements and since they are parallel to
certain edges of the main block in the multi-view drawing they will be parallel respectively to the same
edges in the isometric drawing.

(j). METHOD OF MAKING AN ISOMETRIC: Some important methods of drawing isometric

views are discussed below: -

(k). BOX METHOD: In this method the object is enclosed in a rectangular box of the size in which it
may just fit. It is drawn around the object in the orthographic views and the different steps in making the
isometric drawing or projection with the help of this box are as follows: -
• Draw the orthographic views of the object to the desired scale. If isometric projection is to be
drawn, use isometric scale.
• Enclose the views in a rectangular, box, by very light lines.
• On the isometric axes construct the isometric of the enclosing box.
• Taking measurements along isometric axes and isometric lines transfer the various details
of the object from the rectangular orthographic box to the isometric box.
• Finish the view by brightening the visible lines. Invisible lines are usually omitted in isometric
drawings drawn very light they may not be erased.

(l). ISOMETRIC OF A BLOCK, WITH ISOMETRIC LINES ONLY, BY BOX METHOD:- To

make the procedure clear a very simple object containing only isometric lines is taken the different steps
out lined above are illustrated in fig 3.2.4.
At (a), the orthographic views of the object are shown. At (b) (i), the three isometric
axes are drawn such that one of the axes is vertical (downward) and the other two
make 300 angle with the horizontal. At (b) (ii), is shown alternate method of locating
the axes. Along the three axes dimensions L, W and H are laid off as shown at (c)
and the isometric box is completed. Then taking the measurements along the
isometric lines, the details of the object are transferred from the orthographic views
to the isometric box. Finally all the details which were drawn by light lines are
brightened to make the figure more distinct as at (d).
(m). ISOMETRIC OF AN OBJECT, WITH NON-ISOMETRIC LINES, BY BOX METHOD:
Referring to figure 3.2.6, two views of an object, the edge 1-3 and 2-4 of which are non-isometric lines, are
shown. To draw its isometric view proceeding on the same lines as in the previous article. Construct the

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isometric of the enclosing rectangular box and then locate the points 1 and 3 in the front isometric plane by
laying off the dimensions X and Y along the corresponding lines, as shown at (b).Similarly locate points 2
and 4 on the rear isometric plane. Draw lines 1-3 and 2-4 and complete the figure as shown at (c). From
this figure it can be noted that the lines parallel on the object are parallel in the isometric view also.
In figure 3.2.6 the method of drawing the isometric view of a triangular pyramid, box method is illustrated.
It can be noted in this figure that the lines, which are also not parallel on the isometric view object, are also
not parallel on the isometric view.

(n). CIRCLES IN ISOMETRIC -TRUE METHOD: When a circle lies in a plane, which is not
parallel to the plane of projection the circle, is projected as an ellipse. The true ellipse can be constructed by
the method of offset as illustrated in figure 3.2.7. Here a circular cylinder is taken for drawing the
isometric. Points 1, 2, 3 and so on are selected on the circle in orthographic view and their offsets are
transferred from the orthographic view to the isometric box thus locating their corresponding positions in
the isometric view. Then all the points, plotted thus, are joined by smooth curve. .If the number of points
taken on the circle is sufficient this method gives the most accurate isometric circle.

(p). FOUR-CENTER METHOD FOR DRAWING AN APPROXIMATE ELLIPSE: -

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The ellipse is seldom used in isometric drawing because its construction requires a great deal of time and in

most cases approximate methods are sufficiently accurate for nearly all isometric drawings. The method

frequently used called the four- centre method of drawing an ellipse is illustrated in figure 3.2.8.

(q). ARCS OF CIRCLES IN ISOMETRIC: The four-center ellipse construction can conveniently
be used for drawing circular arcs in isometric. To do so draw the isometric square to enclose the circle of
which the arc is a part and by-four-centre construction method find the centre for the part of the circle
needed. However, it is not necessary to make the complete construction for circular arc as is illustrated in
figure 3.2.9. In each case from the intersection of the tangent lines extended; the radius R is setoff, as
shown. At each point thus plotted, perpendiculars to the lines are erected their point of intersection being
centre of the required arc.

(r). ISOMETRIC SECTIONS: As the aim of the isometric drawing is to represent the pictorial
appearance of the object, usually outside views are used. But sometimes to show the interior details
sectional views are made. The cutting planes are taken as isometric planes and the section lining is done in
the direction that gives best effect. For a full section the face is drawn first and then the details of the object

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remaining behind are added (figure 3.2.10) .For drawing a half section first the object as a whole, is
outlined and then front quarter is removed as in figure 3.2.11.

(s). ISOMETRIC DIMENSIONING: - The general rules for dimensioning the multi view drawings
are discussed in detail in chapter 5. All those rules hold good in isometric drawing and in addition to that
the following rules must be observed.
• All the extension and the dimension lines must be isometric lines, lying in isometric planes. In
figure 3.2.12. (a), a very common error is illustrated in dimensioning non isometric lines and the
correct method of dimensioning it.
• If possible apply the dimensions to visible surfaces.

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• Notes may be lettered- either on isometric guide lines or as on ordinary drawings. Only vertical
.type of lettering should be used as in figure 3.2.12(b).
• Dimension numerals should appear to be lying in the plane of the surface whose dimensions these
indicate. fig. 3.2.12(b) shows the method of constructing figures on the different faces of a cube.
Note that the sides of the enclosing parallelogram are parallel to the pictorial axes.

3. CONVERSION OF PICTORIAL VIEWS INTO ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS:

For converting a pictorial view of an object into orthographic views the direction from which the object is to be viewed for its front
views is generally indicated by means of an arrow. When this is not done the arrow may be assumed to be parallel to a sloping axis.

When looking at the object in the direction for anyone of the three axes only two of the three overall
dimensions (viz length, height and depth or thickness) will be visible dimensions which are parallel to the
direction of vision will be seen as points while surfaces which are parallel to it will be seen as lines, while
studying a pictorial view it should be remembered that unless otherwise specified:
• A hidden part of a symmetrical object should be assumed to be similar to the corresponding
visible part.
• All holes grooves etc. Should be assumed to be drilled or cut rigid through.
• Suitable radii should be assumed for small curves of fillets etc.
An object in its pictorial view may sometimes be shown with a portion cut and removed to classify
some internal constructional details. While preparing its orthographic views such object should be assumed
to be whole and the views should then be drawn as required.
It is comparatively easy to prepare a drawing from an actual object. The object is
carefully examined and then placed in a suitable position for the front view. All the
necessary views are then sketched free hand in a sketch book or on a pad.

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Measurements of all its details and overall sizes are taken and inserted in the views,
along with important notes and instructions finally a scale -drawing is prepared
from these sketches. A pictorial view of a rectangular plate is given in fig. 3.3.1 .Its
front view when seen in direction of the arrow X side view from the left i.e. in the
direction of the arrow X, and the top view are shown in fig. 3.3.2.

The same plate is shown in fig 3.3.2(i) with its longer edges vertical. Its front view looking in the
direction of the arrow X side view from the left and top view is shown in fig. 3.3.2(ii). These three views
are similar in shape and size to the views shown in fig. 3.3.1 only their positions and conditions have
changed even when the front view is drawn looking in the direction of the arrow y fig 3.2.2(iii). The three
views remain similar in shape and size.

