12

Urban Hydroponics for Diversified

Agriculture: Part II

Jose Santos R. Carandang VI, Robert W. Taylor, Josemaria S.

Calleja, Edito A. Busayong, and Eric Camilo R. Punzalan

Problem Statement

Achieving food security in urban areas has been proven to be challenging.

The inability of urban areas to produce their food requirement means that
food has to be imported from elsewhere, more often than not from faraway
places. If we use lettuce as a model, the nearest source of lettuce for Metro
Manila’s consumption is Cavite, but still, most of the lettuce that is sold
in the markets is from the Cordillera Region of northern Luzon. Lettuce
served in hotels as a salad still comes from Mindanao or even as far away as
Australia. Traffic congestion, rising fuel prices, and poor road infrastructure
has produced a problem in transporting agriculture from rural areas to urban
markets where people reside and where the food is consumed. Increase in
rates of spoilage of perishable vegetables and transportation costs constitute
a food security issue that needs to be addressed. Our proposed solution is
urban agriculture. In the previous project, we had shown that raising lettuce
hydroponically in open areas such as a building rooftop is not only feasible
but may also be profitable. Issues of water and carbon footprints are also

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 376 Pathways Out of Poverty

addressed by this method. In this part of the world, Singapore is at the

forefront of this technology.
Another method that addresses the environmental concerns of food
security is organic farming. Organic farming may also be adopted for urban
agriculture. Giving urban farming enthusiasts more choices of methods can
help popularize the concept of urban agriculture. The surveys we had done
indicate that organic farming is more popular to farming enthusiasts than
hydroponics. Furthermore products of organic farming are perceived to
be more nutritious than those that are chemically grown (using chemical
fertilizers and pesticides). To be able to showcase the merits of hydroponics
over other methods, we have compared the yield, growth parameters,
nutritional value, and even the chemical contaminants that can be found in
lettuce grown using both methods.

Review of Related Literature

Urban Agriculture

It is a widely accepted fact that high yields are central to sustainable food
security given a finite land resource (Godfray et al., 2010; Foley et al., 2011),
thus creating the motivation for innovative agricultural practices such as
urban (e.g., hydroponics) and organic farming. Organic farming is a system
aimed at producing food with minimal harm to ecosystems, animals, or
humans (McIntyre et al., 2009; De Schutter, 2010). On the other hand,
urban agriculture involves the growing, processing, and distribution of
food and its by-products by way of intensive plant cultivation and animal
husbandry in and around cities (Bailkey & Nasr, 2000). The purpose of
urban agriculture is the growing and raising of food crops and animals for
the explicit purpose of feeding local populations in urban areas (Goldstein et
al., 2011). Among the benefits of urban agriculture include increased access
to healthy and affordable produce for urban residents, while creating less
pollution from transportation and waste products (Mukherji & Morales,
2010). However, to make full use of the potentials of urban agriculture, city
officials should consider a more comprehensive approach for incorporating
urban agriculture into their zoning regulations (Mougeot & International
Development Research Centre Canada, 2004). To intensify support for
urban farming, standards that would regulate the permitted urban farming
activities as well as facilitate the sale of goods produced from those regulated
activities should be created (Mukherji & Morales, 2010).

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 Urban Rooftop Hydroponics: Part II 377

Hydroponics

The word hydroponics was first used by Dr. William F. Gericke in the 1930s.
The term describes the agricultural applications of hydroponics, taken
from the Greek words hydro (“water”) and ponos (“labor”; Agricultural
Information, 2013). Hydroponics is a method of growing plants without
using soil. In hydroponics, plants get their nutrients directly from solution.
This technology is not new. Experiments in growing mint plants without soil
can be traced back to 17th-century France and England. By 1925, the United
States began experimenting with different ways to make plant nutrient
solutions in order to replace greenhouse soil that is difficult to maintain. This
method allows plants to grow two to 10 times the amount in half the time.
Besides the commercial uses, people can grow plants hydroponically
at home by setting up their own system. Home growers need to have the
container in which to grow the plants, water that is mixed with nutrients, a
light source that can be either natural or artificial lighting, a flow of oxygen,
and an appropriate temperature maintained for the type of plant grown.
Hydroponics is therefore a good solution for people who live in urban or
suburban areas and want to grow and produce flower, fruit, and vegetable
crops on a patio, small garden, rooftop, or garage. Many types of plants
are suitable for growing hydroponically such as tomatoes, lettuce, carrots,
strawberries, melons, parsley, and flowers. Growing plants hydroponically
can provide families with fresh, uncontaminated produce that is harvested
immediately before use.
Hydroponic technology produces many benefits in that it is highly
productive and it conserves water and land. Normally, with hydroponics,
plants grow inside enclosures that control temperature, light, water, and
nutrition. Hydroponics is a cleaner way to grow plants and is useful when
land and natural resources are scarce. The plants produced are of better
quality than plants that come from soil because soil contains impurities and
bacteria.

