Leadership Style

Different Leadership Styles for Women
Bachelor Thesis Organization & Strategy

M. Röthengatter
2009-2010
Number of Words: 8032
Simone van den Berg
S661086
Different Leadership Styles For Women Bachelor Thesis
Management Summary
This literature review tries to investigate which specific leadership styles, based on the
characteristics of men and women, are more suitable for women. In the first chapter the
problem indication is explained and the problem statement is determined; which effective
leadership styles are more suitable for women, based on their most common characteristics?
In order to answer the problem statement, different sub questions are formulated which are
answered by this thesis in the different chapters by using secondary resources. The second
chapter determines different effective leadership styles by defining them, and describing what
kind of leader is required, if possible. Furthermore, the effectiveness of the leadership style is
described. First The Managerial Grid Model is described, a model containing leadership styles
concerning the variables „employees‟ and „tasks‟. Second two leadership styles are
determined, concerning these variables to the maximum effort; namely Consideration and
Initiating Structure. Hereafter, three leadership styles are discussed following from The
Managerial Grid, which are concerning for both variables „employees‟ and „tasks‟ equally.
Furthermore, several other leadership styles are discussed, such as Transformational vs.
Transactional Leadership, Autocratic vs. Democratic Leadership, Shared Leadership and
Laissez-Faire Leadership. In the third chapter, the relevant characteristics of women in
general will be investigated. Such characteristics are found to be imagination, tenderness,
morality, cooperation, tender mindedness, nurturance, tranquillity, reflection, neuroticism,
agreeableness, openness to aesthetics, openness to feelings, warmth, extraversion, anxiety,
trust and sympathy. Hereafter, the mentioned leadership styles will be combined with the
common characteristics of women found in this thesis, these results are used to answer the
problem statement. Based on the characteristics found in this thesis, the conclusion can be
drawn that several characteristics of women found in this thesis, fit to the characteristics
required for Transformational Leadership, Shared Leadership and people oriented leadership
styles, such as Consideration, Team Management and Country Club Management.
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Table of Contents
Management Summary............................................................................................................ 2
Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 5
1.1 Problem Indication ................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Research Questions .................................................................................................. 7
1.4 Relevance ................................................................................................................. 7
1.5 Research Design and Data Collection ...................................................................... 8
1.6 Demarcation ............................................................................................................. 8
1.7 Overview of the Rest of the Chapters ...................................................................... 9
Chapter 2 Leadership Styles ................................................................................................ 10
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 10
2.2 Employees vs. Tasks .............................................................................................. 11
2.2.1 The Managerial Grid ........................................................................................... 11
2.2.2 Initiating Structure vs. Consideration ................................................................ 11
2.2.3 Three styles of The Managerial Grid .................................................................. 14
2.3 Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership ..................................................... 15
2.4 Autocratic vs. Democratic Leadership ................................................................... 17
2.5 Shared Leadership .................................................................................................. 18
2.6 Laissez-Faire Leadership........................................................................................ 19
2.7 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 21
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Chapter 3 Characteristics Men and Women ...................................................................... 21
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 21
3.2 Definitions .............................................................................................................. 21
3.3 The Big Five .......................................................................................................... 21
3.4 Characteristics Women vs. Men ............................................................................ 22
3.5 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 23
Chapter 4 Leadership Styles and Gender Characteristics ................................................ 24
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 24
4.2 Effective Leadership Styles for Women ................................................................ 24
4.2.1 Employees vs. Tasks ........................................................................................... 24
4.2.2 Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership .................................................. 26
4.2.3 Shared Leadership ............................................................................................... 27
4.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 27
Chapter 5 Conclusion, Limitations and Recommendations .............................................. 29
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 29
5.2 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 29
5.3 Limitations .............................................................................................................. 31
5.4 Recommendations................................................................................................... 32
References .............................................................................................................................. 33
Appendix ................................................................................................................................ 39
Figure 1 ........................................................................................................................ 39
Figure 2 ........................................................................................................................ 40
Figure 3 ........................................................................................................................ 41
Figure 4 ........................................................................................................................ 42
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Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Problem Indication
The balance between the participation of men and women in the labour market is becoming
more and more equal (Meyer, 2006). However, the number of women in leadership positions
is much lower than the number of men in those positions. For example, in the United States
Fortune 500 only five percent of the top corporate officers and only one percent of the chief
executive officers are women (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt & van Engen, 2003). Zelechowski
and Bilimoria (2004) also confirm that not many women hold positions in both the executive
suite and the corporate boardroom. They found that of the 1000 firms in the Fortune list in
1998, 36 firms had 45 female inside directors and 109 men inside directors. Only five women
of those 36 were CEOs, a position with a considerably greater status and power then other
inside directors. According to Daily, Certon, and Dalton (1999) the number of women at the
highest levels of the corporate hierarchy is a slow-moving progress. Although it is a slow-
moving progress, still some women are making it to the top. Rosener (1990) states that
women who do make their way into top management, do not achieve these positions by
adopting the styles and habits that are proved to be successful for men. Chin (2004) confirms
that women lead in a different way. Chin, Lott, Rice and Sanchez-Hucles (2007) also state
that the leadership styles of women are distinct of those of men and that there is an unique
women‟s leadership style. The research of Rosener (1990) states that women developed their
own way to become successful by learning skills and attitudes from other experienced
women. They found different ways to achieve results in the fast-changing and growing
organizations, using their feminine characteristics. The characteristics of women are generally
considered to be inappropriate for a leader, but leading women are having success because of
these characteristics, not in spite of them (Rosener, 1990).
