O Level Notes

1Math Matica Academy
1.1.1 Binary systems

• recognize the use of binary numbers in computer systems
• Convert denary numbers into binary and binary numbers into denary
• show understanding of the concept of a byte and how the byte is used to measure memory size
• Use binary in computer registers for a given application (such as in robotics, digital instruments
and counting systems)
Binary systems
• recognize the use of binary numbers in computer systems
• Convert denary numbers into binary and binary numbers into denary
• show understanding of the concept of a byte and how the byte is used to measure memory size
• use binary in computer registers for a given application (such as in robotics, digital instruments
and counting systems)
Show understanding of the concept of a byte and how the byte is used to measure memory size
Names for different sizes of data
When choosing a new computer we come across terms such as "300GB hard drive" and "500MB download",
and to the uninitiated, this can be somewhat disconcerting. Data in a computer is represented in a series of
bits. Since the birth of computers, bits have been the language that control the processes that take place inside
that mysterious box called your computer. In this article, we look at the very language that your computer uses
to do its work.
Bit
A bit is a binary unit, simply a 1 or a 0. A true or a false. It is the most basic unit of data in a computer. It's like
the dots and dashes in Morse code for a computer. Bits are machine readable.
Nibble
A nibble is 4 bits, or half of a byte. One hexadecimal digit is one nibble in size.
Byte
In computer science a byte is a unit of measurement of information storage, that equals '8 bits', can be used to
represent letters and numbers.
For example, the number 01000001 is 8 bits long, and represents the letter A in 8-bit encoding.
Word
Unfortunately the term "word" has two definitions. 1) The word size for a computer is the number of bits that
the central processing unit (CPU) of a particular computer can handle at one time. These word sizes range from
a nibble to more than 128 bits. 2) Word size = 16 bits (or two bytes). This second definition was pretty much
driven by all of the people that were writing software to be used to program computers.
KB
A kilobyte, or KB, is a unit of data that equals 1024 bytes, or 210. This is not to be confused with the decimal
kilo which means 1000 or 103. The difference is because the term was coined by computer scientists. Powers of
2 do not fit into 1000 neatly, therefore using the decimal system in binary computing would be
computationally wasteful.
MB
A megabyte, or MB, is a unit of data that equals 1,048,576 bytes, or 2 20. This is equal to a kilobyte squared,
10242.
GB
1 GB
A gigabyte, or GB, is a unit of data that equals 1,073,741,824 bytes, or 2 30. This is equal to a kilobyte cubed,
10243. Because of the difference between computer metrics and decimal metrics, storage devices are usually
advertised with gigabytes presented as 1 billion bytes rather than 1.07 billion bytes, thereby understating their
true capacity. This explains why there are inconsistencies when comparing the actual size of a hard drive to the
presented size.
TB
A terabyte, or TB, is a unit of data that equals 1,099,511,627,776 bytes, or 2 40. This is equal to a kilobyte to the
fourth power, 10244, being approximately one trillion bytes, or 1024 gigabytes. Consumer storage devices are
often measured in terabytes.
PB
14 petabytes stored within.
A petabyte, or PB, is a unit of data that equals 1,125,899,906,842,624 bytes, or 2 50. This is equal to a kilobyte to
the fifth power, 10245, or roughly one quadrillion bytes. Large data centers, such as those operated by Google,
can handle petabytes of data every day. Microsoft stores on 900 servers a total of approximately 14 petabytes.
Cisco Systems predicts "the global Internet networks will deliver 12.5 petabytes every 5 minutes in 2016."
Measurements of Data Speed
Data transfer speeds can be measured in bits per second, or in bytes per second. A byte is (generally) 8 bits
long. Network engineers describe network speeds in bits per second, while web browsers usually measure a
file download rate in bytes per second. A lowercase "b" usually means a bit, while an uppercase "B" represents
a byte. In networking, metric prefixes (e.g. kilo, mega, and giga) refer to their decimal, not binary meaning.
Bps
Known as bits per second, bps was the main way of describing data transfer speeds several decades ago. bps
was also known as the baud rate, therefore, a 300 baud modem was one which could transfer data at around
300bps.
Kbps
Kilobits per second, or 1000 bits per second. The quality of compressed audio files (e.g. MP3s) are typically
measured in Kbps.
Mbps
Megabits per second, or 1,000,000 bits per second. Internet service providers usually measure their Internet
connectivity in Mbps.
Gbps
Gigabits per second, or 1,000,000,000 bits per second. Modern local area networks, Internet infrastructure,
and consumer Internet connections in some countries can operate at these speeds.
Use binary in computer registers for a given application (such as in robotics, digital instruments and counting
systems)
A register is a very small amount of very fast memory that is built into the CPU (central processing unit) in
order to speed up its operations by providing quick access to commonly used values. Registers refers to
semiconductor devices whose contents can be accessed (i.e., read and written to) at extremely high speeds
but which are held there only temporarily (i.e., while in use or only as long as the power supply remains on).
Registers are the top of the memory hierarchy and are the fastest way for the system to manipulate data.
Registers are normally measured by the number of bits they can hold, for example, an 8-bit register means it
can store 8 bits of data or a 32-bit register means it can store 32 bit of data.
Registers are used to store data temporarily during the execution of a program. Some of the registers are
accessible to the user through instructions. Data and instructions must be put into the system. So we need
registers for this.
The basic computer registers with their names, size and functions are listed below
Register Symbol Register Name Number of Bits Description

AC Accumulator 16 Processor Register
MDR Data Register 16 Hold memory data
TR Temporary Register 16 Holds temporary Data
IR Instruction Register 16 Holds Instruction Code
MAR Address Register 12 Holds memory address
PC Program Counter 12 Holds address of next instruction
INPR Input Register 8 Holds Input data
OUTR Output Register 8 Holds Output data
1.1.2 Hexadecimal
• represent integers as hexadecimal numbers
• show understanding of the reasons for choosing hexadecimal to represent numbers
• convert positive hexadecimal integers to and from denary
• convert positive hexadecimal integers to and from binary
• represent numbers stored in registers and main memory as hexadecimal
• identify current uses of hexadecimal numbers in computing, such as defining colours in Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML), Media Access Control (MAC) addresses, assembly languages and
machine code, debugging
Hexadecimal Number System:
The number system which is based on 16 characters from 0 to 9 and A, B,C, D, E & F is called Hexadecimal
system.”
The reason for the common use of hexadecimal numbers is the relationship between the numbers 2 and 16.
Sixteen is a power of 2 (16 = 24). Because of this relationship, four digits in a binary number can be
represented with a single hexadecimal digit
Uses of Hexadecimal System:
Uses of Hexadecimal in HTML:

Hyper Text Markup Language is used to develop Websites. In HTML a colour is specified according to the
intensity of its Red, Green and Blue (RGB) components, each represented by eight bits. Thus, there are 24 bits
used to specify a web colour, and 16,777,216 colours that may be so specified. It's easier for the human
programmer to represent a 24 - bit integer, often used for 32- bit colour values, as #FF0099 instead of
111111110000000010011001
Uses of Hexa decimal in MAC Address:

Media Access Control assigns a unique number to each IP network adapter called the MAC address . A MAC
address is 48 bits long. The MAC address is commonly written as a sequence of 12 hexadecimal digits as
follows:
48-3F-0A-91-00-BC
Uses of Hexadecimal in Debugging:

Debugging allows programmers to detect, diagnose, and eliminate errors in a program. The source debugger
uses the hexadecimal values of the characters
For example 213416 can be expressed as:
213416 = 2 x 163+ 1 x 162+ 3 x 161+ 4 x 160
= 2 x 4096 + 1 x 256 + 3 x 16 + 4 x 1
= 8192 + 256 + 48 + 4
= 850010
What is a MAC Address?
Whether you work in a wired network office or a wireless one, one thing is common for both environments: It
takes both network software and hardware (cables, routers, etc.) to transfer data from your computer to
another—or from a computer thousands of miles away to yours.
And in the end, to get the data you want right to YOU, it comes down to addresses.
So not surprisingly, along with an IP address (which is networks software), there's also a hardware address.
Typically it is tied to a key connection device in your computer called the network interface card, or NIC. The
NIC is essentially a computer circuit card that makes it possible for your computer to connect to a network.
An NIC turns data into an electrical signal that can be transmitted over the network.
A MAC address is given to a network adapter when it is manufactured. It is hardwired or hard-coded onto your
computer's network interface card (NIC) and is unique to it. Something called the ARP (Address Resolution
Protocol) translates an IP address into a MAC address. The ARP is like a passport that takes data from an IP
address through an actual piece of computer hardware.
Once again, that's hardware and software working together, IP addresses and MAC addresses working
together.
For this reason, the MAC address is sometimes referred to as a networking hardware address, the burned-in
address (BIA), or the physical address. Here's an example of a MAC address for an Ethernet NIC:
00:0a:95:9d:68:16.
As you've probably noticed, the MAC address itself doesn't look anything like an IP address (see yours here).
The MAC address is a string of usually six sets of two-digits or characters, separated by colons.
Some well-known manufacturers of network adapters or NICs are Dell, Belkin, Nortel and Cisco. These
manufacturers all place a special number sequence (called the Organizationally Unique Identifier or OUI) in
the MAC address that identifies them as the manufacturer. The OUI is typically right at the front of the address.
For example, consider a network adapter with the MAC address "00-14-22-01-23-45." The OUI for the
manufacture of this router is the first three octets—"00-14-22." Here are the OUI for other some well-known
manufacturers.
Dell: 00-14-22
Nortel: 00-04-DC
Cisco: 00-40-96
Belkin: 00-30-BD
It's common for the larger manufacturers of networking equipment to have more than one set of OUIs.
Networks and MAC addresses.
All devices on the same network subnet have different MAC addresses. MAC addresses are very useful in
diagnosing network issues, such as problems with IP addresses.
MAC addresses are useful for network diagnosis because they never change, as opposed to a dynamic IP
address, which can change from time to time. For a network administrator, that makes a MAC address a more
reliable way to identify senders and receivers of data on the network.
Wireless Routers and MAC Filtering
On wireless networks, a process called MAC filtering is a security measure to prevent unwanted network
access by hackers and intruders. In MAC address filtering, the router is configured to accept traffic only from
specific MAC addresses. This way, computers whose MAC addresses are approved will be able to communicate
through the network—even if they were given a new IP address by DHCP.
Meanwhile, a hacker who's hijacked a network IP address will be blocked because their MAC address will not
be on the approved list and will be filtered out.
Show understanding that sound (music), pictures, video, text and numbers are stored in different formats
File Formats:
Text Files PowerPoint Slide Multimedia File

.pps
Show
Microsoft Word Advanced
.doc
Document PowerPoint .asf Systems Format
.ppt
Presentation File
Microsoft Word Open
.docx
XML Document PowerPoint Open Microsoft ASF
.pptx .asx
XML Presentation Redirector File
.log Log File
.sdf Standard Data File Audio Video
.msg Outlook Mail Message .avi
Interleave File
Consolidated Unix
OpenDocument Text .tar
.odt File Archive .flv Flash Video File
Document
TurboTax 2012 Tax iTunes Video
.pages Pages Document .tax2012 .m4v
Return File
.rt Rich Text Format File
.vcf vCard File Apple
LaTeX Source .mov QuickTime
.tex .xml XML File
Document Movie
Audio Files
.txt Plain Text File MPEG-4 Video
.mp4
Audio Interchange File File
WordPerfect .aif
.wpd Format
Document .mpg MPEG Video File
.iff Interchange File Format
Microsoft Works Word .rm Real Media File
.wps
Processor Document .m3u Media Playlist File
SubRip Subtitle
.srt
.m4a MPEG-4 Audio File File
Data Files .mid MIDI File Shockwave

.swf
Flash Movie
Comma Separated .mp3 MP3 Audio File
.csv DVD Video
Values File .vob
.mpa MPEG-2 Audio File Object File
.dat Data File
.ra Real Audio File Windows Media
.gbr Gerber File .wmv
.wav WAVE Audio File Video File
GEDCOM Genealogy 3D Image Files
.ged Windows Media Audio
Data File .wma
File .3dm Rhino 3D Model
Keynote
.key Video Files .3ds 3D Studio Scene
Presentation
3GPP2 .max 3ds Max Scene File
Mac OS X Keychain .3g2
.keychain Multimedia File
File
.obj Wavefront 3D Object
.3gp 3GPP
File Scalable Vector Interface Script

.svg
Graphics File
Raster Image Files .com DOS Command File
Page Layout Files
Bitmap Image Windows Executable
.bmp .exe
File Adobe File
.indd InDesign
DirectDraw .gadget Windows Gadget
.dds Document
Surface
.jar Java Archive File
.pct Picture File
Graphical
Program Information
.gif Interchange Portable .pif
File
Format File .pdf Document
Format File .vb VBScript File
.jpg JPEG Image
Spreadsheet Files .wsf Windows Script File
Portable
.png
Network Graphic .xlr Works Spreadsheet Game Files
Adobe .xls Excel Spreadsheet Video Game

.dem
.psd Photoshop Demo File
Microsoft Excel Open
Document .xlsx
XML Spreadsheet Saved Game
.gam
PaintShop Pro File
.pspimage Database Files
Image
Nintendo
Access 2007 Database
.tga Targa Graphic .accdb .nes (NES) ROM
File
File
Thumbnail Image
.thm .db Database File
File N64 Game
.rom
.dbf Database File ROM File
Tagged Image
.tif
File Microsoft Access .sav Saved Game
.mdb
Database
Tagged Image CAD Files
.tiff
File Format .pdb Program Database
AutoCAD Drawing
.dwg
YUV Encoded Structured Query Database File
.yuv .sql
Image File Language Data File
Drawing Exchange Format
.dxf
Vector Image Files Executable Files File
.ai Adobe Illustrator File .apk Android Package File GIS Files
Encapsulated Mac OS X .gpx GPS Exchange File

.eps .app
PostScript File Application
Keyhole Markup
.kml
.ps PostScript File .bat DOS Batch File Language File
.cgi Common Gateway

Google Earth Placemark .ot OpenType Font Encoded Files

.kmz
File
.t TrueType Font BinHex 4.0
.hqx
Web Files Encoded File
System Files
.asp Active Server Page Multi-Purpose
Windows
.cab .mim Internet Mail
Active Server Page Cabinet File
.aspx Message File
Extended File
Windows
.uue Uuencoded File
Internet Security .cpl Control Panel
.cer
Certificate Item Compressed Files
.cfm ColdFusion Markup File Windows 7-Zip

.cur .7z
Cursor Compressed File
Certificate Signing
.csr
Request File Windows 8 Comic Book RAR
.cbr
Desktop Archive
.css Cascading Style Sheet .deskthemepack
Theme Pack
Debian Software
Hypertext Markup File .deb
.htm Package
Language File
Dynamic Link
.dll Gnu Zipped
Hypertext Markup Library .gz
.html Archive
Language File
Windows
Mac OS X
.js JavaScript File .dmp Memory .pkg
Installer Package
Dump
.jsp Java Server Page
WinRAR
.drv Device Driver
.php PHP Source Code File .rar Compressed
Mac OS X Icon Archive
.rss Rich Site Summary .icns
Resource File
Red Hat Package
Extensible Hypertext .rpm
.xhtml .ico Icon File Manager File
Markup Language File
Windows File .sitx StuffIt X Archive
Plugin Files .lnk
Shortcut
Compressed
.crx Chrome Extension .tar.gz
Windows Tarball File
.sys
.plugin Mac OS X Plug-in System File
.zip Zipped File
Settings Files
.zipx Extended Zip File
Font Files .cfg Configuration File
.fnt Windows Font File Windows Initialization

