Current Research in Environmental & Applied Mycology 8(5): 501–555 (2018) ISSN 2229-2225

www.creamjournal.org Article
Doi 10.5943/cream/8/5/3

Mushroom Characterization: Part I – Illustrated Morphological

Characteristics

Senthilarasu G1, 2* and Kumaresan V3

1
The Energy and Resources Institute, 318, Raheja Arcade, Sector 11, CBD Belapur-400614, Navi Mumbai,
Maharashtra, India.
2
Macrofungal Collection of India, 9/174, Gandhi Street, Senneerkuppam, Poonamallee- 600 056, Tamil Nadu, India.
3
Department of Botany, Kanchi Mamunivar Centre for Post Graduate Studies (Autonomous), Puducherry-605008,
India.

Senthilarasu G, Kumaresan V 2018 – Mushroom Characterization: Part I – Illustrated

Morphological Characteristics. Current Research in Environmental & Applied Mycology 8(5),
501–555, Doi 10.5943/cream/8/5/3

Abstract
Conventional taxonomy of mushrooms is often not very easy for amateur taxonomists and
research scholars to initiate the research on taxonomy and diversity of mushrooms due to the
complex morphological characteristics that is often very difficult to comprehend. We illustrate the
external morphological characteristics of mushrooms through colorful photographs to facilitate the
taxonomic characterization of mushrooms and to promote the research on mushrooms. In addition,
a data sheet for morphological characteristics of agaric mushrooms is provided.

Key words – agarics – basidiomycetes – fungi – morphology – mushrooms – polypores –

taxonomy

Introduction
It is an endeavor to simplify the morphological characteristics of mushrooms and to make
known to the amateur mycologists beyond a shadow of doubt for easy identification of mushrooms.
Although, several materials and field guides in the form of drawings are available for illustrating
the morphotaxonomy of mushrooms (Largent & Stuntz 1977, Singer 1986, Lodge et al. 2004), still
amateur mushroom taxonomists feel it tiresome to take up initial research on mushrooms due to an
array of mushroom characteristics to be recorded. Further, outsourcing as well as DNA extraction
followed by ITS sequences of mushrooms samples for molecular identification is very expensive.
In addition, the Institutes which provide identification services mostly prefer to sequence the pure
cultures of mushrooms rather than exsiccata since the latter often gets contaminated by other
microbes due to improper storage conditions. Isolation of pure cultures of mushrooms is also
cumbersome and there are stringent requirements for expertise. Further, obtaining pure cultures is
not possible for all the mushrooms. However, identification of mushrooms through conventional
taxonomy cannot be omitted. Mushroom characterization is complicated due to its vast
morphotaxonomic characters which cannot be simply understood. Therefore, we aimed to simplify
the morphological characteristics of mushrooms through color photographs taken in natural habitats
for their easy recognition. This manuscript deals exhaustively with the morphological
characteristics of agarics studied mainly from the Western Ghats, and other regions. Isolation and
Submitted 11 July 2018, Accepted 20 August 2018, Published 12 September 2018
Corresponding Author: Senthilarasu Gunasekaran – e-mail – [email protected] 501
long term preservation, microscopical characteristics, and identification of agarics will be discussed
in future publication.

Materials & Methods

The collections of mushrooms have been made from different plain regions, western coastal
regions as well as Western Ghats of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Goa, Tamil Nadu and Kerala during
2001–2017. More than 1500 mushroom samples have been collected and being maintained in a
personal collection “Macrofungal Collection of India (MCI)”. In addition, several mushroom
samples and their photographs were received for identification. Based on the mushroom samples
collected and studied, a data sheet on the morphological characteristics of agarics has been
prepared. The terms for morphological characteristics have been adopted from Largent & Stuntz
(1977), Singer (1986) and Lodge et al. (2004).

Collection
Collections should be made between early morning to early or late afternoon to have enough
time for processing (morphological characteristics, spore print, isolation and dehydration) of the
mushrooms after collection. In the field, notes on the general type of habit, habitat, place and date
of collection, geographical coordinates, vegetation, and name of the host plant for ectomycorrhizal
fungi should be recorded in the field note book. Young to mature fruit bodies should be collected
for each species to measure the range of dimensions and color characteristics. Photographs should
be taken to show the mushrooms in their natural habitat. If photography is not possible in the field,
it should be taken either in the laboratory or nearby work station. It is essential to show the
mushroom pileal surface as well as gill views to record the characteristics like color, shape and
texture of the pileus, and type of attachment of the gills with the stipe (Fig. 1). The photographs
should illustrate almost all the external features of the mushrooms.