Organic Farming

Organic farming or agriculture matches—or even exceeds—conventional

yields. While nonorganic methods resulted in slightly higher yields in
developed areas, organic methods resulted in slightly higher yields in
developing areas (Badgley et al., 2006). Other studies (Crowder et al., 2010;
Bengtsson et al., 2005) have also suggested that organic agriculture can have
a reduced environmental impact compared to conventional agriculture.
Likewise, organic farms had been observed to withstand severe weather
conditions better than conventional farms, sometimes yielding 70%–90%

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 378 Pathways Out of Poverty

more than conventional farms during droughts (see Lotter, 2003). It has
been suggested that organic farming could actually produce enough food per
capita to sustain the current human population (UNEP-UNCTAD, 2008).
Organic agriculture can also improve farmer livelihoods owing to cheaper
inputs, higher and more stable prices, and risk diversification (Scialabba
& Hattam, 2002). However, organic farming is often an export-oriented
system tied to a certification process by international bodies; therefore,
its profitability can likely vary between locations and years (Valkila, 2009;
Raynolds, 2004).
There are four types of organic farming models in the Philippines, namely,
(1) indigenous organic farming, (2) traditional organic farming or the pre–
“green revolution” type of farming, (3) large-scale commercial farms, and
(4) the small-scale subsistence organic farming (Carating & Tejada, 2012).
Indigenous agriculture is known to be intertwined with indigenous culture,
customs, and beliefs and has largely remained isolated and unintegrated
into the mainstream of Philippine agriculture. In more ways than one,
indigenous organic farming mirrors natural farming in that they both are a
closed system, which demands no inputs and mimics nature (Mirret, 2001).
Traditional organic agriculture can be considered as a step-up development
from indigenous farming practices. Traditional Filipino organic farmers are
more likely to practice a variation of biodynamic agriculture that revolves
around the concept of treating soil fertility, plant growth, and livestock care
as ecologically interrelated tasks; proponents have described the method
as a holistic understanding of agricultural processes (Abbot & Murphy,
2007). Large-scale commercial organic farming enables local producers to
compete with multinational corporations and afford the cost of organic
certification. They are known to adopt modern organic practices by doing
their own breeding, fertilizer production, and pesticide concoction, vertical
and horizontal integration of operations by waste recycling as they follow
biodynamic and natural farming principles. Commercial organic farming is
not necessarily all on the export trade, as they also focus on the increasing
organic preferences of domestic consumers (Carating & Tejada, 2012).
Conversely, small-scale subsistence organic farming is practiced by small-
time farmers who wish to free themselves from depending on multinational
agro-chemical companies and seed corporations. These farmers breed their
own seed requirements, produce their fertilizers, concoct their botanical-
based pesticides, and practice biodynamic and natural farming principles.
Small-scale subsistence organic farms are into multiple cropping, diversified,
and integrated farming so that they are sufficient in their food needs, selling
the excess to be able to purchase those items needed but could not produce
in the farm. Small-scale organic farmers are likely practitioners of bio-

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 Urban Rooftop Hydroponics: Part II 379

intensive agriculture, which emphasizes greater yields despite a minimum

area of land, while continually improving and maintaining the fertility of the
soil (BIONICA, 2013).

Conceptual Framework

The present project sought to establish that lettuce grown using urban
hydroponics is comparable in productivity and marketability with
those grown using organic methods in terms of nutrient content and
environmental footprints. Metrics derived from the project include the
amount of nutrient applied per growth output, the nutrient content of the
yield and levels of chemical contamination in urban hydroponics measured
against organically grown lettuce. This project hoped to derive added value to
urban hydroponics crops by generating evidence that hydroponically grown
lettuce is comparable if not better than those that are organically grown in
terms of nutrient content. The comparative levels of contaminants to the
harvested lettuce from both methods were also investigated to illustrate food
safety.

Research Questions

The following research question was addressed: How does hydroponics and
organic farming of lettuce compare with one another in terms of:

1. Percentage germination, maturation period, and harvest yield when

grown using hydroponics and when vermicasts applied as vermitea
were applied as fertilizer;
2. The level of vitamins and mineral (vitamin A, vitamin D3, and
vitamin E or α-tocopherol) of the harvested yield when grown using
hydroponics and when vermicasts are applied as fertilizer; and
3. The level of contaminants (heavy metals Cu, Pb, and Cd; diesel
fuel combustion product oxirane, tetradecyl; plant metabolite 1,2
dithiane; and pesticides endosulfan and dieldrin) of the harvested
yield when grown using hydroponics and when vermicasts are
applied as fertilizer.