.ini Di
File
.fon Generic Font File sk Image Files
.prf Outlook Profile File
Binary .lua Lua Source File

.bin Disc
Objective-C
Image .m
Implementation File
Cue Sheet
.cue .pl Perl Script
File
.py Python Script
Mac OS X
.dmg Disk .sh Bash Shell Script
Image
Visual Studio
.sln
Disc Solution File
.iso Image
File Swift Source Code
.swift
File
Media
Disc .vcxproj Visual C++ Project
.mdf
Image .xcodeproj Xcode Project
File
Backup Files
Toast Disc
.toast .bak Backup File
Image
.vcd Virtual CD Temporary

.tmp
File
Developer Files
Misc Files
C/C++ Source Code
.c Chrome Partially
File .crdownload
Downloaded File
.class Java Class File
.ics Calendar File
.cpp C++ Source Code File
Windows Installer
Visual C# Source .msi
.cs Package
Code File
Partially
Document Type .part
.dtd Downloaded File
Definition File
.torrent BitTorrent File
Adobe Flash
.fla
Animation
C/C++/Objective-C
.h
Header File
Java Source Code

.java
File
1.1.3 Data storage

• show understanding that sound (music), pictures, video, text and numbers are stored in different formats
• identify and describe methods of error detection and correction, such as parity checks, check digits, checksums and Automatic
Repeat reQuests (ARQ)
• show understanding of the concept of Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) files, jpeg files, MP3 and MP4 files
• show understanding of the principles of data compression (lossless and lossy compression algorithms) applied to music/video,
photos and text files
Show understanding that sound (music), pictures, video, text and numbers are stored in different formats
Show understanding of the principles of data compression (lossless and lossy compression algorithms)
applied to music/video, photos and text file
Lossless versus lossy compression
It is often necessary to compress a file to make it small enough to be used - for example making a music file
small enough so that enough can be stored on an iPod. There are two main possibilities:
 Lossless
o These are used to make a file a smaller size but without losing any of the information. Using
this method you can always get back to the original file
 Lossy
o Sometimes some loss of quality is acceptable. For example the human ear cannot hear all
frequencies, so a file format that throws away parts that people can't hear may end up with a
smaller file, but it is not possible to get back to how exactly the original music sounded.
The only real reason for choosing a lossy format is because the file would be too big if you used a lossless one.
For example, a lossless picture may too big to download in a sensible amount of time, or you could store
many less tracks on an iPod if you used a lossless format instead of AAC or MP3.
1.2.1 Serial and parallel data transmission

• show understanding of what is meant by transmission of data
• distinguish between serial and parallel data transmission
• show understanding of the reasons for choosing serial or parallel data transmission
• show understanding of the need to check for errors
• explain how parity bits are used for error detection
• identify current uses of serial and parallel data transmission, such as Integrated Circuits (IC) and Universal Serial Bus (USB)
1.2.1 Serial and parallel data transmission
Show understanding of what is meant by transmission of data
Bandwidth is a fundamental measure of performance within any communication network, whether it is an

analogue system such as radio or a digital system such as a network.
This mini-web will take you through the most important points you need to know about and the kind of
network cables used in modern digital network.
After reading this you should be able to
 Explain what is bandwidth

 Describe the main types of network cable
 Be able to compare their performance
Transmission Basics
When peripherals are attached to a computer, they require a physical cord to send signals back and forth.
This way, the processor can communicate with these devices and send data to them. Communication occurs
when the computer sends electronic pulses to the peripheral or vice-versa. These pulses aggregate into a
message, a data file or a command. The alternating pulses are organized based on the type of peripheral
device and how it interacts with the computer system.
Parallel Transmission
Parallel transmission occurs across a parallel wire. Parallel wires are flat and thick, constituting multiple,
smaller cables. Each cable can carry a single bit of information (either representing a 1 or 0). A parallel cable
can carry multiple bits at the same time, one for each cable. An eight-cable parallel wire, for example, could
carry an entire byte of data. This results in faster data transmission per second, all things being equal.
Serial Transmission
Serial transmission occurs over a single cable, one bit at a time. This type of communication is named "serial"
not simply because data travels one bit at a time, but also because these bits must be organized in a
particular way so that transmissions can be organized and considered trustworthy. For example, a single
transmission from a peripheral device using serial data might take only 6 bits, so the serial mechanism has a
way to dictate how to signal things like an "end of transmission."
Advantages and Disadvantages
Parallel connections are, all things being equal, faster due to a higher rate of transfer. However, parallel ports
also require more hardware, making them more expensive to implement. Furthermore, data transfer rates
have increased to such an extent that serial connections can transfer entire gigabytes per second. Serial
connections are also easier to implement, making them the go-to hardware choice for plug-and-play
peripheral devices such as external hard drives and MP3 players.
Distinguish between serial and parallel data transmission
While the use of peripheral devices with Universal Serial Bus (USB) connections is ubiquitous at this point,
there are still some devices, such as older printers, that use older connections such as parallel cables. Parallel
cables do offer overall fast transfer, but serial cables offer a simplicity of implementation and thus ease of use.
Also, serial connections are cheaper and thus have become a de facto standard for many computer devices
such as MP3 players, printers and external hard drives.
General
 Both Transmissions (Parallel and Serial) are used to connect peripheral devices and enable us to
communicate with these devices
 Since these systems were developed in the 1970s and 1980s these are legacy systems and have been
replaced by usually USB
Serial Transmission
 The serial transmission usually consists of 9 pins that connect the data in a series, that’s why the name
serial port
A serial Port with 9 pins
 The port is based on the model of the parallel transmission, however the 9 pin model had taken off
before the 25 pin model (parallel transmission) could be implemented in most computers.
 The serial port is similar to Ethernet cables and was therefore used in the 1980s to connect terminals
and other devices to the computers
 The communication the serial transmission only goes over 3 wires
o The ground signal

o One wire that sends
o and one wire that receives
 This allows communication in both directions at the same time
 Nowadays the standard speed of serial transmissions is given at 115 KB per second
 In order to keep the signal from making errors, at the end of every transmission a partly bit is sent
o A Partly Bit is a bit that is end in the end that is there to make sure that the connection is not
faulty
o If it is sent and return incorrect then the computer knows that there is a error with the
connection
 Due to the simplicity if the connection a shielded connection can be transferred over 75 meters (250
feet), far more than a parallel transmission could.
 Due to the age serial transmissions are not seen as legacy ports and are not implemented frequently
anymore
Parallel Transmission
 The most common type of parallel connector consists of 25 connectors and was implemented in 1970
A parallel port with 25 pins
There are other types of parallel connectors that use either 36 or 50 pins
 originally parallel interface only allowed transfer in one direction until the IEEE 1284 standard was
created increasing distance and allowing bi-directional transfer
 Because of the many pins, 8 bits can be transferred at once allowing a much faster transfer of
information
 The 25 connector interface consists of 17 signal lines and 8 ground lines
o The signal lines are divided into
 4 control lines which which are used to initiate the handshaking
 5 status lines which are used to communicate the state of the peripheral devices and
are used to indicate errors
 and 8 data lines are used to transfer the data.