Fig. 1 – Surface and gill views of the mushroom

The samples should be collected in paper bags and brought to the laboratory or work station
for further processing of morphological characterization. Minimal number of species should be
collected to conserve the biodiversity of mushrooms as well as to avoid the wastages of
mushrooms. The perfect identification method should be in the following steps: 1) Collection,
2) Morphological Characterization, 3) Collection of Spore Print, 4) Isolation & Preservation of

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Pure Cultures, 5) Dehydration and Herbarium Preparation, 6) Microscopical Characterization,
7) Morphotaxonomic Identification and 8) Molecular Characterization. For describing a new
species of mushroom, all the steps are mandatory for authentic identification and finding its
relationship with closely related species.

Morphological characterization of mushrooms

The morphological characteristics of mushrooms should be obtained from fresh specimens.
The following characteristics should be recorded as mentioned in the “Character Recording Chart
for Agarics” provided at the end of this paper.

Size
The measurements of the pileus (generally diameter, and height if the shape is conic,
campanulate and parabolic), stipe (length, width at the widest point, width at the bulbous base, if
any), width of lamellae, thickness of pileal context and height of volva, if any, should be taken in
millimeter to avoid any decimal value when describing morphological characters.

Color
The color characters should be noted using any standard color charts (Kornerup & Wanscher
1978, Ridgway 1912) in natural light conditions for accurate notation of the color. If the color
charts are not available, the HSV Color Plates for Mycology (http://website.nbm-
mnb.ca/mycologywebpages/EssaysOnFungi/Collecting_mushrooms_for_scientific_study/Illustratio
ns/HSV_plates_for_mycology.pdf) may be used. The color of the pileal surface, fibrils or
squamules if any, gills, pileal context and stipe should be recorded. It is also important to note the
color variations of young to mature pileus (Fig. 2) and gills (Fig. 3), color changes of the surface of
the pileus, pileal context, gills or tubes (Fig. 4), surface of the stipe on bruising and hygrophanous
nature (Figs 7B, 16, 21) of the pileus, etc.

Pileus

Shape of the pileus

CONVEX: A shape that has the appearance of an umbrella or an inverted bowl. The convex shape is
one of the most common pileal shapes of agarics and boletoid mushrooms (Fig. 5A).
CONIC: If the height of the pileus is comparatively greater than its diameter and its apex is more or
less pointed then the shape is called conic (Fig. 5B).
UPLIFTED: When the margin of the pileus turns upward due to age and loss of water, a shape is
called uplifted (Fig. 5C).
BROADLY CONVEX: If the apex of the convex pileus is broadly flattened, it is said to be broadly
convex (Fig. 5D).
PLANE: A flat pileal shape is called plane or applanate in which the margin of the pileus is
perpendicular to the stipe (Fig. 5E).
PARABOLIC: If the pileal height is greater than its width like the shape of conic, but the cap is still
regularly rounded it is called parabolic (Fig. 6A, B).
CAMPANULATE: The bell shaped pileus is called campanulate (Fig. 6F).

Umbo
UMBONATE: A protrusion or a bump at the apex of the pileus is called an umbo. The pileus is called
umbonate if an umbo occurs at its apex.
BROADLY UMBONATE: If the protrusion is broadly rounded, it is termed broadly umbonate (Fig.
6C). A small umbo is called subumbonate (Fig. 20A, B).
ACUTELY UMBONATE: If the protrusion is sharp, the pileus is called acutely umbonate (Fig. 6D).
CUSPIDATE: The umbo is sharply demarcated, rounded and elongated, the condition is said to be
cuspidate (Fig. 6E).

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MAMMILLATE/PAPILLATE: The breast shaped pileus is termed mammillate or papillate in which the
umbo is sharply demarcated but not elongated (Fig. 7A).
UMBLICATE: If an umbo occurs in the depression of the pileus, it is said to be umblicate (Fig. 7B).

Fig. 2 – Color of pileal surface: A Young basidiomes. B, C Mature basidiomes.

Fig. 3 – Color of gills: A. Young basidiomes. B. Mature basidiomes with appendiculate pileus.

Depression
DEPRESSED: If the pileus has a depression at the disc, the condition is said to be depressed.
NARROWLY-SHALLOWLY DEPRESSED. If the depression is shallow with smaller diameter, the
condition is said to be narrowly-shallowly depressed (Fig. 8A).
NARROWLY-DEEPLY DEPRESSED: If the depression of the pileus is deep with smaller diameter, it is
termed narrowly-deeply depressed (Fig. 8B).
BROADLY-SHALLOWLY DEPRESSED: If the depression of the pileus is shallow, and the diameter of
the depression is broad, it is referred to as broadly-shallowly depressed (Fig. 9A).
BROADLY-DEEPLY DEPRESSED (INFUNDIBULIFORM): If the depression is so broad as well as deep,
the condition is said to be deeply-broadly depressed or infundibuliform. The shape of the
infundibuliform pileus resembles a funnel (Fig. 9B).
PERFORATED: Sometimes the depression continuous with the lumen of the stipe and forms an
opening at the disc (Figs 10, 16). The perforated pileus is mostly associated with a hollow stipe.