According to Robbins and Judge (2007) characteristic are important when it comes to
leadership. They suggest that future research should integrate trait theories and behavioural
theories; leaders should match their personality traits to their leadership style.
Taken this all into account, it is useful to investigate which leadership styles more suitable are
for women, by looking at their characteristics.
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Much research has been done in the field of leadership styles, and the differences between
them (Rotemberg & Saloner, 1993). Furthermore, research has been done to the impact of
gender on leadership (Connerley, Mecham & Strauss, 2008; Appelbaum, Audet & Miller,
2003). However, past research has not showed whether certain leadership styles are more
suitable for women. Looking to the characteristics of women and matching them with
different effective leadership styles, this thesis shows which leadership styles are most
suitable for women in particular. When more suitable leadership styles for women are found,
this thesis may improve the performance of leading women and might even make it more
attractive for women to possess a management position.
1.2 Problem Statement
As mentioned before, the number of women in leadership positions is significantly low

compared to the number of men. The few women that do participate in top management
positions use their own styles, which they have learned from experienced women and these
styles differ from the ones successful men use. Therefore, it is questionable whether the
existing, effective styles of leadership used by men not suitable for women, and whether
certain effective styles of leadership may be more suitable for women.
Consequently, this leads to the following thesis statement:
Which effective leadership styles are more suitable for women, based on their most
common characteristics?
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1.3 Research Questions
The following questions are answered during the research:

 What are the different kinds of effective leadership styles?
 What kind of leader is/ what kinds of characteristics are required for each different
effective leadership style?
 Which characteristics do women in general possess more in comparison to men?
Through combining the answers of the research questions and linking them together, the
problem statement can be answered:
 Which effective leadership styles are more suitable for women, based on their most
common characteristics?
1.4 Relevance
This research contributes to the knowledge of the use of different leadership styles. A new
insight is shown, by comparing the characteristics of men and women, with required
characteristics for different effective leadership styles. It shows which leadership styles are
more suitable for women. This knowledge could be useful to companies, when hiring a
manager. If they are looking for a particular management style, they could make a decision
based on the fact whether the style they are searching for is more suitable for a woman or not.
Furthermore as a result this knowledge might contribute to the improvement of the
performance of women in leadership functions. More successful women at leadership
positions might even make it more attractive for other women to pursuit a management
position and contribute to an increasing number of women in management positions. Women
could have, by using the right leadership style, just as much influence and stature as men and
so this might create a successful path for women to move upward.
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1.5 Research Design and Data Collection
This thesis is descriptive; it is a literature review. According to Sekeran (2003) this is: “the
documentation of a comprehensive review of the published work from secondary sources of
data in the areas of specific interest of the researcher” (p. 59). This information is provided in
secondary resources; data that already exists, information gathered by someone other than the
researcher him or herself (Sekeran, 2003). These secondary resources are found by searching
through the database of the University of Tilburg for relevant literature. Another way to
search for relevant literature is by making use of the Google Scholar search engine. The latter
has some limitations, because sometimes literature is found which is not accessible for the
public, or has to be bought. An advantage of using the database of the University of Tilburg is
that the research papers are always accessible. In addition relevant papers can be found in the
reference list of used articles. The papers should be checked for significance; by the use of the
Impact Factor the quality of the papers can be assessed. Furthermore, the papers should be
recent and if they are not, the papers should still contain high quality research.
1.6 Demarcation
This thesis discusses differences between men and women, here is meant women and men in
general. Besides, when describing the characteristics, the most common characteristics of men
and women were mentioned. Clearly, those characteristics do not concern all women or all
men, but men and women on average. Furthermore, not all leadership styles are discussed,
only the ones proven to be successful and which are discussed most in secondary resources.
Discussing leadership styles that are proven to be ineffective would be useless, since the use
of these styles is not effective in practice, it would be pointless to find out whether the styles
match to the characteristics of women.