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 380 Pathways Out of Poverty

Methodology

The study employed the experimental design shown in Table 1, in order to

compare the performance of hydroponics and organic agriculture. Growth
data, which included percentage germination, maturation period, and
harvest yield, were compared between both setups. Nutrient content and
toxicity were also studied.

Table 1. The Experimental Design of the Study

Culture Method Nutrient Source Parameters

Hydroponics Commercial nutrients Growth data
Organic method Vermitea Nutrient content
Toxin content

This project is a continuation of the hydroponics project (using the

nutrient film technique) performed on the rooftop of St. Joseph Hall at De La
Salle University. The setup is comprised of PVC pipes where the hydroponic
solution is circulated every 8 hr using solar-powered pumps. The solutions
were also bubbled with air using aquarium compressors that are also solar
powered. All in all, 100 plants could be grown in this setup. The plants were
protected from direct sunlight, wind action, and predatory birds by several
layers of nets.
For this project, the lettuce (Romaine variety) was raised using the
hydroponics method described above and using organic farming methods
done in the De La Salle University–Dasmariñas campus. The organic
methods used include the sowing of seedlings in pure garden soil in plots,
sowing in different proportions of garden soil, and vermicasts in plots or in
different containers (Table 1). The combinations are shown in Table 2 below.
The plants will be harvested at maturation.

Table 2. The Media and the Corresponding Containers Used in the

Organic Culture Method Used

# Medium Container Used

1 Pure garden soil Garden plot
2 75% Garden soil: 25% vermicast Garden plot
3 50% Garden soil: 50% vermicast Garden plot
4 50% Garden soil: 50% vermicast Small container

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 Urban Rooftop Hydroponics: Part II 381

Table 2 continued...

5 50% Garden soil: 50% vermicast Medium container

6 50% Garden soil: 50% vermicast Large container
7 50% Garden soil: 50% vermicast Halved bamboo shoot

Procedures for Determining the Level of Nutrients of Harvested

Lettuce Leaves

Metal Analysis of Samples and Medium Used

Analysis of metals in the samples was performed using the Shimadzu Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometer (AA-6300). One gram each of freeze-
dried vegetable samples and oven-dried soil samples were subjected to dry
ashing and acid digestion, respectively. Dry ashing was done by placing the
vegetable samples on a dried crucible, which were heated using a furnace
set at 480°C for 4 hr. The ash was treated with acid and was diluted to 25
mL using deionized water. Acid digestion of soil samples was done using
a modified method by Badri (1984). Soil samples were placed into separate
Erlenmeyer flasks, which were treated with 25:10 HNO3/HCl. The samples
were placed on a sand bath maintained at 100°C. Digestion was ceased when
the solution turned clear. The samples were filtered and were diluted to 25
mL using deionized water.
Metal standards (Cu, Pb, and Cd) with varying concentrations (0.05 to
10 ppm) were prepared from 1,000-ppm stock solutions to generate standard
curves. Analysis of the standards and samples was performed using the
Shimadzu Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AA-6300). The amount
of metals (ppm) present in the samples was calculated from the standard
curve generated.

Analysis of Vitamins A, D3, and E From the Harvested Lettuce Leaves

HPLC analysis was performed on an Agilent Technologies 1200 Series HPLC

with a UV detector. A reversed-phase C18 column was used as stationary
phase.
The extraction of the three fat-soluble vitamins from the samples was
patterned from a method by Konings et al. (1996). One gram of freeze-dried
samples was placed in an Erlenmeyer flask. The samples were subjected to
saponification for 40 min at 80°C after adding a mixture of 6-mL water,
4.2-g potassium hydroxide (KOH), 20-mL ethanol, and 0.25-g ascorbic acid.
Distilled water (60 mL) was added to the flask to bring the ratio of ethanol/

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 382 Pathways Out of Poverty

water to 0.3. The saponified mixture was extracted with 9:1 n-hexane/ethyl
acetate (20 mL × 3). The organic layer was collected and was evaporated at
40°C under reduced pressure. The residue was dissolved in 4 mL of n-hexane
prior to analysis.
Standards with concentrations ranging from 0 ppm to 200 ppm were
prepared for the standard calibration technique. Analysis was performed
using an Agilent Technologies 1200 Series HPLC with a reversed-phase
C18 column. The equipment utilized a gradient solvent system consisting
of methanol/water at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. The analysis was monitored
using a UV detector set at 210 nm for 21 min (Agilent Technologies, 1998;
see Table 3 below). The concentrations of the vitamins were reported in
micrograms per gram sample based on the generated calibration curves.