The same plate if shown cut in various shapes and sizes. The front view and
the side view in each case will be the same as in fig. 3.3.1. The changed shape will be
seen in the top view of each plate. If these plates are kept in the position shown in
fig. 3.3.2(i), the front view in each case (looking in direction of the arrow A) will
show a different shape, while the side view and the top view will be rectangles.

A plate cut in three different ways is shown in fig 3.3.2. (iv) The front view in each case is the
same viz a rectangle with a vertical line ab for the edge AB. The side view from the right in each case will
be a rectangle with a vertical line cd for the edge CD. The top view in each case shows the shape of the cut.

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In the front view of the plate having grooves (fig 3. 3.2(v)) two vertical lines
are drawn for the edges of rectangular as well as semi circular grooves. In case of
the triangular grooves, three vertical lines are required.

Although edges AB and CD are cut, they are seen as continuous line ab and cd. In the top view,
shapes of the grooves are seen. The grooves are not visible in the side view and hence, they are shown by a
hidden line. Two plates having grooves in upper and lower surfaces are shown in fig 3.3.2(vi). The shapes
of the grooves are seen in the front views. In the top views two lines for the edges of rectangular as well as
semi circular grooves are drawn. For the triangular grooves three lines are required. The tapered groove in
the bottom surface is assumed to be cut through out the width of the plate. It is not visible from above and
hence, four hidden lines show its four edges in the top view. In their side views the horizontal hidden line
should show each groove.

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A plate having holes of different shapes is shown in fig.3.3.3. These shapes

are seen in the top view. Holes are assumed to be cut or drilled right through.
Hidden lines in the front and the side views show them.

The semi-circular groove in the block shown in fig 3.3.4 does not extend up to
the opposite surface. Therefore although the edge AB is broken, ab is seen as a
continuous line in the front view. The groove is shown by hidden lines in the side

view. In the top view it is drawn as rectangle.

Fig.3.3.5 shows a block in the shape of strips along with its three views. In fig
3.3.6 its face ABCD is inclined. Hence in the top view two lines ab and cd are drawn

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for that face.

The front and back faces of the upper step are shown inclined in fig 3.3.7.
Their inclinations are shown in the side view. In the front view the line PQ for the
edge PQ is drawn. In the top view, lines EF and GH for edges EF and GH are
shown. In fig 3.3.8, all the four side-faces of the upper step are inclined. Their
inclinations are seen in the front view and in the side view. In the top view two
rectangles are seen for the upper step. Lines (for the four sloping edges) joining the
corners of the rectangles should also be shown.

A casting having a hollow cylinder supported by a vertical rib is shown in fig 3.3.9. The width of
the rib .is equal to the diameter of the cylinder. Hence, in the front view, vertical lines for the rib are
tangential to the circle for the cylinder. In the side view, the line showing the thickness of the rib is not
visible when seen from above. Hence, it is shown by a hidden line in the top view.

In the bearing block shown in 3.3.10, the line for the rib is inclined and tangent to the semi-circle
in the front view. Vansing points for the lines for the rib in the side view and the top view are obtained by
projecting the tangent point from the - front view.

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4. PROCEDURE FOR PREPARING A SCALE-DRAWING: .A scale drawing must always be

prepared from-free hand sketches initially prepared from a pictorial view or a real object. In the initial
stages of drawing, always use a soft pencil viz. HB, and work with a light hand so that lines are thin, faint
and easy to erase if necessary
• Determine overall dimensions of the required views. Select a suitable scale so that the
views are conveniently.
• Prepare the sheet layout as described in chapter II. Drawing rectangles for the views,
keeping sufficient space between them and. from the borders of the sheet.
• Draw centre lines in all the views. When a cylindrical part of a hole is seen as a rectangle, draw
only centre line for its axis. When it is seen as a circle, draw two centre lines intersecting each
other at right angles at its centre.
• Draw details simultaneously in all the views in the following order:
o Circles and arcs of circle.
o Straight lines for the general shape of the object.
o Straight lines, small curves etc. for minor details.
• After the views have been completed in all the details, erase all unnecessary lines
completely. Make the outlines so faint that only their impressions exist.
• Fair the views with 2H or.3H pencil, making the out lines uniform and intensely black
(but not too thick). For doing this, adopt the same working order as stated in step 4
above.
• Dimension the views completely. Keep all centre lines.
• Draw section lines in the view or views which are shown in section.
• Fill up the title block and furnish all other necessary particulars.
• Check the drawing carefully and see that it is complete in all respects.

CONVERSION OF PICTORIAL VIEWS

INTO ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS &

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EXERCISES

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CHAPTER IV
DIMENISIONING AND

PRINCIPLES OF DIMENSIONING

GENERAL PRINCIPLES: - All the dimensions, tolerances, etc. are necessary for the correct functioning
of the part; Dimensions should be expressed on the drawing together with any information necessary to
describe the part completely in its finished form, without forgetting the manufacturing and inspection
requirements. It should not be necessary to deduce a functional dimension from other dimensions or to
scale the drawing. No single dimension should be given more than once on the drawing except there
unavoidable.

1. FUNCTIONAL AND NON FUNCTIONAL DIMENSIONING

(a). FUNCTIONAL DIMENSION: - A functional dimension is a dimension, which is essential to the
function of a part. (See figure 4.1)

(b). DATUM DIMENSION:- The datum dimension locates a point, line or plane exactly. It is
enclosed in a frame E.G. 30. It may also be used to specify the position of an ordinate or a point which
establishes a true profile.

(c). PLACING OF DIMENSIONS: - Dimensions should be placed on the view, which shows the
relevant features most clearly. The two recommended systems of placing the dimensions are:-

i. ALIGNED SYSTEM: - In this system, all dimensions are so placed that they may be read
from the bottom or the ri9ht-hand edges of the drawing sheet (see fig 4.2 and 4.3) and all
dimensions should be placed above the dimension lines.

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ii. UNIDIRECTIONAL SYSTEM: - In this system all dimensions are so placed that they
may be read from the bottom edge of the drawing sheet (see fig.4.4 and 4.5) .In this system
there is no restriction controlling the direction of dimension lines. This system is
advantageous on large drawings there it is inconvenient to read dimensions from the right-
hand side.

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(d). PRINCIPLES OF DIAMENSIONING: -

i. As far as possible, all the dimension for one particular operation shall be specified in one view

only, such as diameter and depth of a drilled hole, or size and depth of a threaded hole, etc.

ii. Normally dimensions should be placed outside the views (see fig.4.6.) but if it is not possible, it
may be placed within the view as shown in fig.4.7. However, dimensions should not be placed within a
view unless drawing becomes clear by doing so. Dimensions should not be placed too close to each other or
to the parts being dimensioned.

iii. Dimensions are to be given from visible out lines, rather than from hidden lines (see fig 4.8).
Dimensions are to be given from a base line a centre line of a hole or cylindrical part, an important hole or
a finished surface which may be readily established based on design requirements and the relationship to
other parts. (See fig 4.9 and 4.10).