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1.7 Overview of the Rest of the Chapters
In Chapter 2 different kinds of effective leadership style are described and where possible it is
also described what kind of leader is required for this style. Hereafter Chapter 3 determines
the characteristics that are typical for women. Subsequently in Chapter 4 these results are
compared; the results are linked to each other and there is discussed what styles are more
suitable for women, based on the most common characteristics of women. In Chapter 5 a
conclusion is drawn and the results are discussed, just as the limitations of this research.
Finally in this chapter some recommendations for future research are described.
In advance a time schedule was made to make sure the thesis was finished on time and the
work was spread equally over time. The time schedule can be found in the Appendix labeled
as Figure 1.
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Chapter 2 Effective Leadership Styles
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter several leadership styles are determined. However, not all existing leadership
styles are discussed, only the leadership styles that are proven to be effective and the ones
most discussed in secondary resources. In each paragraph a different leadership style is
described and after describing each style, the effectiveness of the leadership style is
determined.
There are many definitions of leadership, for example the definition of Terry (1960)
“Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for group objectives” (p.
493). Koontz and O‟ Donnell (1959) state that “leadership is influencing people to follow in
the achievement of a common goal” (p.435). In addition, there are also several definitions of
leadership styles. For example leadership styles can be defined as patterns of behaviour that
enable leaders to effectively influence others (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2008). Fiedler (1967)
defines leadership style as the underlying structure which is needed, to motivate the behaviour
of a leader in various leadership situations and infers the consistency of goals or needs over
different situations.
In this chapter, first the effective leadership styles are described which are based on two
variables; „employees‟ and „tasks‟. The Managerial Grid is explained and hereafter the paired
leadership styles concerning the variables „employees‟ and „tasks‟ to the maximum effort are
discussed, respectively Consideration vs. Initiating Structure. Subsequently three leadership
styles are described following from the Managerial Grid, which are concerning for both
variables „employees‟ and tasks‟ equally.
Hereafter two paired dimensions of leadership behaviour are described; respectively
Transformational vs. Transactional and Autocratic vs. Democratic. Finally two single styles
of leadership are discussed; Shared Leadership and Laissez-Faire Leadership.
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2.2 Employees vs. Tasks
In this paragraph leadership styles are discussed which are based on two variables;
„employees‟ (or people) and „tasks‟ (or production). First The Managerial Grid is explained
and subsequently the two most extreme, opposite styles are discussed. One only focusing on
people, namely Consideration and the other only focusing on production, namely Initiating
Structure. Hereafter, a couple of styles are discussed which are not concentrating on one
specific aspect, but which are concerning for both variables „employees‟ and „tasks‟ equally.
2.2.1 The Managerial Grid
Blake and Mouton (1982) developed a way of defining ones leadership style by the use of the
Managerial Grid. On the basis of two variables, namely „concern for people‟ and „concern for
production‟, this approach defines different leadership styles (Bernardin & Alvares, 1976).
The variables are attitudinal and conceptual, which implies that they are based on the thinking
that lies behind the action of a leader. As showed in Figure 2 of the Appendix the Managerial
Grid has a scale from 1 to 9. On the horizontal axe stands the variable „concern for
production‟ and on the vertical axe the variable „concern for people‟. Production becomes
more important if the rating on the horizontal axis increases and reaches it maximum at the
rating of nine (Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson 2008). People become more important to
leaders when the rate of the vertical axis raises and also reaches it maximum at the rating of
nine (Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson 2008).
Five main leadership styles arise from this approach: Impoverished Management (1,1),
Authority-Obedience (9,1), Organization Man Management (5,5), Country Club Management
(1,9) and Team Management (9,9) (Blake & Mouton 1982).
2.2.2 Consideration vs. Initiating Structure
Consideration describes to what extent a leader builds up relationships with his employees
based on mutual trust (Robbins & Judge, 2007; Kreitner & Kinicki, 2008). It shows to what
amount the leader respects his adherents and cares for them (Judge, Piccolo, & Ilies, 2004;
Robbins & Judge, 2007). The leader is sensitive to subordinates, respects their ideas and
feelings and tries to create mutual trust (Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson 2008). He or she looks
out for the welfare of his followers, expresses his appreciation, and supports them (Lowin,
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Hrapchak & Kavanagh, 1969). This leadership style comes with a leader that treats all
employees equal, helps them with personal problems, is friendly and approachable (Lowin,
Hrapchak & Kavanagh, 1969). Leaders emphasise interpersonal relations, they accept the
differences of their work staff and approach them in a suitable way (Robbins & Judge, 2007).