Table 3. Agilent Technologies 1200 Series HPLC with a UV Detector Data

Injection volume 5 µL
Column temperature 20°C
A = Water
Mobile phase
B = Methanol
At 0 min 90% B
At 15 min 100% B
Gradient system
At 20 min 100% B
At 21 min 90% B (column wash)
Flow rate 1.0 mL/min
UV detector 210 nm
Column Supelco C18 25 cm × 4.6 mm × 12 µm

Analysis of Pesticide Residues From the Harvested Lettuce Leaves and Medium
Used

Analysis of pesticide residues was done using a Perkin–Elmer gas

chromatograph (Clarus 500 GC) with an Elite 5MS GC column and
characterized using MS. The method used for the pesticide analysis is
patterned from an official method by AOAC International (2007). The
method employed is a Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe
(QuEChERS) procedure, which is being used by many researchers focusing
on pesticide analysis. One gram of sample was placed in a tube, followed
by spiking with 80 µL of 500 mg/L of Endosulfan standard. A 1.00 mL of
acetonitrile (with 1% acetic acid) and 0.5 g of 4:1 magnesium sulfate/sodium

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 Urban Rooftop Hydroponics: Part II 383

acetate (MgSO4/NaOAc) were then added to the same tube. The tube was
vortex mixed and was centrifuged at 4,000 rpm for 5 min. The upper layer
was collected and was transferred into a 2-mL plastic vial. Then, 0.2 g of
Florisil was added to the tube for sample clean-up. The vial was vortex mixed
and centrifuged at 13,000 rpm for 2 min. The final extract was filtered by
Millipore and was transferred into a GC vial prior to instrumental analysis.
The amount of pesticide residues was calculated using the internal
standard addition method and was reported as microgram of pesticide
residue per gram sample. The parameters used are summarized in Table 4
below.

Table 4. Perkin–Elmer Gas Chromatograph (Clarus 500 GC)

With an Elite 5MS GC Column Data

Carrier gas Helium (30 cm/sec)

Injector temperature 275°C
Injection type Splitless
Oven program T Hold Time Rate
80°C 0 min 20°C/min
290°C 4.75 min End
GC inlet temperature 275°C
Ion source temperature 275°C
Scan range 40–450 m/z

Statistical analysis. All data reported are mean values of at least a

duplicate setup and at least duplicate samples or duplicate instrument
readings. All comparisons between data from the hydroponics setup and
the organic method setup were subjected to Student’s t-test (α  =  0.05) to
determine if there is a significant difference between the two results.

Results and Discussion

Comparison of Growth Effects in Terms of Percentage Germination,

Maturation Period, and Harvest Yield

The percentage germination in both setups (the hydroponics method and

the organic method) was at around 85%, which is close to what has been
advertised by the source of the seeds (Condor quality seeds from Allied

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 384 Pathways Out of Poverty

Botanical Corporation). However, the plants grown using the hydroponics

method or using the hydroponics medium grew faster and were harvestable
already 21 days after sowing (Table 5). The plants grown organically using
vermicasts as nutrient source and garden soil as medium were harvested 52
days after sowing.
The harvest yield or mean weight at harvest of lettuce grown using
different media and containers is also shown in Table 5. The soil-grown
lettuce plants do not vary much in harvest weight regardless of container.
Analysis by Student’s t-test also indicated that there is no difference in the
mean harvest weights of lettuce grown in garden plots and those grown
in containers, although plant density apparently affects the harvest weight
inversely meaning smaller containers (thus more densely planted) seem to
have lower yield.
Even if the hydroponically grown lettuce was smaller at harvest size,
as indicated by Student’s t-test, maturation takes less than half the time
as that grown in soil. These results indicated that the overall harvest yield
of hydroponically grown lettuce could be higher (even if yield in terms of
biomass is lower) since the maturation period is shorter, and therefore, more
harvesting could be done in the same period as in the organic method.