 This interface allows a transfer rate over over 1 MB per second
 Due to the old age of the parallel port it is now consider a legacy port and is only rarely implemented
BUSES
A bus, or computer universal switch, is essential for data transfer within a computer or between more than
one. We'll take a look at topics like PCI, SCSI, USB Ports and serial ports.
If you have a printer connected to your computer, there is a good chance that it uses the parallel port. While
USB is becoming increasingly popular, the parallel port is still a commonly used interface for printers.
Parallel ports can be used to connect a host of popular computer peripherals:
 Printers
 Scanners
 CD burners
 External hard drives
 Iomega Zip removable drives
 Network adapters
 Tape backup drives
SCSI:
A computer is full of busses -- highways that take information and power from one place to another. For
example, when you plug an MP3 player or digital camera into your computer, you're probably using a
universal serial bus (USB) port. Your USB port is good at carrying the data and electricity required for small
electronic devices that do things like create and store pictures and music files. But that bus isn't big enough to
support a whole computer, a server or lots of devices simultaneously.
For that, you'd need something more like SCSI. SCSI originally stood for Small Computer System Interface, but
it's really outgrown the "small" designation. It's a fast bus that can connect lots of devices to a computer at
the same time, including hard drives, scanners, CD-ROM/RW drives, printers and tape drives. Other
technologies, like serial-ATA (SATA), have largely replaced it in new systems, but SCSI is still in use. This article
will review SCSI basics and give you lots of information on SCSI types and specifications.
PCI:
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) slots are such an integral part of a computer's architecture that
most people take them for granted. For years, PCI has been a versatile, functional way to connect sound,
video and network cards to a motherboard.
But PCI has some shortcomings. As processors, video cards, sound cards and networks have gotten faster and
more powerful, PCI has stayed the same. It has a fixed width of 32 bits and can handle only 5 devices at a
time. The newer, 64-bit PCI-X bus provides more bandwidth, but its greater width compounds some of PCI's
other issues.
A new protocol called PCI Express (PCIe) eliminates a lot of these shortcomings, provides more bandwidth
and is compatible with existing operating systems. In this article, we'll examine what makes PCIe different
from PCI. We'll also look at how PCI Express makes a computer faster, can potentially add graphics
performance, and can replace the AGP slot.
It turns out that parallel connections have their own problems as speeds get higher and higher -- for example,
wires can interfere with each other electromagnetically -- so now the pendulum is swinging back toward
highly-optimized serial connections. Improvements to hardware and to the process of dividing, labeling and
reassembling packets have led to much faster serial connections, such as USB 2.0 and FireWire.
Serial Ports
Considered to be one of the most basic external connections to a computer, the serial port has been an
integral part of most computers for more than 20 years. Although many of the newer systems have done
away with the serial port completely in favor of USB connections, most modems still use the serial port, as do
some printers, PDAs and digital cameras. Few computers have more than two serial ports.
Essentially, serial ports provide a standard connector and protocol to let you attach devices, such as modems,
to your computer.
Just about any computer that you buy today comes with one or more Universal Serial Bus connectors. These
USB connectors let you attach mice, printers and other accessories to your computer quickly and easily. The
operating system supports USB as well, so the installation of the device drivers is quick and easy, too.
Compared to other ways of connecting devices to your computer (including parallel ports, serial ports and
special cards that you install inside the computer's case), USB devices are incredibly simple.
In this article, we'll look at USB ports from both a user and a technical standpoint. You'll learn why the USB
system is so flexible and how it's able to support so many devices so easily -- it's truly an amazing system.
Anyone who has been around computers for a while knows the problem that the Universal Serial Bus is trying
to solve -- in the past, connecting devices to computers has been a real headache.
 Printers connected to parallel printer ports, and most computers only came with one. Things like
external storage media, which need a high-speed connection into the computer, would use the parallel
port as well, often with limited success and not much speed.
 Modems used the serial port, but so did some printers and a variety of odd things like personal digital
assistants (PDAs) and digital cameras. Most computers had at most two serial ports, and they were
very slow in most cases.
 Devices that needed faster connections came with their own cards, which had to fit in a card slot
inside the computer's case. Unfortunately, the number of card slots is limited and some of the cards
are difficult to install.
The goal of USB is to end all of these headaches. The Universal Serial Bus gives you a single, standardized,
easy-to-use way to connect up to 127 devices to a computer.
Just about every peripheral made now comes in a USB version. A sample list of USB devices that you can buy
today includes:
 Printers
 Scanners
 Mice
 Joysticks
 Flight yokes
 Digital cameras
 Webcams
 Scientific data acquisition devices
 Modems
 Speakers
 Telephones
 Video phones
 Storage devices
 Network connections
In the next section, we'll look at the USB cables and connectors that allow your computer to communicate
with these devices.
Show understanding of the need to check for errors
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) - CRCs are similar in concept to checksums, but they use polynomial division
to determine the value of the CRC, which is usually 16 or 32 bits in length. The good thing about CRC is that it
is very accurate. If a single bit is incorrect, the CRC value will not match up. Both checksum and CRC are good
for preventing random errors in transmission but provide little protection from an intentional attack on your
data. Symmetric- and public-key encryption techniques are much more secure.
All of these various processes combine to provide you with the tools you need to ensure that the information
you send or receive over the Internet is secure. In fact, sending information over a computer network is often
much more secure than sending it any other way. Phones, especially cordless phones, are susceptible to
eavesdropping, particularly by unscrupulous people with radio scanners. Traditional mail and other physical
mediums often pass through numerous hands on the way to their destination, increasing the possibility of
corruption. Understanding encryption, and simply making sure that any sensitive information you send over
the Internet is secure (remember the "https" and padlock symbol), can provide you with greater peace of
mind.
Identify and describe methods of error detection and correction, such as parity checks, check digits,
checksums and Automatic Repeat reQuests (ARQ)
Checksum –
A checksum is a value used to verify the integrity (amount of bits or bytes completion) of a file or a data
transfer. In other words, it is a sum that checks the validity of data.
1. Checksums are typically used to compare two sets of data to make sure they are the same. Some
common applications include verifying a disk image or checking the integrity of a downloaded file.
2. If the checksums don't match those of the original files, the data may have been altered or corrupted.
3. A checksum can be computed in many different ways, using different algorithms. For example, a basic
checksum may simply be the number of bytes in a file. However, this type of checksum is not very
reliable since two or more bytes could be switched around, causing the data to be different, though
the checksum would be the same.
4. Therefore, more advanced checksum algorithms are typically used to verify data. These include cyclic
redundancy check (CRC) algorithms and cryptographic hash functions.
Definition - What does Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) mean?
Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ), also known as Automatic Repeat Query, is an error-control method for
data transmission that uses acknowledgements (messages sent by the receiver indicating that it has correctly
received a data frame or packet) and timeouts (specified periods of time allowed to elapse before an
acknowledgment is to be received) to achieve reliable data transmission over an unreliable service. If the
sender does not receive an acknowledgment before the timeout, it usually re-transmits the frame/packet
until the sender receives an acknowledgment or exceeds a predefined number of re-transmissions.
The types of ARQ protocols include
 Stop-and-wait ARQ
 Go-Back-N ARQ
 Selective Repeat ARQ
All three protocols usually use some form of sliding window protocol to tell the transmitter to determine
which (if any) packets need to be retransmitted.
These protocols reside in the Data Link or Transport Layers of the OSI model.
A number of patents exist for the use of ARQ in live video contribution environments. In these high
throughput environments negative acknowledgements are used to drive down overheads.
The Transmission Control Protocol uses a variant of Go-Back-N ARQ to ensure reliable transmission of data
over the Internet Protocol, which does not provide guaranteed delivery of packets; with Selective
Acknowledgement (SACK), it uses Selective Repeat ARQ.
The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides a way to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gbit/s) local area network
using existing residential wiring (power lines, telephone lines, and coaxial cables), uses Selective Repeat ARQ
to ensure reliable transmission over noisy media.
ARQ systems were widely used on shortwave radio to ensure reliable delivery of data such as for telegrams.
These systems came in forms called ARQ-E and ARQ-M, which also included the ability to multiplex two or
four channels
1.2.2 Security aspects
• show understanding of the security aspects of using the Internet and understand what methods are available to
help minimize the risks
• show understanding of the Internet risks associated with malware, including viruses, spyware and hacking
• explain how anti-virus and other protection software helps to protect the user from security risks
(this also links into section 1.4 of the syllabus)
Show understanding of the security aspects of using the Internet and understand what methods are
available to help minimize the risks
Data security is about keeping data safe. Many individuals, small businesses and major companies rely heavily
on their computer systems. If the data on these computer systems is damaged, lost, or stolen, it can lead to
disaster.
Key threats to data security
Data may get:

 lost or damaged during a system crash - especially one affecting the hard disk
 corrupted as a result of faulty disks, disk drives, or power failures
 lost by accidentally deleting or overwriting files
 lost or become corrupted by computer viruses
 hacked into by unauthorized users and deleted or altered
 destroyed by natural disasters, acts of terrorism, or war
 deleted or altered by employees wishing to make money or take revenge on their employer
Keeping data secure
Measures that can be taken to keep data secure include:
 making regular backups of files (backup copies should be stored in fireproof safes or in another
building)
 protecting yourself against viruses by running anti-virus software
 using a system of passwords so that access to data is restricted
 safe storage of important files stored on removable disks, eg locked away in a fireproof and waterproof
safe
 allowing only authorised staff into certain computer areas, eg by controlling entry to these areas by
means of ID cards or magnetic swipe cards
 always logging off or turning terminals off and if possible locking them
 avoiding accidental deletion of files by write-protecting disks
 using data encryption techniques to code data so that it makes no apparent sense
Online banking
When you bank online, after you’ve logged in, you will notice that the http in the address bar has changed to
https. This indicates that a secure connection between your computer and the bank's computer has been
established. Data sent between the two computers is encrypted so that anyone trying to intercept your data
will receive meaningless data. The data can only be decrypted into readable data by using a key that is known
only to the two computers - yours and the bank's.
You might think that the most valuable item a company owns is its computers. Although they are expensive
machines, you would be wrong.
The thing that is worth the most to any company is their data.
Surprising eh? Not when you think about it. If a machine breaks down or even gets stolen, a company can go
out and buy a new one to replace it. Yes, it costs them a fair whack, but they can probably find the money
from somewhere.
Whereas, if they lose their data, this is very hard to replace. For example they could lose their customer list,
lose their sales records, lose their accounts, lose all the information about their product and the list goes on
and on.
Data is invaluable to a company and if it were to be lost, the company would probably be crippled in the short
term, and go out of business pretty soon afterwards.
It is not just businesses who would suffer from a loss of their data, it could be you.
You have just finished your three pieces of coursework, that took you months to complete. Thank goodness
you are going to hand them in tomorrow and get them out of the way.
BUT..... you try to switch on your machine, only to see those awful words 'hard disk failure'. It's all gone.
All of your work was saved on that machine. How much would you pay to get the coursework back so you
don't miss your deadline?Find out more about protecting data from loss or damage by using the links in the
menu on the left-hand side.
Show understanding of the Internet risks associated with malware, including viruses, spyware and hacking
A network allows a person who does to have physical access to your computer (they are not sitting in front of
it) to gain access all the same. If your computer is connected to a network, other people can connect to your
computer.
A person who gains unauthorized access to a computer system is often called a hacker.
Preventing Unauthorized Access
There are a number of security measures that you can take to prevent hackers accessing your computer and
all of the data stored on it:
Physical Security
The first thing to make sure of is that no unauthorized people can physically access (sit down in front of) any
of the computers on your network.
For example, by keeping office doors locked.
Use a Username and Have a Good Password
The most common way to protect your computer’s data is to setup user accounts with usernames and
passwords. Anyone not having a username, or not knowing the correct password will be denied access.
For this to be effective passwords must be chosen that are not easy to guess. Passwords should be a random
combination of lowercase letters, uppercase letters and numbers (and symbols if this is allowed):
 ‘Weak’ passwords: password, 123456, david, 27dec1992
 ‘Strong’ passwords: s63gRdd1, G66ew$dQ, gdr298783X
Some computer systems replace the typing of usernames and passwords with other forms of user
identification such as ID cards, fingerprint readers, voice-print recognition, etc.
Strong passwords are often hard to remember. Here is a good method for creating a password that is very
strong, but also easy to remember:
Think of a phrase that you will never forget…
“My favourite food is chocolate ice cream”
Take the first letter of each word…
mfficic
Change some letters to similar numbers: I to 1, o to 0, s to 5, etc. and make some letters (e.g. the first and
last) uppercase…
Mff1c1C
A random-looking mixture of letters and numbers. As long as you like chocolate ice cream you will never
forget your password!
Always Install and Use a Firewall
A firewall is a device, or a piece of software that is placed between your computer / LAN and the rest of the
network / WAN (where the hackers are!)
You can read about firewalls in the Networking Hardware section.
Securing Your Data
Often we have data that is private or confidential. This data needs to be protected from being viewed by
unauthorized people. This is especially true if the data is to be sent via a public network such as The Internet.
The best way to protect data is to encrypt it...
Data Encryption
Encryption is the process of converting information into a form that is meaningless to anyone except
holders of a ‘key’.
For example, if Alice wants to send important, personal messages to Bob, she must go through the following
steps...
Encryption has been used for centuries to protect secrets.
Military leaders as far back as roman times have used encryption to protect important messages sent to their
armies, messages that must be kept secret from the enemy.
If the messenger was caught by the enemy, the message, being encrypted, remained secret because they
didn’t know the code to decrypt it.
First Alice needs to generate a secret ‘key’.
The key is usually a very long, random number.
The encryption scheme shown here is called Symmetric Key, or Single Key encryption.
There are many better schemes, such as Public Key Encryption, but the one shown here is the easiest to
understand!
Alice must then give a copy of this key to Bob. She must make sure that nobody else can get to the key
(So maybe Alice will visit Bob and give him a copy of the key on a memory stick or floppy disc).
Now that Bob has a copy of the key, each time Alice needs to send him a message she starts by encrypting it
using special encryption software and the secret key.
The encrypted message now looks like a jumble of random letters and numbers.
Alice then sends the encrypted message to Bob.

She can use a public network like the Internet, since, even if it gets stolen, the encrypted message cannot be
read or understood without the key.
When Bob receives the message, he uses special decryption software and his copy of the secret key to
decrypt the message.
Bob can now read the original message from Alice.
Validating Data:
Once you collected some or all of your data you will need to enter it into your system. It is at this point where
many different types of errors can occur, coining the phrase Garbage In, Garbage Out (GIGO). Basically if you
enter data which contains mistakes and errors then no matter how thorough or clever your queries are you
will always get second rate, rubbish, error laden results.
To date there is no 100% guaranteed foolproof method for entering data into a system which is completely
error free. However there are techniques that you can use to help you reduce the errors to a minimum.
Two of these techniques are called Validation and Verification. We will be looking in more detail at them over
the next few pages. To navigate through the pages use the menu on the left-hand side.
The Internet and crime
New technology brings with it new crimes and as a result some governments are setting up special units to
deal with Internet crime.
A major concern is Internet fraud. For example, phishing scams, identity theft and denial of service attacks are
common techniques used by criminals today.
Other concerns surround:

 the interception of credit card details and transactions online

 hacking into personal, private files with criminal intent
 fraudulent websites taking credit card details from customers
 the spreading of viruses via the Internet
Internet security
There are a number of ways the public are made to feel safer when using the Internet:
 encryption of sensitive data, making it unreadable until it reaches its destination and is decrypted
 passwords and access level restrictions
 firewalls (protection from hackers)
 anti-virus software
 tough penalties for offenders under the Computer Misuse Act
How SSL works
SSL uses both symmetric and asymmetric encryption algorithms. Symmetric algorithms use the same key to
encrypt and decrypt data. They are faster than asymmetric algorithms but can be insecure. Asymmetric
algorithms use a pair of keys. Data encrypted using one key can only be decrypted using the other. Typically,
one of the keys is kept private while the other is made public. Because one key is always kept private,
asymmetric algorithms are generally secure; however, they are much slower than symmetric algorithms. To
reap the benefits of both algorithms, SSL encapsulates a symmetric key that is randomly selected each time
inside a message that is encrypted with an asymmetric algorithm. After both the client and server possess the
symmetric key, the symmetric key is used instead of the asymmetric ones.
When server authentication is requested, SSL uses the following process:
1. To request a secure page, the client uses HTTPS.
2. The server sends the client its public key and certificate.
3. The client checks that the certificate was issued by a trusted party (usually a trusted Certificate Authority)
that the certificate is still valid, and that the certificate is related to the contacted site.
4. The client uses the public key to encrypt a random symmetric encryption key and sends it to the server,
along with the encrypted URL required and other encrypted HTTP data.
5. The server decrypts the symmetric encryption key using its private key and uses the
symmetric key to decrypt the URL and HTTP data.
6. The server sends back the requested HTML document and HTTP data that are
encrypted with the symmetric key.
7. The client decrypts the HTTP data and HTML document using the symmetric key and
displays the information.
Basically speaking, the SSL use the asymmetric encryption (public/private key pair) to deliver the shared
session key, and finally achieved a communication way with symmetric encryption.
Transport Layer Security (TLS) and its predecessor, Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), are cryptographic protocols
designed to provide communication security over the Internet.[1] They use X.509 certificates and hence
asymmetric cryptography to authenticate the counterparty with whom they are communicating, and to
exchange a symmetric key. This session key is then used to encrypt data flowing between the parties. This
allows for data/message confidentiality, and message authentication codes for message integrity and as a by-
product, message authentication. Several versions of the protocols are in widespread use in applications such
as web browsing, electronic mail, Internet faxing, instant messaging, and voice-over-IP (VoIP). An important
property in this context is forward secrecy, so the short-term session key cannot be derived from the long-
term asymmetric secret key.
In the Internet Protocol Suite, TLS and SSL encrypt the data of network connections in the application layer. In
OSI model equivalences, TLS/SSL is initialized at layer 5 (session layer) and works at layer 6 (the presentation
layer).
The session layer has a handshake using an asymmetric cipher in order to establish cipher settings and a
shared key for that session; then the presentation layer encrypts the rest of the communication using a
symmetric cipher and that session key. In both models, TLS and SSL work on behalf of the underlying
transport layer, whose segments carry encrypted data.
The TLS protocol allows client-server applications to communicate across a network in a way designed to
prevent eavesdropping and tampering.
Once the client and server have agreed to use TLS, they negotiate a stateful connection by using a
handshaking procedure. During this handshake, the client and server agree on various parameters used to
establish the connection's security:
 The handshake begins when a client connects to a TLS-enabled server requesting a secure connection
and presents a list of supported cipher suites (ciphers and hash functions).
 From this list, the server picks a cipher and hash function that it also supports and notifies the client of
the decision.
 The server sends back its identification in the form of a digital certificate. The certificate usually
contains the server name, the trusted certificate authority (CA) and the server's public encryption key.
 The client may contact the server that issued the certificate (the trusted CA as above) and confirm the
validity of the certificate before proceeding.
 In order to generate the session keys used for the secure connection, the client encrypts a random
number with the server's public key and sends the result to the server. Only the server should be able
to decrypt it, with its private key.
 From the random number, both parties generate key material for encryption and decryption.
 This concludes the handshake and begins the secured connection, which is encrypted and decrypted
with the key material until the connection closes.
If any one of the above steps fails, the TLS handshake fails, and the connection is not created.
Symmetric-key algorithms are a class of algorithms for cryptography that use the same cryptographic keys for
both encryption of plaintext and decryption of ciphertext. The keys may be identical or there may be a simple
transformation to go between the two keys. The keys, in practice, represent a shared secret between two or
more parties that can be used to maintain a private information link. [2] This requirement that both parties
have access to the secret key is one of the main drawbacks of symmetric key encryption, in comparison to
public-key encryption.[3]
1.2.3 Internet principles of operation

• show understanding of the role of the browser and Internet server
• show understanding of what is meant by hypertext transfer protocol (http) and HTML
• distinguish between HTML structure and presentation
• show understanding of the concept of MAC address, Internet Protocol (IP) address and
cookies
Internet principles of operation
Show understanding of the role of the browser and Internet server

Show understanding of what is meant by hypertext transfer protocol (http) and HTML
HTTP - HyperText Transfer Protocol
Short for HyperText Transfer Protocol, HTTP is the underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web. HTTP
defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web servers and browsers should
take in response to various commands. For example, when you enter a URL in your browser, this actually
sends an HTTP command to the Web server directing it to fetch and transmit the requested Web page.
The other main standard that controls how the World Wide Web works is HTML, which covers how Web
pages are formatted and displayed.
HTTP: A Stateless Protocol
HTTP is called a stateless protocol because each command is executed independently, without any knowledge
of the commands that came before it. This is the main reason that it is difficult to implement Web sites that
react intelligently to user input. This shortcoming of HTTP is being addressed in a number of new
technologies, including ActiveX, Java, JavaScript and cookies.
Distinguish between HTML structure and presentation
Introduction
You are living in the age of the Internet.
A couple of decades ago, the Internet was only known to academics and technical experts. But now it has
become as common to use as radio or television for millions of people.
One of the most important part of the Internet is what is called the 'World Wide Web'.
The world wide web is made up of millions upon millions of "web sites", such as the one you are reading right
now.
But how do you create a web site in the first place?
The next few pages will introduce you to web design.
Introduction
You are living in the age of the Internet.
A couple of decades ago, the Internet was only known to academics and technical experts. But now it has
become as common to use as radio or television for millions of people.
One of the most important part of the Internet is what is called the 'World Wide Web'.
The world wide web is made up of millions upon millions of "web sites", such as the one you are reading right
now.
But how do you create a web site in the first place?
The next few pages will introduce you to web design.
Types of web sites
Web sites are usually designed with a specific purpose in mind. These include
 E-commerce sites - you visit these to buy something
 Information sites - such as your favorite news website
 Entertainment - such as YouTube and the BBC iPlayer site
 Business - provides support, documents and software drivers for

customers
 Ideas and opinion sites - such as personal blogs or your own personal
site
 Social networking site - such as someone's Facebook page
 Portolio site - you want to show off your work to a potential employer
or client
Type of site Comment

This type of site is dedicated to selling goods and services directly over the
Internet. An e-commerce site includes
E-commerce  A number of things for sale

 A "shopping cart" to select items
 A payment method such as credit card.