Shape when looking down on the pileus (top view)

ORBICULAR: If the shape of the pileus is more or less perfectly round, it is said to be orbicular (Fig.
5E).
DIMIDATE: A semi-circular shape is called dimidate (Fig. 11A).

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FLABELLIFORM: A fan-shaped pileus is termed flabelliform (Fig. 11B).
CONCHATE: If the pileus is oyster-shaped, the term conchate is used (Fig. 12A).
SPATHULATE: If the pileus is spoon shaped, it is termed spathulate (Fig. 12B).
PETALOID: A petal-shaped pileus is referred to as petaloid.

Fig. 4 – Colour changes on bruising of the tubes.

Shape of the margin

INROLLED (INVOLUTE): If the margin of the pileus is rolled inward and it points towards itself, it is
called inrolled or involute (Fig. 13A).
INCURVED: If the margin of the pileus is pointing towards the lamellae, then it is said to be incurved
(Fig. 13B).
DECURVED: If the margin is pointing towards the stipe and also the condition is in between
incurved and plane, it is called decurved (Fig. 5B).
UPLIFTED (UPTURNED): If the margin of the pileus is pointed upward, it is termed uplifted or
upturned (Fig. 5C).
PLANE: If the margin of the pileus is perpendicular to the stipe, it is termed plane (Fig. 5E).

Shape of the margin (surface view)

ENTIRE: If the pileal margin is a perfect round without any interruptions, it is called entire (Figs 16,
19A).
CRISPED (CRENULATE): If the pileal margin is finely wavy, it is said to be crisped or crenulate (Fig.
5E).
APPENDICULATE: If the veil is attached as patches at the expanded pileal margin, it is termed
appendiculate (Figs 3B, 14A).
UNDULATING: If the margin is broadly wavy, it is said to be undulating (Fig. 14B).
RIMOSE: If the margin is split and radially runs towards the disc, it is termed rimose (Fig. 13B).
ERODED: If the margin of the pileus is torn irregularly, the term eroded is used (Fig. 5B, C).
CRENATE (SCALLOPED): If the interruptions of the margin are regular, like the edge of a scallop, it is
said to be crenate or scalloped (Fig. 18).
CILIATE: If the margin has hair like appendages, it is called ciliate (Fig. 8A).

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Fig. 5 – Shape of the pileus: A Convex. B Conic with decurved and eroded pileal margin.
C Uplifted with eroded margin. D Broadly convex. E Plane, orbicular and crisped margin.

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Fig. 6 – Shape of the pileus: A Narrowly parabolic. B Broadly parabolic. C Broadly umbonate.
D Acutely umbonate. E Cuspidate. F Campanulate.

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Fig. 7 – Shape of the pileus: A Mammillate umbo. B Umblicate with hygrophanous pileus.

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Fig. 8 – Depression of the pileus: A Narrowly-shallowly depressed with ciliate margin.
B Narrowly-deeply depressed.

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Fig. 9 – Depression of the pileus: A Broadly-shallowly depressed. B Broadly-deeply depressed
(Infundibuliform).

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Fig. 10 – Depression of the pileus: Perforated.

Fig. 11 – Shape of the pileus on top view: A Dimidate with striate margin. B Flabelliform.

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Surface of the margin
TRANSLUCENT-STRIATE (PELLUCID): If the pileal surface is transparent and the gills can be seen
through the wet pileus as lines, the condition is said to be translucent striate or pellucid (Fig. 16).
STRIATE: If definite lines are present as part of the cap itself, the margin is called striate (Fig. 11A).
PLICATE-STRIATE: If folds are present between the striae, the condition is referred to as plicate
striate (Fig. 17A).
TUBERCULATE-STRIATE: If small bumps occur on the striae, the term tuberculate-striate is applied
(Fig. 17B).
SULCATE: If the lines form definite grooves, the margin is said to be sulcate (Fig. 18).

Fig. 12 – Shape of the pileus on top view: A Conchate. B Spathulate.

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Fig. 13 – Margin of the pileus: A Inrolled, B Rimose to lacinate with incurved margin.

Shininess of pileal surface

SHINY (LUCIDUS): If the surface of the pileus appears as polished, it is said to be shiny or lucidus
(Fig. 19A).
DULL: If the pileus lacks shininess, it is referred to as dull (Fig. 19B).

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SILKY (SERICEOUS): If the pileal surface appears to be made of silk like hairs, it is said to be silky or
sericeous (Fig. 15).

Wetness of pileal surface

DRY: If the pileal surface is free from moisture and lacks any glue material, the cap is said to be dry
(Fig. 19B).
MOIST: If the surface looks like wet but does not fit any of the following categories mentioned
below, it is called moist (Figs 16, 20A).
GLUTINOUS: If the pileal surface is covered by a glutinous substance (liquid glue) then the surface
is called glutinous (Fig. 20B).
GELATINOUS: If the pileal surface appears to be jelly like, it is said to be gelatinous. Generally, jelly
mushrooms have gelatinous surface.
VISCID: If a pileal surface is sticky to the touch or becomes sticky when a drop of water is placed, it
is said to be viscid pileus.
SUBVISCID: It refers to a very slightly sticky surface.