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iv. Dimensioning to a centre line should be avoided, when the centre line passes through the centre of
a hole, or a cylindrical part as shown fig.4.9 and 4.10.

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v. Dimensions for different operations on a part for example, drilling and bending should be given
separately as shown in fig 4.11, if permissible by its design.

vi. An axis or a contour line should never be used as a dimension line but may be used as a projection
line. (See fig 4.12).

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vii. The intersection of dimension lines should be avoided as far as possible. If, however, the
intersection of two dimension lines is unavoidable, the lines should not be broken. Dimension lines may be
broken for inserting the dimension in case of unidirectional dimensioning (see fig 4.4 and 4.5).

viii. Overall dimensions should be placed outside the Intermediate dimensions. Where an over all
dimension is shown on of the intermediate dimensions is redundant and should not be dimensioned (see fig
4.13).

FIG. 4.13
ix. No more dimensions should be given than are necessary to describe the finished product, nor
should any feature be located by more than one tolerance dimension in anyone direction.

x. Exception may however be made in the following cases:-

• Where it is necessary to give dimensions which apply at intermediate stages of manufacture,

for example, for the size of a feature before carburizing and finishing to size.

• Where desirable auxiliary dimensions may be added. Such, auxiliary dimensions are enclosed
in brackets (see fig. 4.1 and 4.7).
xi. A functional dimension should be expressed directly on the drawing (see fig
4.1 and 4.14) .To do otherwise (fig.4.15) necessitates a re-distribution of the
tolerances; with the result that tighter tolerances are required to maintain the
functional requirements. This does not preclude the dimensioning of holes centre to

centre, although the functional dimension may be edge to edge.

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xii. The non-functional dimension should be placed in the most convenient position to read.
xiii. Tolerances should be specified for the requirements affecting functions or interchange ability
unless workshop practice guarantees the required standard of accuracy. Tolerances should also be used
where usually wide variations are permissible.

xiv. Where it is necessary to limit the overall variation of a series of dimensions to an amount less
than the sum of the individual tolerances, a note should be used to call special attention to this
requirement.

xv. Production processes or inspection methods should not be specified unless they are essential to
ensure satisfactory functioning’s or interchange ability. This does not apply to process drawings, nor does
it preclude the quoting of drill sizes.

2. METHOD OF EXECUTION
(a). Dimension lines and projection lines (Extension lines) are drawn as
continuous thin lines.
(b). Projection lines should extend beyond dimension line by 3 mm.

(c). The construction lines and the intersecting protection lines, should extend slightly beyond their
point of inter section.

(d). Projection and dimension lines should not cross other lines, unless this is unavoidable. (See figure
4.16)

(e). Projection lines are drawn in a direction perpendicular to the feature to be dimensioned or where
necessary, they may be drawn obliquely but parallel with each other. (See figure 4.17)

(f). In aligned systems of dimensioning except where unavoidable, dimension lines should not be
placed in the 30deg zone shown hatched in fig. 4.18.

(g). Leaders or pointer lines are continuous thin lines drawn from notes and figures to show where
they apply. Leaders are terminated either by arrow heads or dots. While arrow head connected leader
should always terminate at a line dots connected to a leader should be within the outline of the object.
(See fig. 4.19A & 4.19B) Leaders should not be curved or drawn free hand. Leaders may also terminate
in a short horizontal bar, at the bottom level of the lettering of the first or the last line of the note. (See
figure 4.20)

(h). Leaders, which touch lines, should not normally be inclined at an angle less than 30 deg and they
should not be parallel to adjacent dimension or projection line, where confusion might arise.

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(j). The use of common leaders should be avoided even if it means repeating the
dimensions or notes or using letters symbols.
(k). Each end of a dimension line should be defined by an arrowhead, whose two

branches should be at an angle sufficiently open to mark clearly the extremities of

the dimension line, or alternatively, the length of the arrowhead may be taken as
about three times the depth. The size of arrowheads should be proportionate to the
thickness of the lines of the proportionate to the thickness of the lines of the drawing
and size of drawings.

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(l). Arrowhead should be drawn within the limits of the dimensioned feature;
when enough space is not available, they should be placed outside. (see figure 4.24)
Adjacent arrowhead may be replaced by a clearly marked dot. A dot may also
replace a single arrowhead to indicate the common origin of successive dimensions.
(m). Instead of arrowheads, the ends of the dimension lines may be marked by
oblique dashes.

3. INSCRIPTION OF DIMENSIONING
(a). Numerals and letters should be large enough to ensure easy Reading.

(b). Numerals or letters should be placed as follows:-

• Preferably near the middle of, and above and clear of, the dimensions line (see fig 4.28) and in
such a way that they are not crossed or separated by any other line of the drawing. In certain cases,
However (as in unidirectional dimensioning), the dimension line may be interrupted for the
insertion of dimension.

• In certain cases, nearer to one of the arrowheads in order to avoid super-imposing of numerals or

having to follow long dimension lines. Such dimension lines may be shortened (see fig.4.26).

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• If unavoidable due to lack of space above the extended portion of the dimension line beyond the
arrow heads, but preferably on right hand side (see fig 4.27)

• Above the horizontal terminating and of a leader (see fig 4.28)

(c). Dimensions of parts which are not drawn to scale should be underlined (see fig 4.27 above)
However, when it is required to draw the whole drawing not to scale, the abbreviation N'I'S may be used
or the column for scale be scored off.

4. ADDITION OF LETTERS AND SYMBOLS

The following letters or symbols should be placed;

Before a dimension for a diameter, the symbol Ø (see fig 4.29).

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Before a dimension for a radius, the letter "R"(see fig 4.30)

Before a dimension for a square, the letters 'SQ (see fig 4.31)

Before across dimension for a hexagon the letters 'HEX' (see fig 4.32.)

If it clearly appears from the drawing that the dimension applies to a square section or hexagonal
section the letter may be omitted.

The radius or diameter dimension of a spherical surface (" should be preceded by the word
"SPHERE" (see fig 4.33 A and4 .33 B)

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5. SPECIAL INDICATION

When it is desirable to indicate that a surface or & surface zone has to be given an additional
treatment, which shall be applied with in limits to be specified on the drawing. These Limits may be
defined by means of a long chain thick line drawn parallel to the surface, at a short distance from it, and
having the locating dimension lines and the corresponding dimensions added. (See fig 4.34).

If the location and the extent of the surface to be treated appear clearly from the drawing, it is not necessary
to dimension them (see fig.35).

6. ARRANGEMENT OF DIMENSIONS

(a). CHAIN DIMENSIONING: Chain dimensioning should only be used where the possible
accumulation of tolerances does not endanger the functional requirements of the part.fig 4.36

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(b). PARALLEL DIMENSIONING: Where a number of dimensions on the same direction have a
common datum feature, the method shown in fig 4.37 and 4.38 should normally be used.

Where there is no risk of confusion, the method shown in fig 4.39 and 4.40 may be used for
simplicity. In this method, the datum line is indicated by a dot and the zero sign. The dimensions are placed
in line with the projection line.

Combined dimensioning results from the simultaneous use of methods indicated (see fig 4.41.)