These exist to provide factual information and knowledge
Information and  Online encyclopedias such as Wikipedia

knowledge sites  News sites such as the BBC News
 Online training and education - such as teach-ict.com

These exist just for fun and entertainment
 Catch-up TV such as BBC iPlayer

 Online gaming sites
Entertainment
 Viewing videos such as on YouTube
 Sports sites - football clubs
 Celebrity sites - follow your favorite pop star

Visitors read other people's opinion about things
 Personal blog site

Ideas and opinion
 Professional journalists providing analysis
Forums set up for a certain topic


These are created by a business to support their customers, provide
Business information and maybe download software drivers. They do not sell things
directly on this kind of site.
Show friends and visitors details about your life. You do not need technical
Social networking
knowledge to set up your own web page on these kind of site
These are created to show off what you can do. So you can find work and new
clients. For example a wedding photographer could have a site showing off the
Portfolio site
kind of work they do. Or a web designer can show their skill to a potential
employer.
Web server and domain
In order to let other people see your web site, it must be placed on a web server.
This is called 'hosting' a web site.
Before you can do this, you must choose an URL (Uniform Resource Locator) for your site, such as www.teach-
ict.com. This is called the site's domain name.
Domain names are purchased from a domain registrar who has the authority to sell domains.
To type in a complete URL you normally include http:// followed by the domain.
HTTP is the standard protocol for a web page. You can also get HTTPS with an extra s on the end that
indicates it is a secure web page.
Each domain name must be unique - you cannot purchase a domain that someone else already owns. This is
because every URL is converted into an unique IP address. For example the web site www.google.com has the
IP address 74.125.91.104.
Try typing http://74.125.91.104/ into your web browser and see what you get (or click on the link).
Once your site is online, you expect your web hosting company to provide
 Fast response time - visitors hate waiting for a page to download

because of a slow server.
 Administration tools such as web statistics so you can see how many
visitors you have and what they are looking at.
 Good upload speeds - your site needs to be upated easily and often, so a
good upload speed makes this much easier.
 Help - when things go wrong on the server, you want confidence that
they will help out.
HTML - the very basics of a web site.
A "web site" is made up of one or more web 'pages'.

A web page is created by writing code in a language called HTML.
HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language. It was developed especially to create web pages.
You may be looking at a web page right now and thinking "where is this HTML" - I can't see it.
To see the HTML code of most web pages take these steps:
1. View the page in a web browser.

2. Right click your mouse over the page text and a small menu will appear close to the mouse (right
clicking over a picture gives you a different menu) Click on the "View Source" in the menu list.
3. A page full of words and symbols will appear in a separate window
This is the HTML code that makes up the web page you are viewing.
This is what html looks like.
All the colored text surrounded by < > are html 'tags'.
D. show understanding of the concept of MAC address, Internet Protocol (IP) address and cookies
What Is a MAC Address?
The MAC address is a unique value associated with a network adapter. MAC addresses are also known as
hardware addresses or physical addresses. They uniquely identify an adapter on a LAN.
MAC addresses are 12-digit hexadecimal numbers (48 bits in length). By convention, MAC addresses are
usually written in one of the following two formats:
MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS
MM-MM-MM-SS-SS-SS
The first half of a MAC address contains the ID number of the adapter manufacturer. These IDs are regulated
by an Internet standards body (see sidebar). The second half of a MAC address represents the serial number
assigned to the adapter by the manufacturer. In the example,
00:A0:C9:14:C8:29
The prefix
00A0C9
Indicates the manufacturer is Intel Corporation.
Why MAC Addresses?
Recall that TCP/IP and other mainstream networking architectures generally adopt the OSI model. In this
model, network functionality is subdivided into layers. MAC addresses function at the data link layer (layer 2 in
the OSI model). They allow computers to uniquely identify themselves on a network at this relatively low level.
MAC vs. IP Addressing
Whereas MAC addressing works at the data link layer, IP addressing functions at the network layer (layer 3).
It's a slight oversimplification, but one can think of IP addressing as supporting the software implementation
and MAC addresses as supporting the hardware implementation of the network stack. The MAC address
generally remains fixed and follows the network device, but the IP address changes as the network device
moves from one network to another.
IP networks maintain a mapping between the IP address of a device and its MAC address. This mapping is
known as the ARP cache or ARP table. ARP, the Address Resolution Protocol, supports the logic for obtaining
this mapping and keeping the cache up to date.
DHCP also usually relies on MAC addresses to manage the unique assignment of IP addresses to devices.
Internet Protocol (IP)
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the method or protocol by which data is sent from one computer to another on
the Internet.
 6to4 – SearchNetworking
 IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6) – SearchEnterpriseWAN
 IPv4 to IPv6 migration: Test your knowledge for a ... – SearchNetworking
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the method or protocol by which data is sent from one computer to another on
the Internet. Each computer (known as a host) on the Internet has at least one IP address that uniquely
identifies it from all other computers on the Internet.
When you send or receive data (for example, an e-mail note or a Web page), the message gets divided into
little chunks called packets. Each of these packets contains both the sender's Internet address and the
receiver's address. Any packet is sent first to a gateway computer that understands a small part of the
Internet. The gateway computer reads the destination address and forwards the packet to an adjacent
gateway that in turn reads the destination address and so forth across the Internet until one gateway
recognizes the packet as belonging to a computer within its immediate neighborhood or domain. That
gateway then forwards the packet directly to the computer whose address is specified.
Because a message is divided into a number of packets, each packet can, if necessary, be sent by a different
route across the Internet. Packets can arrive in a different order than the order they were sent in. The Internet
Protocol just delivers them. It's up to another protocol, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) to put them
back in the right order.
IP is a connectionless protocol, which means that there is no continuing connection between the end points
that are communicating. Each packet that travels through the Internet is treated as an independent unit of
data without any relation to any other unit of data. (The reason the packets do get put in the right order is
because of TCP, the connection-oriented protocol that keeps track of the packet sequence in a message.) In
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communication model, IP is in layer 3, the Networking Layer.
The most widely used version of IP today is Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4). However, IP Version 6 (IPv6) is
also beginning to be supported. IPv6 provides for much longer addresses and therefore for the possibility of
many more Internet users. IPv6 includes the capabilities of IPv4 and any server that can support IPv6 packets
can also support IPv4 packets.
HTTP cookie:
A cookie, also known as an HTTP cookie, web cookie, or browser cookie, is a small piece of data sent from a
website and stored in a user's web browser while the user is browsing that website. Every time the user loads
the website, the browser sends the cookie back to the server to notify the website of the user's previous
activity. Cookies were designed to be a reliable mechanism for websites to remember stateful information
(such as items in a shopping cart) or to record the user's browsing activity (including clicking particular
buttons, logging in, or recording which pages were visited by the user as far back as months or years ago).
Although cookies cannot carry viruses, and cannot install malware on the host computer, tracking cookies and
especially third-party tracking cookies are commonly used as ways to compile long-term records of
individuals' browsing histories—a potential privacy concern that prompted European and U.S. law makers to
take action in 2011. Cookies can also store passwords and form content a user has previously entered, such as
a credit card number or an address. When a user accesses a website with a cookie function for the first time,
a cookie is sent from server to the browser and stored with the browser in the local computer. Later when
that user goes back to the same website, the website will recognize the user because of the stored cookie
with the user's information.
Other kinds of cookies perform essential functions in the modern web. Perhaps most importantly,
authentication cookies are the most common method used by web servers to know whether the user is
logged in or not, and which account they are logged in with. Without such a mechanism, the site would not
know whether to send a page containing sensitive information, or require the user to authenticate
themselves by logging in. The security of an authentication cookie generally depends on the security of the
issuing website and the user's web browser, and on whether the cookie data is encrypted. Security
vulnerabilities may allow a cookie's data to be read by a hacker, used to gain access to user data, or used to
gain access (with the user's credentials) to the website to which the cookie belongs (see cross-site scripting
and cross-site request forgery for examples).
Sensors & Tansducers:

Electronic System or circuit must be able to “do” something and Sensors and Transducers are the perfect
components for doing this.
The word “Transducer” is the collective term used for both Sensors which can be used to sense a wide range of different
energy forms such as movement, electrical signals, radiant energy, thermal or magnetic energy etc,
and Actuators which can be used to switch voltages or currents.
There are many different types of Sensors and Transducers, both analogue and digital and input and output available to
choose from. The type of input or output transducer being used, really depends upon the type of signal or process being
“Sensed” or “Controlled” but we can define a sensor and transducers as devices that converts one physical quantity into
another.
Devices which perform an “Input” function are commonly called Sensors because they “sense” a physical change in
some characteristic that changes in response to some excitation, for example heat or force and covert that into an
electrical signal. Devices which perform an “Output” function are generally called Actuators and are used to control
some external device, for example movement or sound.
Electrical Transducers are used to convert energy of one kind into energy of another kind, so for example, a microphone
(input device) converts sound waves into electrical signals for the amplifier to amplify (a process), and a loudspeaker
(output device) converts these electrical signals back into sound waves and an example of this type of simple
Input/Output (I/O) system is given below.
Simple Input/Output System using Sound Transducers