Table 5. The Mean Weight of Lettuce Harvested Using Different Farming Methods,
Media, and Containers

Plant Age Mean Weight

Medium Container Used at Harvest (g) [Sample
(days) Size]
1 Hydroponics solution Hydroponics set up 21 5.2 [100]
2 Hydroponics solution Hydroponics set up 21 5.5 [100]
3 Hydroponics solution Hydroponics setup 21 7.5 [100]
4 Pure garden soil Garden plot 52 10.6 [26]
5 75% Garden soil: 25% vermicast Garden plot 52 9.1 [22]
6 50% Garden soil: 50% vermicast Garden plot 52 6.8 [33]
7 50% Garden soil: 50% vermicast Small container 52 6.8 [28]
8 50% Garden soil: 50% vermicast Medium container 52 10.2 [22]
9 50% Garden soil: 50% vermicast Large container 52 11.9 [21]
Halved bamboo
10 50% Garden soil: 50% vermicast 52 8.3 [15]
shoot

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 Urban Rooftop Hydroponics: Part II 385

Comparison of Nutrient Value in Terms of Vitamin and Mineral Content

To be hale and hearty, we need proper nutrition, exercise, and a healthy

lifestyle. Proper nutrition is an essential part of this regiment, and vitamins
and minerals are essentials that we get from our food. The US Food and
Drug Administration (USFDA) lists 13 vitamins that are recommended to
be taken daily. As vegetables including lettuce have to be transported across
large distances before they reach the consumer, we limited the monitoring of
the vitamin content of lettuce in this study to the vitamins that remain stable
during storage. These are vitamins A, D, and E. Copper was also monitored
because it has served as an essential mineral for biochemical reactions at low
quantities but could have toxic effects at large concentrations.
Vitamin A plays a role in a variety of functions throughout the body
including vision, gene transcription, immune function, embryonic
development and reproduction, bone metabolism, blood cell formation and
maturation, skin and cellular health, and antioxidant activity. Derivatives
of vitamin A are also currently in use for cancer, HIV, and dermatological
purposes (Sommer, 1995; WHO, 2014). The most prominent symptom of
vitamin A deficiency is impaired vision. An overdose of vitamin A is also
not healthy. The symptoms of overdosage of vitamin A are given in Table 6.

Table 6. The Mean Vitamins and Mineral Content of Lettuce Grown

Using Two Different Methods

Organic
Vitamin Overdosage (mg or µg/d)
Hydroponics Method Recommended
Nutrient or Mineral (Primary Reference Is
Levels (µg/g) Levels daily intake
Information USEPA or USDFA)
(µg/g)

Extremely high doses

(>9,000 mg) can cause
Vitamin A in
dry, scaly skin; fatigue;
Vitamin A 60–83 58.6–69.4 600 µg food and as
nausea; loss of appetite;
a supplement
bone and joint pains; and
headaches.

Large doses (>50 µg)

obtained from food
Vitamin D in
Vitamin D can cause eating
0.0–44.6 5.9–6.1 5 µg food and as
(cholecalciferol) problems and ultimately
a supplement
disorientation, coma, and
death.

Doses larger than 1,000

Vitamin E in mg cause blood clotting,
Vitamin E
2.43–23.58 8.29–8.82 10 mg food and as which results in increased
(tocopherol)
a supplement likelihood of hemorrhage
in some individuals.

As little as 10-mg copper

Copper in
can have a toxic effect
Copper 0.23–0.63 0.63–95.9 2 mg food and as
and gram quantities are
a supplement
potentially lethal.

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 386 Pathways Out of Poverty

Results of this study indicated that the vitamin content of lettuce in

both agricultural methods used is at the same level as shown in Table 6. If
we consider that the average amount of lettuce intake in a meal is from
50 to 100 g, the amount of Vitamin A from lettuce already satisfies the
recommended daily intake of 600 µg.
Vitamin D (the form we detected is cholecalciferol) is responsible for
enhancing intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphate. We can get
vitamin D from diet, but we can also synthesize vitamin D (specifically
cholecalciferol) in the skin, from cholesterol, when sun exposure is adequate.
Thus, this makes the practice of exposing infants to early morning sun for
the purpose of strengthening the bones. Vitamin D deficiency is known to
cause bone diseases including rickets, osteomalacia, and osteoporosis and
muscle aches and weaknesses and muscle twitching (Heaney, 2004; Holick,
2007). 
As with vitamin A, the results of the study showed that the levels of
vitamin D in lettuce harvested from both agricultural methods are in the
same dimensions. Furthermore, the vitamin D levels from the lettuce that
were harvested from both setups are high and can even be toxic when
lettuce is eaten in large quantities. As shown in Table 6, vitamin D obtained
from food in concentrations greater than 50 µg can already cause eating
disorders and in extreme concentration even coma and death. This should
not be surprising since wild lettuce had been reported previously to be toxic
(Besharat et al., 2009).
Vitamin E (tocopherol) is a fat-soluble antioxidant that stops the
production of reactive oxygen species formed when fat undergoes oxidation
(Brigelius-Flohé & Traber, 1999). However, more recent studies have
suggested that its cell-signalling function is its main role and that it may
not have a significant role in antioxidant metabolism (Zingg & Azzi, 2004;
Azzi, 2007). Other functions of tocopherol include enzymatic activities,
gene expression, and neurological functions. Vitamin E deficiency can cause
spinocerebelar ataxia, myopathies, peripheral neuropathy, ataxia, skeletal
myopathy, retinopathy, impairment of the immune response, and red-
blood-cell destruction (Tanyel & Mancano, 1997; Hathcock, 1997; Fuller et
al., 1998; Traber et al., 2008; Steinraths et al., 2008; Pekmezci, 2011; Traber &
Stevens, 2011; Bromley et al., 2013).
Copper is an essential nutrient involved in the function of several
enzymes. Copper is required for infant growth, host defense mechanisms,
bone strength, red- and white-blood-cell maturation, iron transport,
cholesterol and glucose metabolism, myocardial contractility, and brain
development. Copper deficiency can result in the expression of an inherited
defect such as Menkes syndrome or in an acquired condition (Olivares &
Uauy, 1996).