They care for the personal interest and needs of their employees (Trevino, Brown, &
Hartman, 2003). Each individual employee counts and the leader accepts their individuality
and personal needs (Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson 2008). The leader treats people right and
helps them to develop. The focus of the leader is more downsize and the leader shows great
concern for his people (Robbins & Judge, 2007). He or she emphasises the relationships with
his workers and considers them as an aspect of the job (Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson 2008).
When looking at the styles of The Managerial Grid, this style could be compared with the
style of Country Club Management. Country Club Management (1,9) is a way of leading
which implies that the essential task of management is to optimize conditions for the people
who work for them (Blake & Mouton 1982). The concern for people is very high and concern
for production low; leaders give their employees lots of attention, are thoughtful, friendly and
agree with a comfortable work tempo (Blake & Mouton 1982). This approach comes with a
lot of freedom and little rules. The thoughtful attention leads to a comfortable, friendly
organization atmosphere (Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson 2008).
Research of Horga (2009) states that employee oriented leaders are associated with high
group productivity and high degree of satisfaction about the job. Also Kritsonis (2004)
confirms that great leaders lead with the best interests of their employees in mind. A
successful leader brings success to the organization and its employees and is not just a
successful leader by himself (Kritsonis, 2004). Employee oriented leaders have positive
influence on two other important factors: employee turnover rates and employee satisfaction
(Forrer & Guerrieri, 2002). Employee turnover rates were lowest and employee satisfaction
highest under leaders who were employee oriented (Forrer & Guerrieri, 2002). Also Forrer
and Guarri (2002) state that the Michigan studies found the most productive work groups tend
to have employee oriented leaders.
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Initiating Structure
Initiating Structure is a way of leading which implies a leader who defines and structure the
roles of the employees and him- or herself specifically (Judge, Piccolo, & Ilies, 2004;
Robbins & Judge, 2007). This style organizes and defines what group members should be
doing to maximise output (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2008). The leader formulates one main goal
and the structure provides a clear way of accomplishing the goal (Robbins & Judge, 2007;
Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson 2008). The channels of communication are well-defined, just
as the pattern to the achievement of the goal (Lowin, Hrapchak & Kavanagh, 1969). Typical
for this type of leadership style is assigning every member particular tasks, expect workers to
maintain definite standards of performance and require the meeting of deadlines (Robbins &
Judge, 2007). Leaders who are production oriented care for the final product; whether the
people who work for them perform a good job (Robbins & Judge, 2007). Most important is
that the employees accomplish their group tasks (Robbins & Judge, 2007). There is not paid
much attention to the people themselves, only the performances of the people count (Trevino,
Brown, & Hartman, 2003). Achieving deadlines and goals and to do this excellent is very
important when this style is used (Trevino, Brown, & Hartman, 2003). Employees are seen as
a tool to accomplish goals; leaders emphasize production and the technical aspects of the job
(Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson 2008).
When looking at The Managerial Grid, this style could be compared to Authority-Obedience.
Authority-Obedience (9,1) focuses on production, production is much more important than
the people are. The ambition of the leader is to have power and control, most of the times this
leader is characterized by a dominating personality (Krech, 1979). Work must be done
efficient and productive, therefore aggressive, forceful management is applied (Krech, 1979).
Kreitner & Kinicki (2008) refer to a meta-analysis in 2004 of 130 studies which revealed that
followers performed more effectively for structuring leaders even though they preferred
considerate leaders. All together the results do not support the idea that one style is better than
the other. They do confirm the importance of considerate and structuring leader behaviours;
follower satisfaction, motivation, and performance are significantly associated with these two
leader behaviours.
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2.2.3 Three styles of The Managerial Grid
Three styles of The Managerial Grid concentrate on both variables „people‟ and „ production‟
equally. Those three styles are Impoverished Management, Organization Man Management
and Team Management.
Impoverished Management (1,1) is the leadership style with the least effort. By minimum
commitment to the job and minimum effort as a leader toward his employees the leader just
tries to stay within the organization (Blake & Mouton 1982).
Organization Man Management (5,5) is also called the middle-of-the-road leadership (Blake
& Mouton 1982). The leader tries to balance the concern for people and production. Good
performance is achieved by balancing the need to work hard and get the job done, while
maintaining moral of people at a satisfactory level (Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson 2008).
Team Management (9,9) is based on relationships with respect and trust (Blake & Mouton
1982). People are committed and productivity is achieved by team performance (Blake &
Mouton 1982). It is the interdependence in the organization that leads to the relationships of
respect and trust (Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson 2008).
The “high-high” theory states that effective leaders integrate the concern for task and people
by looking at the specific situation, rather than concerning for both to the maximum extent
(Lowe, Kroeck & Sivasubramaniam 1996). Hogma (2009) states that leaders have realized the
best performance with the 9,9 style (high concern for people and high concern for
production).