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(c). DIMENSIONING BY COORDINATES

In some cases it may be useful. Instead of dimensioning as shown in fig 4.42 to group dimensions
separately from the drawing, as shown in the table in fig 4.43.

(d). EQUAL DIMENSIONS

When a dimension is divided into several parts, the sign "is equal to" (=) may be used to indicate those
dimensions which are nominally equal. (See fig 4.44).

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(e). EQUIDISTANT FEATURES: - Where equidistant or regularly arranged elements appear on a

drawing, the method shown in fig 4.45 may be used for simplicity. One pitch should be dimensioned as in
fig 4.46.

(f). ASSEMBLED PARTS: when several parts are drawn in an assembly the groups of dimension
related to each part should be kept separate as much as possible where individual parts drawing are not
prepared (see fig 4.47).

7. METHOD OF DIMENSIONING COMMON FEATURES

(a). DIAMETERS
• Dimensions of diameters should be placed on the most appropriate view to ensure clarity, and
should be preceded by symbol as shown in fig 4.48.

• Where ever half views of symmetrical parts such as a cylindrical parts, are drawn the portions of
the dimension lines shown should be extended slightly beyond the centre line and the second
arrow omitted (see fig 4.49).

• Where space is restricted, the method shown in fig 29 may be used.

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• The diameter of spherical surfaces should be dimensioned as shown in fig 4.33 B.

(b). RADII
• As far as possible the dimension line of a radius shall pass through the
center of the arc. Where the center is located by dimension, the center
shall be marked by a clear dot. While dimensioning small radii the arrow

may be reversed see fig 4.50.

• Radii of arc which need not have their center located should be dimensioned as shown in fig

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4.51 and 4.52.

• wnen the center of an arc falls out side the lines f the shape avilable the dimension line of the
radius should be broken or interrupted according to wether or not it is necessary to locate the
centre. See fig 4.52.

• The radius of spherical suface should be dimensioned as shown in fig 4.33 A.

(c). HOLE SIZE: fig 4.53 A, B, C and D are some of the typical example for dimension hole size.
When ever depth of a hole is specified in the note from it refer to the depth of the cylinderical position of
the hole.

(d). POSITION OF HOLES: The position of holes and other features, should be defined by either
spacing them on pitch circles or by giving the rectangular coordinates as shown in fig 4.70A., or by giving
the centre distances as shown in fig) 4.70B. Where holes symmetrical to edges are to be dimensioned.
Holes are dimensioned, using coordinates, even though they are lying on a pitch circle. (See figure 4.70A)

Holes are dimensioned using coordinates from the centre of the hole.

(e). DIMENSIONING CURVED SURFACES: A curved line or surface composed of circular arcs

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should be preferably dimensioned by using radii. However, if this method is impracticable the use of
coordinates may be resorted to for dimensioning curved surfaces see fig 4.71.

While dimensioning the position of holes on curved surfaces, it is preferable to use angular
dimension.

8. KEY WAY DIMENSIONING

(a). Key ways for parallel and tapered keys in cylindrical shafts and hubs shall be dimensioned

according to relevant Indian Standards as shown in fig 4.86. In the plan view for slots and key ways, it is

sufficient to indicate length and width see fig 4.89.

(b). Where bottom of way is parallel to taper surface, the depth shall dimensioned as shown in fig4.90.
Taper keyways, the direction of slope, being the direction which the key is driven should indicated by an
arrow.

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(c). The bottom of the key way is dimensioned when it run parallel to the surface of the taper bore.
If the bottom of the key way is parallel to the taper axis, as in tapered shaft ends, the bottom of the key
way shall preferably be dimensioned from the surface of a cylinder. In this case the tolerance of the
cylinder diameter (when indicated) should also be considered.

In case of taper holes with cylindrical ends, the bottom of the key way shall be dimensioned.

9. DIMENSIONING OF TAPERED FEATURES

(a). The following dimensions may be used in suitable combinations depending on technological requirements, to define the
size and form of a tapered feature.

• Diameters or width at each end of the tapered feature.

• Length of the tapered feature.

• Diameter or width at a selected cross sectional plane either within the tapered feature or outside.

• Location or position of the cross section given at (c) above.

• Included angle.

Fig 4.60 shows the terms use for defining taper. (Such as taper and slope)

FIG. 4.60
(b). Notes such as taper 1:10 see fig 4.61 should be placed parallel to the centre line, and while
indicating slope, for e.g. slope 1:20 see fig 4.62 slope 14 % see fig 4.63 should be placed to the envelope.

In case of tapers, the half angle or the taper angle is indicated in addition, in brackets, to facilitate
machine settings.

If necessary, the direction of taper may be added as shown in fig 4.64.

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(c). In many cases the procedure used in dimensioning taper shall take into account
the inspection method employed in the production of the taper. In the case of external taper
the ring gauge is indicated by chain line and the distance from its largest diameter to a
functionally important datum plane is stated and tolerances, see fig 4.65.

(d). In the case of internal tapers, the tapper plug gauge is indicated by chain line and the distance
from its largest diameter to a functionally important datum plane is stated and tolerances see fig 4.66.

(e). If the nominal diameter of the taper is required to have a specific position relative to datum plane
without coinciding. With an edge of the work piece, then the nominal diameter of the taper should be given
as a gauge diameter. Its distance from the datum plane is tolerances see fig 4.67.

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CHAPTER- V

SECTIONING

METHOD OF SECTIONING & HATCHING

1. INTRODUCTION: -

Invisible features of an object are shown by means of hidden lines in their projected views; but
when such features are too many or of complex nature, these lines make the views more complicated and
difficult to interpret. In such a cases, it is customary to imagine the object as being cut through or sectioned
by a plane the part of the object between such a plane and the observer is assumed to be removed and the
view is then shown in section,

The imaginary plane is called cutting plane or section plane or section, it is generally assumed to
be parallel to the plane on which the view is projected. The surface provided by cutting on object: by the
section plane is called a section the projection of the section along with the remaining part of the object is
called sectional view. The sectional view, Thus shows not only the shape of the section but also all the
visible edges and contours of the object behind the sectional plane. The section is indicated by means of
hatching or section lines dotted lines for hidden details are omitted from a sectional view unless they are
absolutely essential for further clarification.

When a sectional is assured in one view, it does not in any way, affect other vies the other views
are drawn as if the entire object exists as a whole.

2. CUTTING PLANE LINE- The position of the cutting plane is indicated by-the-cutting plane line
it is a thin, long chain line thickened at the ends. The direction of viewing the section is shown by arrows
resting on the cutting plane line and designated by capital letters (Fig.5.1).

3. METHODS OF SECTIONING: -

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(a) FULL SECTION : - When an object is assumed to be cut through entirely and the front half
removed it is said to be in full section, the projected view is called a sectional view (the word “full" being
generally omitted) Fig. 5.2.

When a horizontal section plane cuts an object and top view is seen in section. The cutting plane is
seen as a line CC in the front view (Fig. 5.3).