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 Urban Rooftop Hydroponics: Part II 387

Comparatively, both treatment groups have high levels of copper in

relation to the recommended daily intake for this essential nutrient, but the
copper levels of lettuce cultured using the organic method are higher than
the hydroponically grown group. This should be a positive character for
the plant, but the high levels of copper in lettuce also support the allegation
that lettuce can be toxic. According to the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA), 10 mg in the diet can already be toxic, and
gram quantities can be lethal.
A potential source for the high copper levels observed in the two setups
is the copper in the floral foam used in the hydroponics setup and in the
vermicast in the organic farming setup. Floral foams are used to improve
water absorption by plants in a controlled amount (Landrock, 1995).
However, the copper content in the medium of both setups was in the low
milligram-per-gram levels or parts per thousand. The level of copper in the
floral foam is about 25% of that found in the vermicast. Floral foams can also
contain resins, the components of which include phenol and formaldehyde.

Comparison of the Level of Contaminants

Plants can take up chemical contaminants from the soil or other media.
Contaminants from the soil tend to travel through the plant via absorption
of the roots and adsorption on the surface of plant organs. Although plants
readily contain minerals in their different compartments, they could
accumulate additional metals depending on their physiological capacity
(Peralta-Videa et. al, 2009; Tomas et. al., 2012). Containers used in planting
crops could also affect chemical contaminant uptake. Containers used in
planting vary from woods, tires, metals, plastics, and clay pots (Vick & Poe,
2011). The use of wood does not affect heavy metal consumption by plants
until 1994, when lumber was treated with chromium, copper, and arsenic.
Studies found that these metals could be deposited into the soil and absorbed
easily by plants (Rahman et al., 2004). Plastics are generally used in planting
and have been found to have no effect on metal absorption. However, plastics
that are made of polyvinylchloride may contain metal residues such as lead,
zinc, cadmium, and copper, which are absorbed by the soil and the plant
(Mathe-Gaspar & Anton, 2005).
Some of these contaminants like heavy metals are considered to be toxic
to humans. Copper, cadmium, and lead are the most common heavy-metal
contaminants found in the soil that could be transferred to plants. Copper
though is essential for plants’ cellular processes, but relatively high amounts
may be detrimental to the plant and to those who consume these plants.
Cadmium and lead are found to be more toxic than copper. Nevertheless

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 388 Pathways Out of Poverty

plants do not accumulate or absorb a substantial amount of lead due to its

ability to bind tightly with the soil particles. This is even if lead is found
mostly on the surface of the leaves or the roots (Angima, 2010). Cadmium
on the other hand is found to be mobile in soil and could be readily absorbed
by plants at neutral and alkaline pH (Vick & Poe, 2011). High amounts of
copper could generate free radicals leading to cancer as well as damage of
proteins, lipids, and DNA (Brewer, 2010). Cadmium poisoning targets the
liver, placenta, kidneys, lungs, brain, and bones, while lead poisoning could
trigger birth defects, retardation, vertigo, seizures, weakness, and paralysis
(Roberts, 1999; Ferner, 2001).