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2.3 Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership
In this paragraph the differences are explained between the transformational and the
transactional leadership style. The characteristics of the transformational style as well as the
transactional style are shown in figure 3 of the appendix.
Transformational Leadership
Transformational leaders try to motivate their employees and stimulate them to achieve the
goal of the organization (Druskat, 1992). They attempt to make sure that their employees do
not look to their self-interests, but give priority to the concern of the whole (Bass, 1990).
They engender trust, serve as moral agents, and focus themselves and followers on objectives
that transcend the more immediate needs of the group (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2008). Higher
levels of intrinsic motivation, trust, commitment, and loyalty from followers are needed when
using this style (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2008). The leader has charisma and is aware of the
emotions and needs of his employees (Bass, 1990). Therefore the leader must have strong
empathic skills (Druskat, 1992).
There are four sets of leading behaviour which transformational leaders use: Inspirational
Motivation, Idealised Influence, Individualised Consideration and Intellectual Stimulation
(Kreitner & Kinicki, 2008). Inspirational Motivation requires a leader who can establish an
attractive vision of the future, uses emotional arguments, one that is optimistic and
enthusiastic (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2008). Idealised Influence includes behaviours such as being
a role model, exhibit high ethical standards and sacrificing for the good of the group (Kreitner
& Kinicki, 2008). Individualized Consideration contains behaviour which encourages people;
the leader should coach his people and provide support and empowerment. Intellectual
Stimulation involves encourage employees and stimulate them to seek innovative and creative
solutions to organizational problems. The leaders intellectually stimulate their subordinates by
teaching them to cope with situations themselves.
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The transformational leadership style has strong positive impact on individual, group, and
organizational performance (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Research of Bass and Avolio (1994)
indicates that followers are more motivated, productive and satisfied with transformational
leaders. Research of Lowe, Kroeck and Sivasubramaniam (1996) asserts that transformational
leadership is associated with work unit effectiveness. The research also indicates that a
positive association between Individualized Consideration and effectiveness exists. This way
of leading was much more strongly associated with subordinate perceptions of effectiveness
as compared with organizational measures of effectiveness and overall proven to be effective.
Intellectual Stimulation fosters by stimulating subordinates not only the perception of
effectiveness among subordinates, but also improves performance itself proved by
independent measures of productivity.
Transactional Leadership
Transactional leadership pays attention to managing the day-to-day operations of the

organization and the exchange of rewards for performance (Durskat, 1992). Roles of
employees and task requirements are clarified; followers are rewarded positive and negative
depending on their performance (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2008). Good work will be rewarded and
poor performance not, only if things go bad the leader will intervene (Bass, 1990). By using
extrinsic motivation this leadership style attempts to increase the productivity of employees
(Kreitner & Kinicki, 2008).
Lowe, et al. (1996) state that a skilful transactional leader is likely to be effective in stable,
predictable environments. In exchange for performance meeting basic expectations, the leader
fulfils the needs of followers (Lowe, et al., 1996).
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2.4 Autocratic vs. Democratic Leadership
Autocratic Leadership
An autocratic leader does not take care of the social and emotional dimensions of groups; they
limit the control and voice over decision-making processes of group members and are
displayed as a dominant and pushy leader which shows little respect towards the opinions and
values of followers (Bass, 1990). De Cremer (2006) defined autocratic leadership as “a
leadership style focused on not providing any latitude for the group members to discuss and
think about their own ideas, rather these leaders push their ideas and opinions during
discussions leading to a decision, thus, not giving much voice, control and respect to others”
(p. 81).
Autocratic Leadership seems to promote greater quantitative productivity (Fiedler, 1969).

This style tends to be most effective in industrial work situations or the armed forces; in these
situations the task requires strong, centralized control (Fiedler, 1969). Furthermore research of
Van de Vliert (2006) has shown that Autocratic Leadership is more effective in poorer
countries, with less income equality.
Democratic Leadership
Democratic Leadership is according to Gastil (1994) a style with a degree of comradeship,

active member involvement, containing a leader that relies upon group decision making, who
praises honestly. It is a way of leading that influences people in a way that is consistent and
beneficial to basic democratic principles and processes such as equal participation and
deliberation (Gastil, 1994). Democratic leaders show care and concern for the members of the
group, but not similar to the way a parent or guardian does (Gastil, 1994).
Democratic Leadership on average results in higher morale and qualitative productivity

(Fiedler, 1969).
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2.5 Shared Leadership
Shared Leadership according to Kreitner and Kinicki (2008) “entails a simultaneous, ongoing,
mutual influence process in which individuals share responsibility for leading regardless of
formal roles and titles” (p. 485). A high-performing team is created by sharing
responsibilities, works best when people are working on complex projects requiring skills of
professionals. This leadership style is also beneficial when tasks or projects require
interdependence and creativity.