Hygrophanous nature of the pileus

The color of the pileal surface may change from original color if the surface dries, then it is
said to be hygrophanous. Depending on the species the time for processing of color variation may
change (Figs 7B, 16, 21).

Texture of pileal surface

SMOOTH: If the surface of the pileus has no cracks, wrinkles or pits, it is called smooth (Fig. 19A,
B).
SCROBICULATE: If the pits or depressions on the surface are shallow, the condition is called
scrobiculate.
ALVEOLATE: The pits or depression can be deep, the pores of which are called alveolate.
LACUNOSE: If the pits are very deep, surrounded by ridges, the surface is called lacunose.
LACINATE: If the splits and cracks are deep thus cutting the pileal surface into large segments, the
condition is referred to as lacinate (Fig. 13B).
AREOLATE: If the surface of the pileus splits in an irregular manner that results in the formation of
block-like areas like dried mud surface, the condition is said to be areolate (Fig. 22).
GLABROUS: The pileal surface is bald, devoid of wrinkles, pits and fibrils, and appears like a wax
coated surface which is more or less of an optical illusion, and is dependent on light reflection (Fig.
19A).
ATOMATE: If the pileal surface appears to be covered by minute, shining particles it is called
atomate.
MICACEOUS: If the surface looks to be covered by glistening mica-like particles, it is said to be
micaceous.
Automate and micaceous structures are visible only with the help of hand lens.
SUPERFICIAL: If the fibrils are present on the surface of young pilei, but disappear when the pilei
become mature, they are said to be superficial. The superficial structures are usually the remains of
the partial veil or universal veil or both.
INNATE: If the fibrils present on both young and old fruit bodies and lasting long, they are called
innate (Figs 26, 28A). The innate structures are derived from an intergrowth of the hyphae in the
pileal cuticle. Both superficial and innate structures are not uncommon in mushrooms.
PRUINOSE (PULVERULENT): If the pileal surface is covered with a fine powder and appears as the
surface is sprinkled with very fine flour, it is said to be pruinose or pulverulent (Fig. 23).
FURFURACEOUS: If the surface is covered by bran-like structures composed of dry external scales
and the pileus appears scurfy, it is called furfuraceous (Fig. 24A).
GRANULOSE (GRANULAR): If the surface is covered by larger, salt like grains, it is said to be
granulose or granular (Fig. 24B).

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FIBRILLOSE: If the pileal surface is covered by visible filaments or fibrils it is said to be fibrillose.
The fibrils are composed of hyphae adhered with the pileal cuticle.
APPRESSED-FIBRILLOSE: If the fibrils are appressed on the pileal surface, it is termed appressed-
fibrillose (Fig. 15).
TOMENTOSE: If the fibrils are densely mated and wooly, like a woolen blanket on the pileal surface,
it is said to be tomentose.
VIRGATE: If the appressed fibrils appear as mere streaks, the surface is referred to as virgate.

Fig. 14 – Shape of the margin: A Appendiculate pileus with longitudinal-striate stipe.

B Undulating.

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Fig. 15 – Shininess of the pileus: Silky with appressed-fibrillose.

Fig. 16 – Striations of the wet, perforated pileus: Translucent striate with entire margin.

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Fig. 17 – Striations of the pileus: A Plicate striate. B Tuberculate-striate.

Fig. 18 – Striations of the pileus: Sulcate striate with crenate margin.

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DOWNY-FIBRILLOSE: When the fibrils form a downy layer, the pileal surface is said to be downy-
fibrillose.
FLOCCOSE: If the fibrils have the appearance of flattened cottony layer, the term floccose is used.
DOWNY-WOOLLY: Downy-woolly is a condition intermediate between downy-fibrillose and
tomentose i.e. densely matted and wooly fibrils (Fig. 25A).
MATTED-FIBRILLOSE: If the fibrils are matted and inter-woven, appearing like felt is said to be
matted-fibrillose (Fig. 25B).
VELUTINOSE: If the pileal surface is covered by compact, short, fine and soft hairs (velvety), it is
called velutinose.

Fig. 19 – Shininess of the pileus: A Shiny, smooth, glabrous. B Smooth, dull, dry.

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Fig. 20 – Wetness of the pileus: A Moist, subumbonate. B Glutinous, subumbonate.

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Fig. 21 – Hygrophanous pileus with glabrous stipe.