Table 7. The Mean Content Chemical Contaminants Detected in Lettuce Grown

Using Two Different Methods

Organic
Hydroponics LD50
Contaminant Category Method Reference
Levels (µg/g) (Human)
Levels (µg/g)
United States
20–130 mg/
Cadmium Heavy metal 6.9–11 7.5–11 Food and Drug
kg
Administration
United States Center
Lead Heavy metal 0.22 0.19–0.31 714 mg/kg
for Disease Control
Gram
United States
As heavy quantities
Copper 0.23–0.63 0.63–95.9 Environmental
metal (adult
Protection Agency
individual)
Bioactive
Oxirane, 100–200 mg/ United States Public
compound 6.9–11 7.5–11
tetradecyl kg Health Service
or sterilant
Bioactive
410 mg/kg America Chemical
1,2 Dithiane compound 94 13
(in rodents) Society
or pesticide
United States
Endosulfan Insecticide 0.74–1.46 0.48–1.34 35 mg/kg Environmental
Protection Agency
5 mg
United States Center
Dieldrin Termicide — — per adult
for Disease Control
individual

The heavy-metal contaminants of the two setups (hydroponics and

organic farming) were at the same levels with one another (Table 7). As
was mentioned above for copper contamination, the heavy-metal content
of the floral foam and the vermicast can be potential sources of the heavy

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 Urban Rooftop Hydroponics: Part II 389

metals analyzed from the harvested lettuce leaves. In terms of heavy-metal

contamination, the measured levels in the leaves are not yet at hazardous
levels.
Four other chemical contaminants were identified in the GC–MS assay,
namely, oxirane, dithiane, dieldrin, and endosulfan. These compounds
were consistently present in all of the chromatograms and were selected to
be monitored due to their potential adverse effects on humans, vegetation,
and the environment. The four compounds are found to be components of
insecticides or pesticides.
Oxirane or ethylene oxide is commonly used as an intermediate in
producing industrial chemicals (e.g., ethylene glycol and acrylonitrile) and
used in the formulation of products such as soap, detergent, adhesives,
antifreeze, and pesticides such as thiiranes (Surendra et al., 2004). Oxirane,
tetradecyl has also been identified as a type of additive in plastic production
(Saker & Rashid, 2013). Oxirane is also a bioactive compound produced
by algae; it has been isolated from Laurencia brandenii. Aside from the
antimicrobial activity, the extracts also have termicidal effects (Manilal et
al., 2011). In addition, oxirane is also a known fumigant or sterilant used in
fumigating heat-sensitive hospital equipment, medical products, cosmetics,
and food such as spices, grains, dates, walnuts, copra, and peas. (NTP, 2011)
Oxirane was found to be a harmful substance and may cause numerous effects
on humans such as sore throat, vomiting, nausea, dizziness, blurred vision,
and convulsions. Moreover, epidemiological studies on both humans and
animals revealed the potential carcinogenic properties of oxirane (OSHA,
2002). Occupational, consumer (foodstuff), and environmental (air, water,
soil) contact are the main exposure routes for oxirane in humans. From a
toxicological study, the minimum risk level (MRL) for long-term exposure
of humans to breathing oxirane is 0.09 ppm for about 14 weeks and that 5 to
20 years of exposure (3–430 ppm levels in air) could cause serious problems
in hand and eye coordination. Longer exposure and higher concentrations
of oxirane could lead to more serious effects. Human effects from eating or
drinking oxirane are not known; however, it could cause immediate death
in rats (ATSDR, 1990). Plant employees exposed to oxirane are limited to
1.0-ppm aerial exposure in an 8-hr time-weighted average (OSHA, 2002).
Minimum toxic levels (MTL) and minimum effective levels (MEL) of oxirane
as fumigants in plants and vegetables are not known.
The oxirane content of both hydroponically and organically grown
lettuce is of the same levels (see Table 7 above). For the hydroponically grown
lettuce, the heavy traffic at Taft Avenue and even the floral foam used as a
medium are a potential source of the oxirane. This is apparently the same
situation in the organic method setup. The vermicast and heavy traffic in the
vicinity contributed to the oxirane contamination of the lettuce harvested.

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 390 Pathways Out of Poverty