(b) HALF SECTION: - When an object is symmetrical, it may be assumed to be cut by two
cutting planes at right angles to each other and containing the two centre lines of the object. The one
quarter of the object between the two planes is then removed showing only a half section. Projected view is
a half sectional view .The external appearance and the internal details of the object are thus shown in a
single view. When an object is symmetrical about its vertical axis, the half section may be assumed on any
one side of that axis. In half sectional view, dashed lines for the hidden features on the unsectional side are
always shown for clarity. The line separating the sectional view and the external view coincides with a
centre lines and as recommended by I.S.I is shown as a centre lines.(Fig. 5.4)

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(c) PARTIAL OR BROKEN SECTION: - When only a small portion of an object is required to
be shown in section to reveal a minute feature the view is shown in a partial or broken section as shown in
fig 5.5.

(d) REVOLVED SECTION: - A section is formed by passing a cutting plane at right angles
to the axis of the object fig 5.6 it is in fact the cross section of the object. This section is then revolved and
brought into the plane of the axis and shown in the view in which the axis is seen as a line. The section
shown in the manner is called a revolved section.

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(e) REMOVED SECTION: - This section is obtained in the same manner as-revolved
section, but is drawn outside the view generally around the extension of the cutting plane line fig 5.7 When
it is not convenient to shown the section in this manner, it may be drawn away from its location.

In such a, case the section is identified by, a note below it, i.e. section c.c. This method is
generally used when the section is to be shown on an enlarged scale for the purpose of dimensioning.

(f) OFFSET SECTION: - To reveal more details than what an ordinary section would do, the
cutting plane may be offset as shown in fig 5.8 The section thus obtained is called on offset section.

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4. SECTIONING CONVEN'I'IONS- Bolt, nuts, studs revets pins, keys Cutter shaft etc. are never
shown in section longitudinally, i.e. when the cutting plane passes though their axis, they are, however cut
and shown in cross section, i.e. When the cutting plane is at right angle to their axis.

Spokes or arms of whee1s or pulleys are never sectioned longitudinally fig 5.9.

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Similarly a web or rib is also not shown in section when a cutting plane cuts it along its length and
breadth. It is left, intact by offsetting the cutting plane. Another practice is to show the rib by means of
dashed line and to draw section lines in it, omitted alternate lines as shown in fig 5.10.

Shaft, pipes etc. of long length are generally shown broken in the middle to accommodate their
views in a drawing sheet without reducing the scale. Conventiona1 method of showing broken ends of (i)
round bars or shaft, (ii) pipes, (iii) bars of rectangular or square cross section and (iv) wood scantling are
shown in fig 5.11.

5. HATCHING OR SECTIONING LINES: -

Section lines are draw in the section i.e. the portion which is cut by the section plane, section lines
are thin continuos lines drawn inclined at 45° to the axis or to the main out line of the section. They should
be spaced uniformly throughout a drawing. The spacing should be from 1.5 mm to 2mm depending upon
the size of the figure to be sectioned. Care should be taken to maintain uniformity which is judge by the eye
and attended by practice. Uneven spacing spoils the appearance of drawing.

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Section lines should never cross an outline of a drawing they should be interrupted for dimensions
only and not for dimension lines or arrow head. Any one piece must have section lines drawn in the same
direction in all its views. Section lines in two different; pieces in contact should be drawn in opposite
direction when three or more parts are in contact, the spacing of section lines should be varied.

Very thin sections are shown totally black leaving thin space between adjacent sections. (Fig.
5.12)

Different metals and materials are conventionally shown in section by different types of section
lines. In addition names and other particulars of metals and material should be specified in the drawing
sheet by means of notes or key diagram.

(a) HATCHING: -

Hatching is used to make sections evident. It is executed by thin 1ines at an angle of 45° to the
axis or to the main outline of the section. see fig 5.10.

Spacing between the hatching lines should be chosen in proportion to the area of the section to be
hatched.

In the case of large area, the hatching may be 1imited to a zone following the contour of the
hatched area. (Fig.5.13)

Where sections of the same part in the parallel planes are shown side by side, the hatching lines
should be similarly spaced, but offset along the dividing line between the sections.

Hatching may be interrupted for dimensioning, if it is not possible to place these out side the hatching.

6. CUTTING PLANES -The following types of cutting planes are used in drawings: -

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• Section in one plane. (Fig. 5.14)

• Section in two parallel planes. (Fig.5.15)

• Section in three contiguous planes. (Fig. 5.16)

• Section in two intersecting planes, one shown revolved into the plane of projection.

(a) REVOLVED IN PLACE OR REMOVED SECTION: - Cross sections may be revolved in

place or removed. In the first case, the outline is shown in continuos thin lines with hatching and further
identification is not necessary.

(b) HALF SECTION: - Symmetrical parts may be drawn partly in view and partly as a section.

(c) LOCAL (PARTIAL) SECTION: - A local section may be drawn if a complete or a half
section is not convenient. Continuos thin irregular lines show the local break.

7. SECTIONING CONVENTIONS OF VARIOUS MATERIALS IS AS FOLLOWES: -

(Fig. 5.2)

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8. TYPES OF THREADS AND THREAD SECTIONS: - (Fig. 5.3)

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CHAPTER VI

CONSTRUCTION OF NUT, BOLTS,

WASHERS AND GEAR TEETH PROFILE

1. CONSTRUCTION OF NUTS: -

Nuts are generally in the form of hexagonal or square prisms. Besides these, cylindrical and other
forms are also used to suit particular requirements.

Between the hexagonal and the square nuts, the hexagonal is generally given preference. The
spanner used for turning the nut can have better hold on square nut than on a hexagonal nut, but angle
through which the spanner will have to be turned to get another hold is only 60° in case of hexagonal shape,
while it is 90° in case of square shape. Hence it is more convenient to screw-on a hexagonal nut than the
square nut.

(a). HEXAGONAL NUT: -

The upper corners of this nut are rounded-off or chamfered. The chamfering is generally conical.
The angle of chamfer is 30° or 45° with the base of the nut. The dimensions of the hexagonal nut cannot be
expressed exactly in terms of the nominal diameter of the bolt. For elementary work, the following
approximately standard dimensions may be adopted. (Fig. 6.1)

If D = the nominal diameter of the bolt,

Thickness of the nut, T=D

Width across flats, W = 1.5 D + 3 mm

Width across corners W=2D

Angle of chamfer = 30°

Radius of chamfer arc, R = 1.4 D (approx.)

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(b) SQUARE NUT: -

Upper corners of the square nut are also chamfered in the same manner as those of the hexagonal
nut. The width across flats of a square nut and a hexagonal nut, for the same size of bolt, are also equal.
Dimensions of square nut are as follows. (Fig. 6.2)

If D = the nominal diameter of the bolt,

Thickness of the nut, T=D

Width across flats, W = 1.5 D + 3 mm

Width across corners W = √2 x Across Flat

Angle of chamfer = 30°

Radius of chamfer arc, R = 2 D (approx.)