Research shows that organizations or teams that have adapted Shared Leadership experience
greater collaboration and coordination, as well as more novel and innovative solutions to
problems (Pearse and Congor, 2003). It has also been proven that Shared Leadership is an
important predictor of team effectiveness (Pearse and Congor, 2003). Kreitner and Kinicki
(2008) state that this form of leadership is beneficial, because two people are more likely to
posses the varied abilities that are needed to run an organization. Also is Shared Leadership in
teams positively related with group cohesion, group citizenship, and group effectiveness
(Kreitner and Kinicki 2008).
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2.6 Laissez-Faire Leadership
Laissez-Faire Leadership comes with a leader who has a lack of response to subordinate
performance (Hinkin & Schriesheim 2008). In reality it is non-leadership, the leader avoids
decisions, hesitates to take action and generally ignores subordinates needs (Hinkin &
Schriesheim 2008). Hinkin & Schriesheim (2008) state that this way of leading comes with a
leader who does not use his or her authority. Laissez-Faire Leadership is often used in flat
organizations (Manners, 2008).
Bass (1999) concluded that Laissez-Faire Leadership has positive effect on the empowerment
of employees. The leader gives followers autonomy with reason and interest in what was
delegated (Bass, 1990). Employees get to decide on matters that they know best, this way of
leading has positive effect on their empowerment (Bass, 1990). Bass (1999) states that
Laissez-Faire Leadership stimulates employees to monitor each others‟ mistakes. Hinkin &
Schriesheim (2008) suggest that Laissez-Faire Leadership may have important independent
effects on subordinate outcome variables. The research of Hinkin & Schriesheim (2008)
indicates that Laissez-Faire Leadership was related to role-clarity and subordinate-perceived
supervisor effectiveness. As mentioned before, Laissez-Faire Leadership is used in flat
organizations. Lots of organizations are decreasing the number of management layers to
empower those at lower lever in the organization and place desicion making where it can be
most effective (Manner, 2008). By not having a clear hierarchy, this way of leading stimulates
the self-confidence of the employees and the commitment to perform responsibilities of the
organization (Manner, 2008).
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2.7 Conclusion
This chapter gives descriptions and definitions of different leadership styles. First different
styles regarding the variables „people‟ and „production‟ are discussed. The Managerial Grid is
explained by discussing the variables (people, production) and explaining the graphic model.
Hereafter the two leadership styles concerning one of these variables to the maximum are
discussed; Consideration vs. Initiating Structure. When using Consideration the leader shows
respect for his or her employees and tries to build relationships. Employee oriented leaders
are required to maintain interpersonal relations, accept the differences of his or her work staff
and approach them in a suitable way. Initiating Structure is a way of leading which implies a
leader that plans everything; a goal, the way to achieve this goal and the roles of every
employee. Production oriented leaders focus on the final product; whether the people perform
a good job, employees are seen as a tool to accomplish goals. Subsequently three leadership
styles following from The Managerial Grid are explained, which are concerning for both
variables „employees‟ and tasks‟ equally; namely Impoverish Management, Organization
Man Management and Team Management. Hereafter two other paired dimensions of
leadership behaviour were described; Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership and
Democratic vs. Autocratic Leadership. Transformational Leadership contains a leader that
tries to motivate his or her employees and stimulate them to achieve the goal of the
organization. They attempt to make sure that their employees don‟t look to their self-interests,
but give priority to the concern of the whole. There are four specific styles of
Transformational Leadership: Inspirational Motivation, Idealised Influence, Individualised
Consideration and Intellectual Stimulation. Transactional Leadership pays attention to
managing the day-to-day operations of the organization and the exchange of rewards for
performance. Democratic and Autocratic leadership shows to what extent members have
influence on the decisions of the group. Democratic Leadership is a way of leading which
stimulates equal participation and deliberation. Autocratic Leadership limits the control and
voice over decision-making processes of group members, leaders push their ideas and
opinions during discussions leading to a decision. After this two other leadership styles are
defined. First Shared Leadership which is a style that gives responsibility to more than one
person. Second Laissez-Faire Leadership which comes with a leader who avoids his
responsibilities.
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Chapter 3 Characteristics Men and Women
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter the different types of characteristics of women are explained. First some
definitions are given of personality and characteristics which are used during the whole
chapter. Then The Big Five Model is explained, a frequently used model which is the basis of
the research used to determine the characteristics of women; the Abridged Big Five
Circumplex. Hereafter a closer look is taken to the stereotype characteristics and most
common personality traits of women. By doing so, the last research question is answered;
which characteristics do women in general possess more in comparison to men?