VILLOSE: If the hairs on the pileal surface are rather long and weak, it is termed villose (Figs 26,
27)
PUBESCENT: If the hairs are short, it is said to be pubescent.
HISPID: If the hairs retain a bit of flexibility resulting in a surface tending to be villose, the term
hispid is used (Fig. 28A)
STRIGOSE: Strigose is a condition where the pileal surface is having long and coarse, bristle-like
hairs.
SQUAMOSE: If cohesion of fibrils occurs at the tips of the hyphae as well as laterally, the tips stick
together to form scale like structure on the surface, and the scaly surface is called squamose.
SQUAMULOSE: If the pileal surface is covered by small scales it is called squamulose. The small
scales are called squamules.

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FIBRILLOSE SQUAMULOSE: An intermediate condition between fibrillose and squamulose in which
the fibrils are joined at their tips but still retain the individual hyphae below the tips (Fig. 28B).

Fig. 22 – Areolate pileus, eroded gills with fleshy fibrous stipe.

APPRESSED-SQUAMULOSE: If the scales are flattened or appressed to the pileus surface, it is said to
be appressed-squamulose (Fig. 29A).
RECURVED-SQUAMULOSE: If the tips of the scales are erect and turned backwards on the pileal
surface, the term recurved squamulose is used (Fig. 29B).
IMBRICATE-SCALY: The appressed squamules may sometimes overlap with one another, giving a
surface referred to as imbricate-scaly (Fig. 30).
SQUARROSE: If the scales are upright on the surface of the pileus particularly, at the disc of the
pileus, the term squarrose is applied (Fig. 31).
PUNCTUATE-SQUAMULOSE: If the surface of the pileus is dotted with minute scales or points, it is
called punctuate-squamulose.

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SCABROUS: If the texture of the surface is rough to the touch due to the presence of large plate like
scales or points, it is said to be scabrous (Fig. 32).

Fig. 23 – Texture of the pileus: Pruinose.

Gills

Attachment of the gills with the stipe

REMOTE: The gills are not attached and free from the stipe in large extent (Fig. 33).
FREE: The gills are narrowly free from the stipe (Fig. 34A).
ADNEXED: The gills are narrowly attached with the extreme apex of the stipe (Fig. 34B).
SINUATE: The gills are notched near the attachment with the stipe (Fig. 35).
ADNATE: The gills are broadly attached with the stipe along the entire width of the gills (Fig. 36).
SUBDECURRENT: This is an intermediate condition between adnate and decurrent where the gills
just run down to the stipe for relatively a short distance (Fig. 37A).
DECURRENT: The gills are broadly attached and running down the stipe (Fig. 37B).

Spacing of the gills

CROWDED: The gills are numerous and closely arranged (Figs 33, 34A, B, 35).
CLOSE: The gills are close to each other (Fig. 41A).
SUBDISTANT: This is an intermediate condition between close and distant where the gills are
moderately spaced (Fig. 41B).
DISTANT: The space between the gills is wide (Figs 36, 42).

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Fig. 24 – Texture of the pileus: A Furfuraceous. B Granulose.

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Fig. 25 – Texture of pileus: A Downy wooly. B Matted fibrillose.

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Fig. 26 – Texture of the pileus: Villose.

Fig. 27 – Close view of villose hairs.

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Fig. 28 – Texture of the pileus: A Innate, hispid pileus. B Fibrillose squamulose.

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Fig. 29 – Texture of pileus: A Appressed-squamulose. B Appressed- to recurved-squamulose.

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Fig. 30 – Texture of pileus: Imbricate-scaly pileus.

Fig. 31 – Texture of pileus: Squarrose.

Margin of the gills

SMOOTH: If the margin of gills is entire and without any disruption, it is said to be smooth (Fig.
37A).
SERRATE: If the margin of the gills is tooth like with sharp edges, it is referred to as serrate (Fig.
38).
ERODED: If the margin of the gills is torn irregularly, it is said to be eroded (Fig. 22).
UNDULATING: If the margins of the gills are broadly wavy, the term undulating is used (Fig. 40).

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Fig. 32 – Texture of the pileus: Scabrous.

Fig. 33 – Attachment of gills: Remote with crowded gills.

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Fig. 34 – Attachment of gills: A Free, crowded gills, centrally attached stipe with the pileus.
B Adnexed, crowded gills.

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Fig. 35 – Attachment of gills: Sinuate, crowded gills.

Fig. 36 – Attachment of the gills: Adnate with distant gills alternating with lamellulae.

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Fig. 37 – Attachment of gills: A Subdecurrent, smooth gills. B Decurrent.

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Fig. 38 – Serrate gills alternating with lamellulae and attenuated stipe towards base.

Fig. 39 – Gill features: Anastomosing of gills.

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Gill features
LAMELLULAE: Smaller form of gills which do not reach the stipe and occur in between gills (Figs
36, 38).
ANASTOMOSING: The lamellae and lamellulae are interconnected by lamellulae which makes the
entire gill area appear as veined. The gills are termed anastomosing gills and the branching pattern
is said to be intervenose or costate (Fig. 39)
COSTATE-RETICULATE: If the gills are interconnected by numerous veins and the hymenium appears
like a net, it is said to be costate-reticulate (Fig. 42).