There are many different types of sensors and transducers available in the marketplace, and the choice of which one to
use really depends upon the quantity being measured or controlled, with the more common types given in the table
below.
Common Sensors and Transducers
Quantity being Input Device Output Device

Measured (Sensor) (Actuator)
Light Dependant Resistor (LDR)

Lights & Lamps
Photodiode
Light Level LED’s & Displays
Photo-transistor
Fibre Optics
Solar Cell
Thermocouple
Thermistor Heater
Temperature
Thermostat Fan
Resistive Temperature Detectors
Strain Gauge Lifts & Jacks

Force/Pressure Pressure Switch Electromagnet
Load Cells Vibration
Potentiometer
Motor
Encoders
Position Solenoid
Reflective/Slotted Opto-switch
Panel Meters
LVDT
Tacho-generator AC and DC Motors

Speed Reflective/Slotted Opto-coupler Stepper Motor
Doppler Effect Sensors Brake
Bell
Carbon Microphone
Sound Buzzer
Piezo-electric Crystal
Loudspeaker
Input type transducers or sensors, produce a voltage or signal output response which is proportional to the change in the
quantity that they are measuring (the stimulus). The type or amount of the output signal depends upon the type of sensor
being used. But generally, all types of sensors can be classed as two kinds, either Passive Sensors or Active Sensors.
Generally, active sensors require an external power supply to operate, called an excitation signalwhich is used by the
sensor to produce the output signal. Active sensors are self-generating devices because their own properties change in
response to an external effect producing for example, an output voltage of 1 to 10v DC or an output current such as 4 to
20mA DC.
A good example of an active sensor is a strain gauge which is basically a pressure-sensitive resistive bridge network. It
does not generate an electrical signal itself, but by passing a current through it (excitation signal), its electrical resistance
can be measured by detecting variations in the current and/or voltage across it relating these changes to the amount of
strain or force being applied.
Unlike an active sensor, a passive sensor does not need any additional energy source and directly generates an electric
signal in response to an external stimulus. For example, a thermocouple or photo-diode. Passive sensors are direct
sensors which change their physical properties, such as resistance, capacitance or inductance etc. As well as analogue
sensors, Digital Sensors produce a discrete output representing a binary number or digit such as a logic level “0” or a
logic level “1”.
Analogue and Digital Sensors

Analogue Sensors
Analogue Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is generally proportional to the quantity being
measured. Physical quantities such as Temperature, Speed, Pressure, Displacement, Strain etc are all analogue
quantities as they tend to be continuous in nature. For example, the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a
thermometer or thermocouple which continuously responds to temperature changes as the liquid is heated up or cooled
down.
Thermocouple used to produce an Analogue Signal
Analogue sensors tend to produce output signals that are changing smoothly and continuously over time. These signals
tend to be very small in value from a few mico-volts (uV) to several milli-volts (mV), so some form of amplification is
required. Then circuits which measure analogue signals usually have a slow response and/or low accuracy. Also
analogue signals can be easily converted into digital type signals for use in micro-controller systems by the use of
analogue-to-digital converters, or ADC’s.
Digital Sensors
As its name implies, Digital Sensors produce a discrete digital output signals or voltages that are a digital representation
of the quantity being measured. Digital sensors produce a Binary output signal in the form of a logic “1” or a logic “0”,
(“ON” or “OFF”). This means then that a digital signal only produces discrete (non-continuous) values which may be
outputted as a single “bit”, (serial transmission) or by combining the bits to produce a single “byte” output (parallel
transmission).
Light Sensor used to produce an Digital Signal
In our simple example above, the speed of the rotating shaft is measured by using a digital LED/Opto-detector sensor.
The disc which is fixed to a rotating shaft (for example, from a motor or robot wheels), has a number of transparent slots
within its design. As the disc rotates with the speed of the shaft, each slot passes by the sensor in turn producing an
output pulse representing a logic “1” or logic “0” level.
These pulses are sent to a register of counter and finally to an output display to show the speed or revolutions of the
shaft. By increasing the number of slots or “windows” within the disc more output pulses can be produced for each
revolution of the shaft. The advantage of this is that a greater resolution and accuracy is achieved as fractions of a
revolution can be detected. Then this type of sensor arrangement could also be used for positional control with one of the
discs slots representing a reference position.
Compared to analogue signals, digital signals or quantities have very high accuracies and can be both measured and
“sampled” at a very high clock speed. The accuracy of the digital signal is proportional to the number of bits used to
represent the measured quantity. For example, using a processor of 8 bits, will produce an accuracy of 0.195% (1 part in
512). While using a processor of 16 bits gives an accuracy of 0.0015%, (1 part in 65,536) or 130 times more accurate.
This accuracy can be maintained as digital quantities are manipulated and processed very rapidly, millions of times faster
than analogue signals.
In most cases, sensors and more specifically analogue sensors generally require an external power supply and some
form of additional amplification or filtering of the signal in order to produce a suitable electrical signal which is capable of
being measured or used. One very good way of achieving both amplification and filtering within a single circuit is to
use Operational Amplifiers as seen before.

O Level Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

O Level Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

O Level Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1Math Matica Academy

1.1.1 Binary systems

Names for different sizes of data

14 petabytes stored within.

Measurements of Data Speed

Register Symbol Register Name Number of Bits Description

Hexadecimal Number System:

Uses of Hexadecimal System:

Uses of Hexadecimal in HTML:

Uses of Hexa decimal in MAC Address:

Uses of Hexadecimal in Debugging:

For example 213416 can be expressed as:

213416 = 2 x 163+ 1 x 162+ 3 x 161+ 4 x 160

What is a MAC Address?

Networks and MAC addresses.

Wireless Routers and MAC Filtering

Text Files PowerPoint Slide Multimedia File

Data Files .mid MIDI File Shockwave

File Scalable Vector Interface Script

Adobe .xls Excel Spreadsheet Video Game

Encapsulated Mac OS X .gpx GPS Exchange File

.cgi Common Gateway

Google Earth Placemark .ot OpenType Font Encoded Files

.cfm ColdFusion Markup File Windows 7-Zip

.fnt Windows Font File Windows Initialization

Binary .lua Lua Source File

.vcd Virtual CD Temporary

Java Source Code

1.1.3 Data storage

Lossless versus lossy compression

1.2.1 Serial and parallel data transmission

1.2.1 Serial and parallel data transmission

Show understanding of what is meant by transmission of data

Bandwidth is a fundamental measure of performance within any communication network, whether it is an

After reading this you should be able to

 Explain what is bandwidth

 Be able to compare their performance

Advantages and Disadvantages

Distinguish between serial and parallel data transmission

A serial Port with 9 pins

 The communication the serial transmission only goes over 3 wires

o The ground signal

o One wire that sends

o and one wire that receives

 This allows communication in both directions at the same time

A parallel port with 25 pins

 The 25 connector interface consists of 17 signal lines and 8 ground lines

o The signal lines are divided into

 4 control lines which which are used to initiate the handshaking

 and 8 data lines are used to transfer the data.

 This interface allows a transfer rate over over 1 MB per second

Parallel ports can be used to connect a host of popular computer peripherals:

 External hard drives

 Iomega Zip removable drives

 Tape backup drives

 Scientific data acquisition devices

Show understanding of the need to check for errors

Definition - What does Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) mean?