3.2 Definitions
Personality can be defined in different ways. One of these definition is the one of Gordon
Allport; “the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that
determine his unique adjustments to his environment” (Allport, 1937, p.48.) Also personality
can be seen as looking to the whole instead of looking to some specific parts. It can be
defined as the total ways of reacting and interacting from a person with others. A way to
describe ones character is by using characteristics. Enduring characteristics that define an
individual‟s behaviour are called personality traits (Buss, 1989).
3.3 The Big Five
There are models developed, which can be used to define someone‟s personality. One of these
models is The Big Five Model, also called “Big Five” or “Five Factor Model”. Five basic
dimensions encompass most of the significant variation in human personality (Digman,
1990). These five dimensions are: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional
stability and openness to experience (Judge, Heller & Mount, 2002). By combining two of
these dimensions at the time, specific traits can be structured which are linked to specific
dimensions of the “Big Five”. This so called Abridged Big Five Circumplex (AB5C) is shown
in Figure 4 of the Appendix (Hofstee, 1994; Hofstee, De Raad & Goldberg, 1992).
21
3.4 Characteristics Women vs. Men
Research of Mitchelson, Wicher, LeBreton, and Batholomew Craig (2009) compare the
different traits of the AB5C between men and women. The results show that women score
higher on the trait imagination. Also large differences large differences are found concerning
tenderness, favouring women and imperturbability, favouring men. Medium differences are
noticeable for morality, cooperation, sympathy, nurturance, tranquillity and reflection all
favouring women.
Chapman, Duberstein, Sorensen, and Lynes (2007) show that on the Five Factor Model
women tend to score higher on neuroticism and agreeableness. Costa, Terraciano, and
McCrae (2001) investigated gender differences across cultures; they state that men and
women both scored high on different facets of openness. Men score higher at openness to
ideas, while women score higher to openness to aesthetics and feelings. They also state that
men and women score different on facets of extraversion; men scored higher on excitement
seeking, while women score higher on the facet warmth.
The research of Heesacker, Wester, Vogel, Wentzel, Mejia-Milan, and Goodhholm (1999)
shows that the stereotype that exists about women being more emotional than men is true.
Chin (2004) states that female leaders tend not to base judgments on rational calculations;
instead they use intuition and emotions.
Feingold (1994) shows that females score higher than males in extraversion, anxiety, trust and
tender-mindedness (nurturance). The research also shows that males tend to be more assertive
and had a bit more self-esteem than females.
22
3.5 Conclusion
In this chapter certain characteristics are found which more common for women than for men.
Mitchelson et al. (2009) found that women score higher on imagination, tenderness, morality,
cooperation, sympathy, nurturance, tranquillity and reflection. Chapman, Duberstein,
Sorensen, and Lynes (2007) show that women score higher on neuroticism and
agreeableness. Costa, Terraciano, and McCrae (2001) found women to be more open to
aesthetics and feelings and women scored higher on the facet warmth. Feingold (1994) shows
women to be more tender-minded and score higher on extraversion, anxiety and trust. All
characteristics of women found, are summarised in Table 1.
Table 1. Characteristics of Women
Characteristics of Women
Imagination
Tenderness
Morality
Cooperation
Sympathy
Nurturance
Tranquillity
Reflection
Neuroticism
Agreeableness
Openness to aesthetics
Openness to feelings
Warmth
Extraversion
Anxiety
Trust
Tender mindedness (nurturance)
23
Chapter 4 Leadership Styles and Gender Characteristics
4.1 Introduction
In the first two chapters, is described what kind of effective leadership styles exist and what
the common characteristics are of men and women. In this chapter this data is linked to each
other; effective leadership styles are matched with the most common characteristics of
women. By doing so an answer is given to the research question: Which effective leadership
styles are more suitable for women, based on their most common characteristics?
Not for all leadership styles, mentioned in Chapter 2, were found matches with the
characteristics of women found in Chapter 3. There is not found a clear link for the
characteristics required for Democratic and Autocratic leadership with the characteristics of
women found in this thesis. Furthermore there is not found a link between the characteristics
required for Laissez-Faire Leadership and the characteristics of women.
4.2 Effective Leadership Styles for Women
In this paragraph the different links described that are found between the characteristics
required for certain leadership styles and the average characteristics of women. The links are
discussed per different leadership style.
