Problem Solving Assessment

Stanley L. Deno
University of Minnesota

Problem Solving Defined

The term problem solving is used Problem Solving through General and
whenever people act to eliminate a difference Compensatory Education
between conditions that they currently sense or Two major types of intervention occur
perceive and alternative conditions that they in education. The first, general education, is the
desire. In short, problem solving occurs when mainstream instructional program created for all
people act to reduce the discrepancy between children. A second, smaller set of interventions
“what they want and what they get.” In are the various special and compensatory
education, the perceived differences that education programs created for students from
motivate problem solving are those diverse cultural and economic background and
discrepancies between students’ present levels of for students with disabilities. Different from
development and some other expected or desired general education interventions, this second set
level of development. This conception leads to of interventions is intended for smaller subsets
the conclusion that problems exist in the eye of of the student population and is characterized by
the “beholder.” Thus, as long as someone increased intensity, because they occur when a
perceives a discrepancy, a problem exists for student’s response to general education
that person, and problem solving occurs when instruction is not satisfactory.
the person undertakes to reduce or eliminate the
perceived discrepancies. Norms, Standards, and Consequences in
Developing a successful a problem Establishing Problem Importance
solving approach in education requires that, In the history of educational and
initially, a problem be clarified and defined. To psychological testing, norms have weighed
do so typically involves: heavily in the judgment of student performance.
 Objectively describing a student’s Indeed, “problems’ have traditionally been
current level and rate of development. identified through establishing the difference
 Specifying the desired level and rate of between an individual’s level of performance
development. and the mean performance for age and grade.
 Establishing the importance of the When this normative perspective is used to
difference. define problems, the magnitude of a student’s
While the first and second steps in problem is established by scaling the normative
clarifying a problem can be done objectively, difference. If nothing else, the standards based
even quantitatively, accomplishing the third step school reform movement that relies on
is certainly subjective, and based in values. benchmark testing makes it abundantly clear that
academic problems can be criterion-referenced
Educational Problems as well as norm-referenced. Even more clearly,
The current emphasis on “standards” the movement has revealed that the magnitude
and high stakes assessment creates the context of the consequences associated with failure to
for identifying the discrepancies perceived by meet expectations establishes the significance or
policy makers when they view where students importance of academic problems. High stakes
are and where they want them to be. have been attached to success and failure, and
Discrepancies in literacy and math have been students can be denied grade promotion or even
identified as the most fundamental, followed by a high school diploma. Schools can be labeled
science. as substandard and placed on probation; school

**This article is an abbreviated version of Deno, S. L. (2005) Problem-solving assessment with

Curriculum-based Measurement (CBM). In Rachel Chidsey-Brown (Ed.) Problem-Solving Based
Assessment for Educational Intervention. Guilford Press: New York.
districts can be required to pay for cannot say with certainty that any one program
supplementary programs. will be effective for all students. For that
The dramatic increase in pressure on reason, it is useful to view problem solving as
schools to document student attainments has hypothesis testing where reducing the
resulted in a much sharper focus on assessment discrepancy is the dependent variable.
procedures. Successful implementation of
progress monitoring can create more and clearer A PROBLEM SOLVING MODEL AND
occasions for educational professionals to PROBLEM SOLVING ASSESSMENT
engage in problem solving. The early The basic steps common to most
identifications of discrepancies between desired problem solving models are identified in the five
and projected levels of accomplishment indicate step IDEAL problem-solving model described
that risk exists and a need exists to intensify by Bransford and Stein (1984) ---(1) Identifying
problem-solving efforts. the problem to be solved, (2) Defining the
problem, (3) Exploring alternative solutions, (4)
Problem Solving as Hypothesis Testing Applying the chosen solution, and (5) Looking
A basic assumption in this conception of at the effects. When the decision to be made, and
problem solving is that we cannot predict with the assessment conducted to provide data for
certainty those interventions that will decision making are added to the model a
successfully eliminate perceived discrepancies. framework for educational problem solving is
Even when using “evidence-based programs” we created that is illustrated in the table below:

A Data Based Problem Solving Model

Problem Solving Steps Assessment Procedures Evaluation Decision

1. Problem identification Observing or recording Does a problem exist?
actual performance

2. Problem definition Quantifying the Is the problem important?

perceived discrepancy

3. Designing intervention Identifying alternative What is the best solution

plans solution hypotheses hypothesis?

4. Implementing Monitoring fidelity of Is the solution attempt

intervention intervention & data collection progressing as planned?

5. Problem solution Re-quantifying the Is the original problem

discrepancy being solved through
the attempted solution?

It is important to point out that while the decisions are necessarily inferences from the
outcomes of assessments in this model are data.
intended to be factual; the evaluation

**This article is an abbreviated version of Deno, S. L. (2005) Problem-solving assessment with

Curriculum-based Measurement (CBM). In Rachel Chidsey-Brown (Ed.) Problem-Solving Based
Assessment for Educational Intervention. Guilford Press: New York.
**This article is an abbreviated version of Deno, S. L. (2005) Problem-solving assessment with
Curriculum-based Measurement (CBM). In Rachel Chidsey-Brown (Ed.) Problem-Solving
Based Assessment for Educational Intervention. Guilford Press: New York.