Fig. 40 – Margin of the gills: Undulating; Annulus: Double.

FURCATE: If the gills divide into distinct branches between the pileal margin and stipe apex and the
branching is irregular and sporadic, the gills are called furcated (Fig. 43).
BIFURCATE: If the gills divide into just two branches, whether the branches are regular or not, it is
said to be bifurcate.
DICHOTOMOUS: If the gills are branched repeatedly and the branched gills are of equal length, the
gills are said to be dichotomous or dichotomously branched (Fig. 44).

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Stipe

Attachment of the stipe with the pileus

CENTRAL: The stipe is exactly attached at the center of the pileus (Fig. 34A).
LATERAL: The stipe is attached at the margin of the pileus (Fig. 45A).
ECCENTRIC: The intermediate condition between central and lateral where the stipe is attached at
the pileus anywhere in between the center and margin (Fig. 45B).

Fig. 41 – Spacing of gills: A Close. B Subdistant.

Fig. 42 – Gill features: Distant with costate-reticulate gills.

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Fig. 43 – Gill features: Furcate.

Fig. 44 – Gill features: Dichotomous.

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Fig. 45 – Attachment of the pileus with the stipe: A Lateral. B Eccentric, scabrous stipe.

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Attachment to the substrate and basal tomentum
BASAL TOMENTUM: The attachment of the stipe to the substrate is by mycelium arising from the
substrate and superficially running up on the surface at the base of the stipe is called the basal
tomentum (Fig. 46).
RHIZOIDS (RHIZOIDAL): If the hyphae are large and distinct from one another, the hyphae are called
rhizoids, and the basal tomentum is defined as rhizoidal (Fig. 46A).
RHIZOMORPHS: If the hyphae are cord-like and elastic in consistency, it is said to be rhizomorphs
(Fig. 46B)
STRIGOSE: If the hyphae are large and look like bristles at the base of the stipe, it is referred to as
strigose (Fig. 47A).
PSEUDORRHIZA (RADICATED): Stipe of some mushrooms continues as a root-like process called
pseudorrhiza. The stipe of such mushroom is said to be radicated (Figs 47B, 48).

Fig. 46 – Stipe attachment with the substrate: A Rhizoids. B Rhizomorphs.

Fig. 47 – Stipe attachment with the substrate: A Strigose. B Radicated.

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INSERTED: When the stipe is completely devoid of any hyphae, rhizoids or rhizomorphs, where it
originates from the substrate the stipe is said to be inserted (Figs 53A, 54A).

Shape of the stipe

TERETE: The regularly rounded stipe is said to be terete (Fig. 49A).
COMPRESSED: The flattened stipe is called compressed (Fig. 49B)
EQUAL: If the diameter of the stipe is uniform from base to apex, it is termed equal (Fig. 49A).
ATTENUATED: If the diameter of the stipe is reduced gradually on either side of the stipe, it is said
to be attenuated. If the diameter is reduced at the apex or base then it is called attenuated towards
apex (Fig. 49C) or attenuated towards base (Fig. 38), respectively.

Fig. 48 – Stipe attachment with the substrate: Radicated.

CLAVATE: If the stipe base is enlarged and appears as a club, it is said to be clavate (Fig. 49D).
OBCLAVATE: If the stipe apex is enlarged and appears as an inverted clavate, it is called obclavate.
BULBOUS: If the base of the stipe is enlarged abruptly, the term bulbous is used (Fig. 50).

Surface of the stipe

SMOOTH: If the surface devoid of any squamules or scales, it is called smooth (Fig. 49C).
GLABROUS: If the stipe surface is smooth, bald and appears like a waxed surface it is said to be
glabrous (Figs 21, 51).
SCALY: The stipe is covered either partly or wholly by the squamules or scales (Figs 49D, 50).
SCABROUS: In case, the stipe apex is roughened due to erect, pointed scales, the term scabrous is
used (Figs 45B, 54B).
RETICULATE: If the apex region of the stipe has fine lines or less frequently fibrils in the form of a
distinct net, the condition is a pattern of raised lines referred to as reticulate.
LONGITUDINAL-STRIATE: If the ridges occur in the form of fine lines, and the lines appear parallel to
one another in longitudinal manner, the surface is called longitudinal-striate (Fig. 14A).
HISPID: If the stipe is covered by thick, small to large hairs, it is said to be hispid (Fig. 52).

539
Fig. 49 – Shape of the stipe: A Terete, equal stipe. B Compressed. C Smooth stipe, attenuated
towards apex. D Clavate, scaly stipe.

