SUMMARISE UNIT 8-10

MADE
BY:

KELVIN ANTONIO
UNIT 8
Here's a list of the modal verbs in English:

can could may might will

would must shall should ought to
Modals are different from normal verbs:

1: They don't use an 's' for the third person singular.

2: They make questions by inversion ('she can go' becomes 'can she go?').
3: They are followed directly by the infinitive of another verb (without 'to').

Probability:

First, they can be used when we want to say how sure we are that something happened / is
happening / will happen. We often call these 'modals of deduction' or 'speculation' or 'certainty'
or 'probability'.

For example:

 It's snowing, so it must be very cold outside.

 I don't know where John is. He could have missed the train.
 This bill can't be right. £200 for two cups of coffee!


Ability

We use 'can' and 'could' to talk about a skill or ability.

For example:

 She can speak six languages.

 My grandfather could play golf very well.
 I can't drive.


Obligation and Advice

We can use verbs such as 'must' or 'should' to say when something is necessary or unnecessary,
or to give advice.

For example:
  Children must do their homework.
 We have to wear a uniform at work.
 You should stop smoking.

Permission

We can use verbs such as 'can', 'could' and 'may' to ask for and give permission. We also use
modal verbs to say something is not allowed.

For example:

 Could I leave early today, please?

 You may not use the car tonight.
 Can we swim in the lake?

Habits

We can use 'will' and 'would' to talk about habits or things we usually do, or did in the past.

For example:

 When I lived in Italy, we would often eat in the restaurant next to my flat.
 John will always be late!

Past modals
The past modals 'could have + past participle', 'should have + past participle' and 'would
have + past participle' can be confusing. I explain about them

Could have, should have, would have

These past modal verbs are all used hypothetically, to talk about things that didn't really happen
in the past.

Could have + past participle

1: Could have + past participle means that something was possible in the past, or you had the
ability to do something in the past, but that you didn't do it. (See also modals of ability.)

 I could have stayed up late, but I decided to go to bed early.

 They could have won the race, but they didn't try hard enough.
  Julie could have bought the book, but she borrowed it from the library instead.
 He could have studied harder, but he was too lazy and that's why he failed the exam.

Couldn't have + past participle means that something wasn't possible in the past, even if you
had wanted to do it.

 I couldn't have arrived any earlier. There was a terrible traffic jam (= it was impossible
for me to have arrived any earlier).
 He couldn't have passed the exam, even if he had studied harder. It's a really, really
difficult exam.

2: We use could have + past participle when we want to make a guess about something that
happened in the past. (See also modals of probability.) In this case, we don't know if what we're
saying is true or not true. We're just talking about our opinion of what maybe happened.

Why is John late?

 He could have got stuck in traffic.

 He could have forgotten that we were meeting today.
 He could have overslept.

We can also choose to use might have + past participle to mean the same thing:

 He might have got stuck in traffic.

 He might have forgotten that we were meeting today.
 He might have got stuck in traffic.

Should have + past participle

1: Should have + past participle can mean something that would have been a good idea, but
that you didn't do it. It's like giving advice about the past when you say it to someone else, or
regretting what you did or didn't do when you're talking about yourself.

Shouldn't have + past participle means that something wasn't a good idea, but you did it
anyway.

 I should have studied harder! (= I didn't study very hard and so I failed the exam. I'm
sorry about this now.)
 I should have gone to bed early (= I didn't go to bed early and now I'm tired).
 I shouldn't have eaten so much cake! (= I did eat a lot of cake and now I don't feel good.)
 You should have called me when you arrived (= you didn't call me and I was worried. I
wish that you had called me).
 John should have left early, then he wouldn't have missed the plane (= but he didn't leave
early and so he did miss the plane).
2: We can also use should have + past participle to talk about something that, if everything is
normal and okay, we think has already happened. But we're not certain that everything is fine, so
we use 'should have' and not the present perfect or past simple. It's often used with 'by now'.

 His plane should have arrived by now (= if everything is fine, the plane has arrived).
 John should have finished work by now (= if everything is normal, John has finished
work).

We can also use this to talk about something that would have happened if everything was fine,
but hasn't happened.

 Lucy should have arrived by now, but she hasn't.

Would have + past participle

1: Part of the third conditional.

 If I had had enough money, I would have bought a car (but I didn't have enough money,
so I didn't buy a car).

2: Because 'would' (and will) can also be used to show if you want to do something or not
(volition), we can also use would have + past participle to talk about something you wanted to
do but didn't. This is very similar to the third conditional, but we don't need an 'if clause'.

 I would have gone to the party, but I was really busy.

(= I wanted to go to the party, but I didn't because I was busy. If I hadn't been so busy, I
would have gone to the party.)

 I would have called you, but I didn't know your number.

(= I wanted to call you but I didn't know your number, so I didn't call you.)

 A: Nobody volunteered to help us with the fair

B: I would have helped you. I didn't know you needed help.
(= If I had known that you needed help, I would have helped you.)

UNIT 9
Use and non-use of articles
Definiteness

 A/n signals that the noun it modifies is indefinite, that it refers to any member of a class.
 The signals that a noun is definite, that it refers to one particular member of a class.
Thus, specifying phrases occur freely with the, but only in certain contexts with a. The
exception is when a noun is mentioned the first time. (See newness.)