2. CONSTRUCTION OF WASHER : -

A washer is a cylindrical piece of metal placed below nut to provide smooth bearing surface for
nut to turn on. It spreads the pressure of the nut over greater area. It also prevents the nut from cutting into
metal and thus, allows the nut to be screwed-on more tightly. It is sometimes chamfered on the top flat
surface. (Fig. 6.3)

Approximate dimensions of washer:

If ‘D’ is the nominal diameter of the bolt,

Diameter of the washer = 2D + 3 mm

Thickness = 0.12 D

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Angle of chamfer = 30°

Diameter of the hole = D + 0.5 mm

3. CONSTRUCTION OF BOLT : -

(a). HEXAGONAL-HEADED BOLT: -

This is the most common form of bolt. The hexagonal head is chamfered at its upper end. To
prevent rotation of the bolt while screwing the nut on or off it, the bolt-head is held by another
spanner.(Fig. 6.4)

If D = the nominal diameter of the bolt,

Thickness of the nut, T = 0.8 D

Width across flats, W = 1.5 D + 3 mm

Width across corners W=2D

Angle of chamfer = 30°

Radius of chamfer arc, R = 1.4 D (approx.)

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(b) SQUARE-HEADED BOLT : -

This bolt is generally used when the head is to be accommodated in a recess. This recess also is
made of square shape so that the bolt is prevented from turning when the nut is screwed on or off it. This
bolt is commonly used in bearing for shafts. The bolt-head is chamfered at its upper end. (Fig. 6.5)

If D = the nominal diameter of the bolt,

Thickness of the nut, T = 0.8 D

Width across flats, W = 1.5 D + 3 mm

Width across corners W = √2 x Across Flat

Radius of chamfer arc, R = 2 D (approx.)

4. CONSTRUCTION OF GEARS:-

(a). FOR GEAR OF 30 TEETH AND OVER : -

With the centre 0, draw the pitch circle, addendum circle and dedendum circle. The diameters
may be calculated from the given data and from the tooth proportions as shown in problem, 2. mark a point
F on the pitch circle, On OP as diameter. i.e. with radius equal to PCD/4, draw a semi circle with P as
centre and radius equal to PCD/8 draw and arc cutting the semi-circle at a points Q with a as centre. Draw
a circle passing through Q. Then this is the circle on which centres of arcs for the teeth profiles will lie.
The radius for these arcs R= PCD/8.

To draw the arcs, marks points 1,2.3 etc. on the pitch circle and distance CP/2 apart. With each of
each of these points as centre and radious equal to PCD/8. locate the centres (for arcs) 1,2,3.
1,2,3 etc (on the circle of centres). with 1.2,3 etc as centres and radius R, draw the profile arcs. Join each arc with the bottom of
the both space by a fillet of radious r equal to CP/8. (Fig. 6.6)

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(b). FOR GEARS OF LESS THAN 30 TEETH’S

Determine the centres 1,2 etc. and draw the arcs as described in (1) above, From 0. Draw line$ tangential to these arcs. Join
each of these lines with the botto18 of tooth space by a fillet of radious r equal to CP/8 (Fig. 6.7)

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(c). GEARS IN MESH : -

PROBLE1f 4 = Draw full size, two views of a pair of involute spur gears (in mesh O of module pitch 8
mm. having 30 teeth and 1[; teeth respectively. The 30 teeth gear has a width of 36 mm , inside rim
diameter 200 mm, boss diameter 45 mm, and length 4B mm and shaft diameter 25 mm. It has four
arms of elliptical cross-section the minor axis being constant at 12 mm and the major axis tapering
from 25 mm at the boss to 20 mm at the vim. the pinion has a face width of 36 mm, inside rim
diameter circle, l15 mm boss diameter 35 mm and length 48 mm, and the shaft diameter 20 mm. There
are three lightening hole of 30 mm diameter in the 12 mm thick web, symmetrically spilced, on a PCD
of 75 mm show four to five teeth on each gear in the front view and a full section in the other view.
Fig. 6.8 (i) shows the front view with teeth profile, drawn by conventional method. The section is
shown in fig. 6.8(ii). The teeth profiles in fig. 6.8 (iii) are drawn by assuming a pressure angle of 15°.
Note that the teeth profiles of the wheel and pinion in each method differ from each other in shape in
although the value of the pitch is the same. (Fig. 6.9)

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CHAPTER VII

SIMPLIFICATION AND CONVENTIONAL

REPRESENTATION OF COMMON FEATURES

1. REPRESENTATION OF WELDED JOINTS: -

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2. COMPRESSION SPRING: - (Fig.7.2)

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3. CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF COMMON FEATURES: -

(Fig. 7.3)

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4. CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF COMMON FEATURES: -

(Fig. 7.4)

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5. CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF COMMON FEATURES: -

(Fig. 7.5)

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6. CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF COMMON FEATURES: -

(Fig. 7.6)

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TENSION SPRING

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7. CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF COMMON FEATURES: -

(Fig. 7.7)

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8. CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF COMMON FEATURES: -

(Fig. 7.8)

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9. CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF COMMON FEATURES: -

(Fig. 7.9)

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10. CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF COMMON FEATURES: -

(Fig. 7.10)

ASSEMBLY DRAWING (GEAR PAIRS)

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11. CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF COMMON FEATURES: -

(Fig. 7.11)

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CONTOURS AND EDGES

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12. CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF COMMON FEATURES: -

(Fig. 7.12)

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CHAPTER VIII

TECHNICAL DRAWINGS FOR

STRUCTURAL METAL WORK

1. REPRESENTATION OF HOLES, BOLTS AND RIVETS.

(a) REPRESENTATION ON PROJECTION PLANES NORMAL TO THEIR

AXES.
In order to represent holes, bolts, and rivets on projection planes normal to their axes, the following symbols, represented in
thick lines, shall be used see table 1 and 2. The symbol for holes shall be without a dot in the centre.

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(b) REPRESENTATION ON PROJECTION PLANES PARALLEL TO THEIR

AXES.

In order to represent holes, bolts and rivets on projection planes parallel to their axes, the
symbols of the following representation shall be adopted see table 3 and 4. Only the horizontal dash
of these symbols shall be represented in the thin lines, while all other parts shall be represented in
thick lines.

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2. DIMENSIONING AND DESIGNATION

Because, in practice, the dimension lines and the projection lines are drawn with
the same drawing instrument. A short thin line, drawn at 450 to the dimension line, has
been used to represent the terminations of dimension lines, instead of thick stroke as
indicated in the draft revision of 150 2505.
This contradiction will disappear in the next edition of 1.5.0 2505, as well as in the
first edition of ISO 129 (at present revision of 150/R 129).

The projection line shall be separated from the symbols of holes, bolts and rivets on projection
planes parallel to their axes see fig. 8.l.

FIG. 8.1
The diameter of holes shall be indicated at the side of the symbol see fig 2.

To indicate the characteristics of bolts and rivets the designation shall be given
in accordance with international standards or, if no international standard exists, with
national standards or other specification in use see table 1 & 2.

The designation of holes, bolts and rivets, when referred to groups of identical
elements, can be restricted to one exterior element see table 1 & 2.

In this case the designation shall be preceded by the number of holes, bolts rivets
constituting the group see table 1 & 2 and fig. 8.2.

Holes, bolts and rivets, with equal distance from the centre lines, should be
dimensioned as shown in figures 8.2 and 8.3.