540
Fig. 50 – Shape of the stipe: Bulbous, scaly stipe.

Consistency of the stipe

WIRY: If the stipe is extremely thin like a wire, it is referred to as wiry (Fig. 53A).
FLESHY FIBROUS: If the stipe is very thick, often ≥5 mm diam., when it breaks down, leaves
irregular edge, it is said to be fleshy fibrous (Figs 22, 53B).
CARTILAGINOUS: If the stipe is thin, often ≤ 5 mm diam., when it breaks down, breaks like a twig,
the term cartilaginous is used (Fig. 54A).
WOODY: If the stipe is very hard like a wood and rough to break, it is said to be woody (Fig. 54B).

Flesh of the stipe

SOLID: The flesh of the stipe in which the hyphae are closely packed, and the stipe is called solid
(Fig. 55). Generally, the fleshy fibrous, cartilaginous and woody stipes are solid.
Hollow: If the stipe lacks the flesh in the center, it is said to be hollow.
STUFFED: If the flesh of the stipe is an intermediate condition between solid and hollow, it is called
stuffed.

541
Fig. 51 – Surface of the stipe: Glabrous.

542
Partial veil (Annulus)
SUPERIOR: If the veil is located in the top half of the stipe, it is said to be superior (Fig. 56A).
CENTRAL: If the annulus is located approximately in the middle of the stipe, the term central is
applied (Fig. 56B).
INFERIOR: If the veil is located in the lower half of the stipe, it is called inferior.
ATTACHED: If the annulus is attached firmly to the stipe and do not fall out in mature specimen, it is
said to be attached (Fig. 56C).
FUGACIOUS: If the annulus is loosely or tightly attached in young specimens and fall out at
maturity, it is called fugacious (Fig. 56A).
DOUBLE ANNULUS: It may have cottony roll of tissue on the underside, in which case it is called a
double annulus (Figs 40, 56C).
SINGLE ANNULUS: If the undersurface is smooth, the annulus is termed single (Fig. 56A).

Fig. 52 – Surface of the stipe: Hispid.

Universal veil/Volva
The cup like membranous structure present at the base of the stipe is called volva.

Free volvas
SACCATE: In this case, the volva is free from the stipe except at the extreme base (Fig. 57).

543
Adherent volvas
FLARING: The volva is attached at the stipe along its length except at the volval margin where it
flares out (Fig. 58A).
CIRCUMSESSILE: The adherent volva is similar to flaring, however; instead of flaring out at the
volval margin, it forms a tight rim around the stipe. It is called circumsessile (Fig. 58B).
ZONED: This type of volva is similar to circumsessile. However, in this case, the upper part of the
volva forms a ring or zone like structures just above the main part of the volva.

Growth habit
SOLITARY: The fruit body grows alone and apparently no other fruit bodies of same species grow
near its vicinity. Single fruit body present on the substratum (Fig. 59C).
GREGARIOUS: Fruit bodies grow close together as group in large numbers, but occur as individuals
and do not share a common base (Fig. 59A).
SCATTERED: The solitary or group of fruit bodies scattered apart one to two feet (Fig. 59B).
CAESPITOSE: Several fruit bodies grow in clusters and share a common base (Fig. 60A).
CONNATE: The stipes of two or more fruit bodies are joined together at the base (Fig. 60B).

Type of fruiting body attachment

STIPITATE: Fruiting bodies are attached to their substrate by the stipe. This is termed stipitate.
PSEUDOSTIPE: A flap of tissue that is not distinctly a stalk that serves for attachment. The structure
is called a pseudostipe, and the condition is described as substipitate (Fig. 62).
SESSILE: If the attachment is directly to the pileus with no stipe or pseudostipe, the mushroom is
referred to as sessile (Fig. 61).
IMBRICATE: If the sessile fruiting bodies overlap one another, this condition is called imbricate (Fig.
63A).
UNGULATE: If the entire sessile fruiting body looks like a horse’s hoof, it is called ungulate (Fig.
63B).
EFFUSO-REFLEXED: If part of the fruiting body is closely appressed to the substrate except for the
margin which flares out to form the pileus, it is called effuso-reflexed (Fig. 63C).
RESUPINATE: If the entire fruiting body including the margin is closely appressed to the substrate, it
is called resupinate (Fig. 63D).

Fig. 53 – Consistency of the stipe: A Wiry, inserted stipe. B Fleshy fibrous.

544
Fig. 54 – Consistency of the stipe: A Cartilaginous, inserted stipe. B Woody, scabrous.

545
Fig. 55 – Consistency of the stipe: Solid.

546
Fig. 56 – Partial veil: A Single, superior, fugacious. B Central. C Attached, double annulus.

547
Fig 57 – Free volva: Saccate.

Fig. 58 – Adherent volvas: A Flaring. B Circumsessile.

548
Fig. 59 – Growth habit: A Gregarious. B Scattered. C Solitary.

549
Fig. 60 – Growth habit: A Caespitose. B Connate.

550
Fig. 61 – Type of fruit body: Sessile.

Fig. 62 – Type of fruit body: Substipitate.