Indefinite Definite

a dog the dog

ie: any dog ie: the one in the corner

a book the book

ie: any book ie: the one that I'm reading

Note: The is also used when what its noun refers to is unique.

The White House

The theory of relativity

The 1996 federal budget

Newness

 A/n is used to introduce a noun when it is mentioned for the first time in a piece of
writing.
 The is used afterwards, each time the noun is mentioned.

An award ceremony at the Metrodome would not normally have

attracted so much attention. Nonetheless, when it was leaked that
Clinton would be presenting medals to three athletes, interest in
the ceremony intensified.

Specificity
Both a/n and the can indicate that the countable noun is referring to the whole class. This use of
articles is called generic, from the Latin word meaning "class."

Example Meaning
 A snake may be a sign of the poisoning society
every snake
performs upon our values.

The snake is representative of strength, power, snakes as a

ferocity, and cunning. whole class

The difference between the indefinite a/n and the generic the is that the former denotes any one
member of a class while the latter denotes all the members.

To single out one particular member, the must be used:

The panda brought to the New York Zoo is a unique example of

his species.

Note: A generic (or general) meaning can also be expressed by omitting the article.

Example Meaning

Plural Count Noun Tigers are fearful animals. all tigers

Noncount Noun Anger is a destructive emotion. all sorts of angers

Omission of Articles
While some nouns combine with one article or the other because they are countable or
noncountable, other nouns simply never take either article:

 Names of languages: Chinese, English, Spanish.

 Names of sports: volleyball, basketball, soccer.
 Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, political science.

Different ways of giving emphasis

1.Intensifiers

Absolutely,completely,really,so
We use these words to add emphasis to adjectives.

+Her new book is absolutely brilliant.

+it’s so annoying.

Absolutely and completely are usually used only with ungradeable adjectives (for example
fantastic,awful,etc)which already describe am extreme or absolute quality.

+The weather was absolutely perfect.(Not Absolutely good)

+The second half of the match was completly awful.(Not completely bad)

FAR
Far is used for emphasis with too +adjective or too much/many +noun.

+It’s far too much trouble.

We also use far with comperative adjectives.

+Your’re far taller than I’d expected.

2 so and such

So is used before adjectives to intensify them.

Such is used before an adjective +noun.

We’re having such beautiful weather!

a/an are used after such.

Notice that with much/many +noun,we use so.

+We’ve had so much problems!

+it takes so much time!

3 Use of auxiliary verbs

We often add an auxiliary verb in the positive for emphasis.

+your father does make me laugh.

We also use auxiliary verbs in the positive to emphasis a contrast.

+Donna is a vegetarian ,but she does eat fish.

4.Emphatic questions

Informally,we can use the phrase on earth after a wh- question word to emphasise
surprise,annoyance,or the fact that we do not know the answer to a question.

You’re over two hours late-where on earth have you been?

Unit 10
Direct speech and Reported speech
Direct speech is a representation of the actual words someone said. A direct speech report
usually has a reporting verb in the past simple. The most common reporting verb is said. The
reporting clause may come first or second.

reporting clause first reported clause reporting clause second

Jimmy said, ‘Let me have a look.’
Then the child asked, ‘Are there any toys?’
‘Hand it over at once!’ he demanded.
‘I believe that too,’ she added.

The reporting clause may sometimes come in the middle of the reported clause, especially in
literary styles:

“No,” she said, “I’ve never seen it before.”

‘Was it,’ he asked, ‘the first time you had spoken to Mrs Dalton?’

We can use adverbs with the reporting verb to describe the way someone said something. This is
more common when the reporting clause comes second:
“I will not accept it!” he said angrily.

‘Can I speak to the doctor?’ she asked rather nervously.

See also:

 Reported speech: punctuation

 Reported speech: reporting and reported clauses

Direct speech: inversion of subject and reporting verb

In narratives, especially novels and short stories, when the reporting clause comes second, we
often invert the subject (s) and reporting verb (v):

“Things have always been the same in this village,” [V]said [S]the old man.

‘Hold on! I’m coming!’ [V]cried [S]Maurice.

Direct speech: present simple and continuous reporting verbs

Informal narratives

In informal conversation, we sometimes use the present simple in the reporting clause. This
makes the direct speech more vivid and dramatic:

So then this guy says, “I’ve got something for you. Come over here.” And he picked up a box and
he says, “Open that.”

We can make the direct speech even more vivid and dramatic by using the present continuous.
This is very informal:

And he’s looking at me and he’s asking, “Who are you?” and I said, “I’m your nephew” and
he’s mumbling, “I don’t know you. I’ve never seen you before in my life.”

In very informal conversation, people sometimes use says as a reporting verb for all persons (I,
you, she, he, we, they):

She says, ‘What’s going on here?’ and I says, ‘Nothing. There’s nothing happening –
everything’s okay.’

Warning:
Many speakers consider the above examples to be incorrect. This applies especially to the use of
says with all persons.

Newspaper headlines

We also use the present simple in newspaper headlines. This makes the reported words more
dramatic:

‘I WON’T RESIGN,’ SAYS MINISTER

See also:

 Go
 Like
 Say or tell?