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3. DIMENSION OF CHAMFERS

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Chamfers shall be defined by means of linear dimension as shown in figure 4(a)

and 4(b).

4. DIMENSION AND LENGTHS OF ARCS

At the side of the developed lengths of arcs the bending radius to which these lengths refer shall be indicated bracket
(external fibre, centroidal fibre, etc) as shown in fig 8.3 and 8.5.

5. DESIGNATION OF BARS, PROFILE SECTION PLATES AND SHEETS

(a) BARS AND PROFILE SECTIONS

The representations of bars and profile sections shall be indicated by the

relevant I.S.0 designation followed .if necessary, by the cutting length separated by a
short horizontal dash.

If there is no I.S.0 designation or other relevant standards, the symbols and

dimensions indicated in table 5 shall be applied. The designation on position of the bar
or profile section see table 6.

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TABLE – 6

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FIG. 8.6
(b) PLATES AND SHEETS

Plates and sheets shall be designated by their thickness followed by the overall
finished dimensions of the enclosing rectangle see fig 8.6.

6. DIMENSIONING OF GUSSET PLATES

The reference systems for dimensioning a gusset shall be made up by at least two converging

centroidal lines with a defined angular position. Their converging point is called reference point. The

dimensioning of plates shall include the position of holes referred to the above mentioned controidal

lines, .the overall dimensions and the minimum distance between the edges of the gusset plates and the

centre lines of the holes (scaffolding tie) see fig 8.7 and 8.8.

The inclination of the axes of structural shapes and bars shall be indicated at the two short sights of a rectangular triangle
(system of the triangle), preferably with the values of the real distances of the reference points (or with conventional values, referred
to 100, indicated in bracket) see fig 8.7 and 8.8.

(a) DIAGRAMMATIC

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REPRESENTATION

Structural metal work can be represented diagrammatically indicating by

continuous thick lines the centroidal lines of the intersecting elements.
In this case the values of the distances between the reference points of the
centroidal lines shall be indicated directly on the represented elements see fig 8.9.

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CHAPTER – IX

SURFACE TEXTURE AND

TOLERANCES
1. METHODS OF INDICATING SURFACES ROUGHNESS FOR ENGINEERING
DRAWING:-

(a) SYMBOLS USED FOR INDICATION OF SURFACE TEXTURE :-

The basic symbol consists of two legs of unequal length inclined at approximately 60 deg. to the
line representing e considered surface as shown in fig. 9.l.

If the removal of material by machining is required a r is added to the basic symbol as shown in fig.
9.2.

If the removal of material is not permitted a circle s added to other basic symbol as shown in fig. 9.3.

The symbol in fig. 9.3 may also be used in a drawing relating to a production process to indicate that

surface is to be left in the state resulting from a preceding manufacturing proc s whether this state was
achieved by removal of material or otherwise.

When special surface characteristics have to be indicated a line is added to the larger arm of any of
the above symbols s shown in fig. 9.4.

(b) INDICATIONS ADDED TO THE SYMOBOLS:-

(i) INDICATION OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS: - The value or values defining the

principal criterion of roughness are added to the symbols given in fig. 9.1, 9.2, 9.3 as shown in fig 9.5, 9.6
and 9.7.

A surface texture specified.

• As in fig. 9.5 may be obtained by any production method.

• As in fig. 9.6 must be obtained by removal of material by machining.

• As in fig. 9.7 must be obtained without removal of materials

When only one value is specified it represents the maximum permissible value of surface

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roughness.

If it is necessary to impose maximum and minimum limits of the principal criterion of surface
roughness both values shall be shown as in fig. 9.8 with the maximum limit (al) above the mini m limit
(a2).

The principal criterion of roughness, Ra, may be indicated by the corresponding roughness grade
symbols shown in table 1.

(ii) INDICAC'ION OF SPECIAL SURFACE TEXTURE CHARACTERISTICS:-

In certain circumstances, for functional reason, it may be necessary to specify additional special
requirement concerning surface texture.

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If it is required that the final surface texture be produced by one particular production method, this
method shall be indicated in plain language or an extension of the larger arm of the symbol given in fig. 9.4
as shown in fig. 9.9.

Also on this extension line shall be given any indications relating to treatment or coating.
Unless otherwise stated, numerical value of the roughness applies to the surface texture after treatment

or coating. If it is necessary to define surface texture either before or after treatment, this shall be

explained in a suitable note or in accordance with fig. 9.10.

If it is necessary to indicate the sampling length it shall be selected from the series given in ISO/R
468 and be stated adjacent to the symbol as shown in fig. 9.11.

If it is necessary to control the direction of lay it is specified by a symbol added to the surface
texture symbol as shown in fig. 9.12.

(iii) SYMBOL FOR DIRECTION OF LAY:-

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The series of symbols shown (see table 2) specifies the common direction of lay.

(iv) INDICATION OF MACHINING ALLOWANCES:-

Where it is necessary to specify the value of the machining allowance, this shall be indicated on
the left of the symbol as shown in fig. 9.13 this value shall be expressed in mm or inches, according to
general system used for dimensioning the drawing.

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(v) POSITION OF THE SPECIFICATION OF THE SURFACE TEXTURE IN THE

SYMBOL:-

The specification of surface roughness should be placed relative to the symbol as shown in fig.
9.14.

a = Roughness value Ra in micrometers or roughness grade number N1 -N12

b = production method treatment or coating.

c = Sampling length.
d = Direction of lay.

e = Machining allowance.

f = other roughness values (in brackets).

(c) INDICATION ON DRAWING:-

In conformity with ISO/R 129, the symbol as well as the inscription shall be oriented so they may
be read from bottom or right hand sides of the drawing see fig. 9.15.

If it is not practicable to adopt this general rule, the symbol may be drawn in any position of
special surface texture characteristic of machining allowance. Nevertheless, in such cases inscription

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defining the value of the principal criterion of roughness must always be written in conformity with
general rule see fig. 9.16.

If necessary the symbol may be connected to the surface by a leader line terminating in an arrow.
The symbol or the arrow shall point from outside the material of the piece, either to the line representing
the surface, or to an extension of it see fig. 9.15.

In accordance with general principles of dimensioning the symbol is used once for a given
surface and, if possible on the view, which carries the dimension defining the size or position of the
surface see fig. 9.17.

If the same texture is required on the true surface on a part, it is specified: -

• either by a note near a view of the part fig. 9.18 near the title block, or in the space devoted
to general notes.

• or following part number on the drawing fig. 9.19

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If same surface texture is required on the majority of the surface of a part, it is specified as in
fig. 9.18 and fig. 9.19 with addition of: -

• The notation "except where otherwise stated" fig. 9.20.

• or a basic symbol (in brackets) without any indication, fig. 9.21 .

• or the symbol or symbols (in brackets) of the special surface texture or textures fig.
9.22.

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The symbols which are exception of the general symbol are indicated on the corresponding
surface.

To avoid necessity of repeating a complicated specification a number of times, or where space

is limited a simplified specification may be used on the surface, provided that its meaning is explained
near the drawing of the part, near title block or in the space devoted to general notes (see fig. 9.23) .