Dithianes are white crystalline organosulfur compounds that are used

in the formulation of certain pesticides and insecticides. There are very few
researches and studies done on the adverse effects to humans, animals, and
plants and the exposure route of this compound (IRIS, 2012). Also, the
absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion in living organisms
are not well known (Schieferstein et al., 1988). However, dithiane is a novel
inducer of ER stress proteins (Asmellash et al., 2005). For both setups,
dithiane did not come from the medium but most likely from other plants in
the vicinity (see Table 7 above).
Dieldrin is a white to tan crystalline solid that is mainly used to control
termites. Dieldrin is used and applied to soil and seed dressing applications
as well as to crops and foliage such as cotton (Zitko, 2003). Dieldrin was
found to be a nervous-system poison and a potential carcinogen. Also,
epidemiological studies revealed that the long-term exposure to dieldrin
increases risk and susceptibility to breast cancer, and this is correlated to the
estrogenicity of the compound (Snedeker, 2001). Exposure to dieldrin may
be occupational, consumer, and environmental.
Apparently, lettuce does not take up dieldrin from the medium (see
Table 7 above). The undetectable levels of dieldrin in the leaves of lettuce
analyzed may be related to the relative low solubility and stability of dieldrin
(it is also slowly metabolized by organisms).
In humans, exposure to dieldrin may be due to inhalation of dieldrin in
workplace and the ingestion of foodstuff contaminated with dieldrin. In the
United States, it was detected in foods analyzed from markets such as dairy
and poultry products, egg, legumes, root, and leafy vegetables, and this was
associated with the absorption of dieldrin from the soil. Intermediate- and
chronic-duration oral MRLs of dieldrin were found to be 0.0001 mg/kg/day
(15–364 days of oral exposure) and 0.00007 mg/kg/day (365 days or more),
respectively. MTL and MEL to plants and vegetables were not determined
(ATSDR, 2002). Dieldrin was not detected in the plant samples analyzed but
were detected in the floral foam and the vermicast used as medium.
Endosulfan is a restrictedly used insecticide with a cream to beige
crystalline solid appearance. This chlorinated hydrocarbon is widely used
against the proliferation of aphids, fruit worms, beetles, termites, moth
larvae, and white flies, and it is applied directly on crops and soil. It is released
in the environment and consumed by living organisms through several
routes: air, water, soil, and food. This pesticide is subjected to long-range
aerial transport, and it could be detected at remote locations from sources
and to where it was used. In water, endosulfan may be oxidized and undergo
biotransformations to produce endosulfan sulfate and endosulfan diol,
the former being more toxic and the latter being less toxic than the parent

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 Urban Rooftop Hydroponics: Part II 391

compound. (Vivekanandhan et al., 2012). As an insecticide, endosulfan is

directly applied to soil and crops, and it is chiefly converted to the sulfate
form and could penetrate into plants.
Dietary intake (as residue in foodstuff such as fruits and vegetables) is
the main exposure route of endosulfan. However, the endosulfan levels from
both setups were low in comparison to the lethal doses (LD50) prescribed
for humans (see Table 7 above) and at the same levels with one another.
Generally, endosulfan targets the nervous system of both humans and
animals. Exposure to high concentrations of endosulfan could result to
hyperactivity, tremors, decreased respiration, dyspnea, salivation, tonic-
clonic convulsions, and death to humans. The acute and intermediate oral
MRL of endosulfan to humans and animals are 0.007 mg/kg/day and 0.005
mg/kg/day, respectively (ATSDR, 2013).
The floral foam used in the hydroponics setup contains endosulfan. As
floral foams are used for increasing the “shelf life” of cut flowers, endosulfan
could be used by the suppliers of floral foam as an insecticide to get rid
of aphids that may spoil the presentation of the bouquet. The endosulfan
contamination in the hydroponics may have been from the floral foam.
As an insecticide, endosulfan is directly applied to soil and crops, and it is
chiefly converted to the sulfate form and could be taken up by plants. The
situation in the organic farming setup is different. There is no endosulfan
detected in the vermicast. The possible sources of endosulfan in this case
are the surrounding farms and gardens in the vicinity. As mentioned above,
endosulfan can travel distances as wind-borne particles.

Conclusion

The results of the present study indicate that the hydroponics method
shortens the growth period although the yield of the organically grown
lettuce is larger and heavier. However, the shortened maturation period
can be translated to more planting seasons and therefore a higher yield. In
terms of nutrient value, there is little or no difference between the lettuce
leaves from both setups. This is also the same observation regarding the
contaminants found in plants from both setups. Overall, data gathered from
these experiments suggest that lettuce plants grown using the hydroponics
method is in fact comparable to organically grown plants in terms of
nutrient content. These findings add value to urban agriculture in the form
of hydroponics because the yield is not only higher but also is comparatively
speaking as nutritious as organically grown plants. The question of whether
hydroponically grown lettuce is safer to eat than organically grown lettuce
is not easy to answer. Apparently, the contaminants found in the lettuce are

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 392 Pathways Out of Poverty

a factor of where they are grown and what materials have been used in the
cultivation process. Interestingly, our observations also suggest that plants
are able to pick up chemicals from the environment, so one should be more
aware of his/her surroundings when cultivating plants most especially in the
urban environment.

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