551
Fig. 63 – Type of fruit body: A Imbricate. B Ungulate. C Effuso-reflexed. D Resupinate.

552
 CHARACTER RECORDING CHART FOR AGARICS
Ref. No. Date of Collection

Place of Collection Substrate

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PILEUS
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Size: Young Old

Color: Young: Disc Margin Old: Disc Margin

Elsewhere

Hygrophanous Non-hygrophanous Color changes on bruising

Color of the scales/fibrils

Shape: Conic Campanulate Convex Plane Uplifted

Broadly-parabolic Narrowly-parabolic Dimidiate

Umbo: Absent Broadly umbonate Acutely Umbonate Cuspidate

Mammillate Umblicate Subumbonate

Depression: Narrowly-shallowly depressed Narrowly-deeply depressed Perforated

Broadly-shallowly depressed Broadly-deeply depressed (Infundibuliform)

Margin: Inrolled Incurved Decurved Plane Uplifted Eroded

Rimose Appendiculate

Translucent striate Striate Sulcate Tuberculate-striate

Surface: Shiny Dull Dry Moist Viscid

Texture: Smooth Pruinose Furfuraceous Granulose Fibrillose

Squamulose Appressed-squamulose Recurved squamulose
Scabrous Imbricate-scaly

Context: Color & Color changes on bruising/injury

Thickness Consistency

Odor: Taste:

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
LAMELLAE
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Color: Young Old Color changes on bruising

Attachment: Remote Free Adnexed Adnate Decurrent

Subdecurrent

Spacing: Crowded Close Sub-distant Distant

553
Margin: Entire Serrate Undulating

Branching: Entire Furcate Dichotomous Intervenose

Lamellulae: Absent If present, no. of lengths

Latex: Absent If present, colour

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
STIPE
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Size: Young Old

Color: Young Old Squamules

Attachment to the pileus: Central Lateral Eccentric

Attachment to the substrate: Rhizoidal Strigose Rhizomorphs Inserted

Radicated

Shape: Terete Compressed Clavate Sub-clavate Bulbous

Abruptly bulbous

Surface: Smooth Glabrous Fibrillose Scabrous Reticulate

Consistency: Cartilaginous Fibrous Woody Wiry Solid Hollow

Stuffed

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ANNULUS
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Superior Inferior Central Attached Moveable Double Single
Fugacious

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
VOLVA
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Saccate Adherent Flaring Color

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
GROWTH HABIT
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Solitary Scattered Gregarious Caespitose Connate

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FRUITING BODY ATTACHMENT
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Stipitate Sessile Effuso-reflexed Resupinate

Acknowledgements
This article is mostly based on the collections of authors. In addition to this, GS while
working for the project NFCCF at Agharkar Research Institute, Pune received several collections of

554
mushrooms and their photographs from different regions for identification. A few of the
photographs received for identification is also used in this article.
We dedicate this paper to the Indian mycologists, Dr. T.S. Suryanarayanan, Director,
VINSTROM and Dr. V. Muruganandam, (Rtd. Prof.), Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda College,
Mylapore, Chennai, Tamil Nadu who impressed us to take research on Mycology and late Prof. K.
Natarajan, CAS in Botany, University of Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu who trained us in
taxonomy of mushrooms. GS thanks the Indian Government Funding Agencies such as Ministry of
Environments and Forests (MoEF), for the financial assistance provided under the project “All
India Co-ordinated Project on Taxonomy of Fungi (AICOPTAX)” during 2000-2004, Department
of Science & Technology (DST) for the financial assistance provided under the project “National
Facility for the Culture Collection of Fungi (NFCCF)” during 2008-2013 and Department of
Biotechnology (DBT) under the project “Developing a Mushroom Germplasm Bank for Western
Coast of India with Special Emphasis on Maharashtra and Goa to Commercialize their
Neutraceutical and Pharmaceutical Potential” for the period from 2016 to 2018. VK thanks UGC-
SERO (MRP-6365/16) for financial assistance for the project “Macrofungal Diversity of
Puducherry and their Sequence Based Molecular Systematics” that helped in contributing to this
article.
GS personally thanks Dr. Taiana Riviere, Mr. Santosh Swami, Mrs. Vimal Vaingankar, Mr.
Subash Gaikwad, Mr. Lalit Joshi, Mr. Prakash Joshi, Dr. Rasika Baghwat and Mr. Sushant Bornak
for their assistance during the field trips made to different regions of Western Ghats.

References

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243 p.
Largent DL, Stuntz DE. 1977 – How to Identify Mushrooms to Genus I: macroscopic features.
Indiana University, Mad River Press, 86 p.
Lodge DJ, Ammirati J, O’Dell TE, Mueller GM. 2004 – Collecting and Describing Macrofungi. In
Biodiversity of Fungi: Inventory and Monitoring Methods, Mueller, G.M., Bills, G.F., Foster,
M.S., Eds. New York, Academic Press, 128–158 p.
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Singer R. 1986 – The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy. 4th edn. Sven Koeltz Scientific Books.
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