If the same surface texture is required on a large number of surface of the part one of the symbols
shown in fig 1,2 or 3 may be used on the appropriate surface and its meaning given on the drawing, for
examples, as shown in fig. 9.24.

2. TOLERANCE IN ENGINEERING DRAWINGS :-

(a) TOLERANCING:

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There are two methods of specifying the accuracy of cones (see fig 9.25).

On the right hand side of the figure the tolerance zones are shown.

It should be noted that errors of form may exist, provided that every part of the surface lies inside
the tolerance zone. In practice it may not be permitted to observe the whole of the tolerance zone by errors
of form. When restrictions in this regard are necessary, their shall be indicated by appropriate tolerance of
form.

The datum dimensions {which may be linear or angular) and the toleranced sizes define the
tolerance zone within which the conical surface shall be contained. The datum dimension (enclosed in a
frame) is a dimension which defines the exact location of a point, line, plane or conical surface, the real
position of which is controlled by means, other than by direct tolerancing of this dimension.

It may be used to define the exact position of a cross section of a contact. Which the diameter is
allowing to vary within specified limits. It may also be used to define the exact diameter of a cross section
of a cone, the position of which allowed varying within specified limits.

It should be noted that where the method of dimensioning shown in figures 9.26 and 9.27 is

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used, either the diameter or the position would be a datum dimension (enclosed in a frame).

The choice of the tolerancing method and of the values of the tolerances depends upon the
functional requirements.

(b) METHOD OF TELERANCE:-

(i) BASIC TAPER METHOD: -

In this method, the tolerances limit, the variation of penetration of meeting surfaces, each
surface, being required to remain within two limiting profiles of the same taper corresponding to the
maximum and minimum material conditions.

The tolerance zone limiting the cone is established by a tolerance either on diameter or on
position. By convention the prescribed or resulting tolerances of the diameter of the feature applies at all
cross sections through out its length (Fig. 9.26, 9.27 & 9.28).

The surface of the cones may lie anywhere within the tolerance zone.

Figure 9.26 illustrates a cone dimensioned by the basic taper method and where the size is
controlled by a toleranced dimension at a cross section located by a datum dimension enclosed in a frame.

Figure 9.28illustrates a cone dimensioned by the basic taper method and where the diameter of a
cross section is a datum dimension. This cross section is located within specified limits in relation to the
left side of the feature.

The basic taper method according to Fig. 9.26, 9.27 & 9.28 may not be suitable for use in cases
where the variation is taper, arising from the necessary tolerances on diameter or position would not be
acceptable.

This may over come by the use of fig. 9.29 or by toleranced taper method.

Where it is necessary to apply restrictive conditions limiting the effective variation of the taper
within the tolerance zone, the following methods shall be used.

• By a reference to a written note specifying the permissible limit of the actual taper.

• By indicating a restrictive angularity tolerance to the generating lines with respect to

the axis. (See fig. 9.29) in accordance with ISO/R/ 1101.

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(ii) TOLERANCED TAPER METHOD: -

In this method the numerical value of the tolerance of size applies only at the cross sect, on at
which the dimension is shown on the drawing NOT at every cross section or in the case in the basic taper
method.

The accuracy of the taper for a cone is specified directly by a tolerance on that taper and is
independent of the tolerance on the size. In the case of an angle the tolerance is expressed as given in
ISO/R 406. In the case of a ratio, the tolerance applies to the numerator.

The tolerance on the taper may he specified as unilateral or bilateral as required e.g.

(3.5 + 0.5): 12

(1 + 0.1): 50

(5 + 0.1) %

(25 deg + 30')

If not otherwise stated, that unit of the tolerance are the same as those of the nominal dimension.

The surface of the cone may lie anywhere between the extreme position resulting from the
accumulated tolerances of the linear dimensions on the one hand and on the taper tolerance on the other
hand, provided that the tolerance on the taper is respected.

For graphical representation of the taper tolerance zone. It is assumed that the generating lines are
the straight lines.

For the interpretation of straightness see ISO/R 1101, section 2 Note I. The direction of the
generating lines of the cone is defined by the direction of two straight lines a minimum distance apart
and enveloping the actual generating lines. These two straight lines must therefore be inclined within
the limits given by the taper tolerance. Further the generating lines must not exceed the limits of size at
points there the dimensions specified.

Fig.9.29 illustrates a cone dimensioned by the toleranced taper method and where the size of the
larger end is toleranced.

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CHAPTER- X

PRACTICE DRAWINGS
Sl. No. Name of Drawing Page No.
1. SPINDLE BEARING C.I. 110
2. BUSHEED BEARING 111
3. FLY PRESS BODY 112
4. WORM WHEEL CASTING C.I. 113
5. BRACKET AND PIN 114
6. FOOTSTEP BEARING 115
7. SCREW JACK 116
8. UNIVERSAL COUPLING 117
9. EXPANSION JOINT 118
10. STUFFING BOX 119
11. INVERTED BEARING FOR 38 MM SHAFT 120
12. CYLINDER RELLIEF VALVE 121
13. OIL FUEL STRAINER 122
14. G. M. SCREW-DOWN STOP VALVE 123
15. GEAR PUMP 124
16. 100 MM STOP VALVE 125
17. CONNECTING ROD FOR PETROL ENGINE 127
18. ORDINARY FLANGE COUPLING 128
19. FLEXIBLE COUPLING 128
20. CONTROL VALVE 129
21. PARALLEL SLIDE STOP VALVE 130
22. GATE VALVE 131
23. BALL VALVE 136
24. 4 STROKE PISTON AND ROD 138
25. HYDRAULIC STEERING GEAR 139
26. STARTING AIR VALVE 140
27. REDUCING VALVE 141
28. FUEL INJECTOR 142
29. COMPRESSOR AND PISTON ROD 144
30. CONNECTING ROD ( 7 D12) 145
31. STERN TUBE 147
32. REDUCING VALVE TYPE - 2 148

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22. GATE VALVE

PARTICULAR OF PARTS
S. NO NO REQUIRED MATERIAL
NAME OF PARTS
1. SPLIT FOR HANDWHEEL 1 PN BRONZE
2. NUT FOR HAND WHEEL 1 AL BRONZE
3. WASHER 1 DO
4. HANDWHEEL 1 CS
5. SPINDLE 1 AL BRONZE
6. GLAND NUT 1 GM
7. GLAND 1 GM
8. PACKING 1 ASBESTOS
9. BONNET 1 GM
10. GASKET 1 CAF
11. BODY 1 GM
12. WEDGE 1 LUMINA
13. STUDE AND NUT FOR BODY AND 4 EACH AL BRONZE
BRONZE

DRAW THE FOLLOWING VIEWS OF THE ASSEMBLY : -

1. COMPLETE SECTIONAL ELEVATION.

2. PLAN.

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APPENDIX

BOOKS OF REFERENCES

Sl. No. Name of the Book Author

1. A Text Book of Machine Drawing N. D. Bhatt

2. A Text Book of Machine Drawing P. S. Gill

3. A Text Book of Machine Drawing R. B. Gupta

4. Reed’s Engineering Drawings for Marine Engineers H. G. Beck

5. Elementary Engineering Drawing N. D. Bhatt

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