4.2.1 Employees vs. Tasks
Several characteristics of women found in Chapter 3 can be coupled with the leadership style
Consideration. Consideration is clearly a leadership style which shows great concern for
employees. The leader of this style cares for personal interest and needs of his or her
employees and builds up relationships with them (Trevino, Brown, & Hartman, 2003; Hersey,
Blanchard, & Johnson 2008). A caring leader is required for this way of leading. Tenderness,
trust (Feingold 1994), openness to feelings, warmth (Costa, Terraciano, & McCrae 2001),
sympathy (Mitchelson et al., 2009) and especially nurturance (Mitchelson et al., 2009)
characterise a caring person who feels concern for people, which would fit best to this way of
leading. Leaders have relationships with employees based on mutual trust, the leader shows
24
respect, cares for them, is sensitive and approachable (Judge, Piccolo, & Ilies, 2004; Robbins
& Judge, 2007). Trust is very important to build up relationships and tenderness and warmth
make people more approachable. Eagly and Johannesen-Schmidt (2001) confirm this by
stating that women are more personally oriented than men. Chin (2004) found several studies
that prove women to be more attentive than men to “the human side of enterprise”. As the
description of Country Club Management states the leader should be thoughtful, friendly and
should give his or her employees lots of attention (Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson 2008).
Women show more tenderness, trust (Feingold 1994), openness to feelings, warmth (Costa et
al., 2001) nurturance and sympathy (Mitchelson et al., 2009) which entail a caring attitude
and a personality which shows concern for people.
As showed in Chapter 3, women score higher on tenderness, trust (Feingold 1994), openness
to feelings, warmth (Costa et al., 2001) nurturance and sympathy (Mitchelson et al., 2009).
These characteristics indicate a person who cares for people and feels concern for them. When
these characteristics are coupled with the three styles of the Managerial Grid, it can be
concluded that women should adapt a leadership styles which focuses on people; so a style
with the maximum of 9 on the vertical axis. Rosener (1990) confirms that women show more
concern for their subordinates and women try to make sure everyone is participating and
involved. Pounder and Coleman (2002) state that research indicates that female leaders tend
to be more relationship oriented. Team Management is the leadership style with great concern
for people. Team Management also shows great concern for people and is based on
relationships with respect and trust (Blake & Mouton 1982; Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson
2008). Women score higher on trust (Feingold 1994) than men, which also indicates that this
style should be more suitable for women. Rosener (1990) states that women actively work to
make their interactions with employees as good as possible. By involving them, encouraging
participation, sharing information and power with them they allow employees to contribute
and feel powerful and important, which is a win-win situation; good for the employees and
the company (Rosener, 1990).
25
4.2.2 Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership
As Chapter 2 shows Transformational Leadership requires a leader with charisma and

someone who is aware of the emotions and needs of his or her employees (Bass, 1990). Costa,
Terraciano, and McCrae (2001) show that women score higher on openness to feelings, which
contributes to being aware of the emotions and needs of people. According to Kreitner and
Kinicki (2008) trust is needed when using this style and Feingold (1994) shows that women
score higher on trust than men. Also leaders serve as moral agents (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2008)
and women also score higher on morality (Mitchelson et al., 2009). Rosener (1990) states that
women describe themselves in a way that characterises transformational leadership: “Women
tend to get their subordinates to transform their own self-interest into the interest of the group
through concern for a broader goal” (p. 120). Pounder and Coleman (2002) state that lots of
literature confirm that female leaders tend to be more transformational than male leaders.
Transformational Leadership emphasizes the nurturance of subordinates and the nurturing
qualities of women are particularly well developed in comparison to men (Pounder and
Coleman 2002). Mitchelson et al. (2009) also found that women score higher on nurturance
in comparison to men.
As introduced in Chapter 2 there are more specific Transformational Leadership styles, one of
them is Inspirational Motivation. This requires a leader who can establish an attractive vision
of the future, uses emotional arguments one that is optimistic and enthusiastic (Kreitner &
Kinicki, 2008). Rosener (1990) states that women encourage participation enhance other
people‟s self worth and get others excited about their work. The article states that women use
their enthusiasm to get others excited, which indicates that Inspirational Motivation could be
more suitable for women.
26
4.2.3 Shared Leadership
Shared Leadership according to Kreitner and Kinicki (2008) “entails a simultaneous, ongoing,
mutual influence process in which individuals share responsibility for leading regardless of
formal roles and titles” (p. 485). Cooperation is needed because the responsibilities of the
leader are shared with another leader; women score higher on cooperation than men. Chin
(2004) showed that female leaders tend to be more collaborative in their leadership styles.
Rosener (1990) states that women share more information and power, which fits this style of
leading. Women also score higher on agreeableness (Chapman, Duberstein, Sorensen, &
Lynes 2007). According to Zhao and Seibert (2006) a high score on agreeableness shows that
a person has cooperative values.
4.3 Conclusion
In this chapter the common characteristics of women explained in Chapter 3 are matched with
the different leadership styles of Chapter 2. Not for all leadership styles were matches found
with the characteristics, there seems to be no link between Democratic, Autocratic and
Laissez-Faire Leadership and the characteristics found in this thesis.
The characteristics tenderness, trust (Feingold 1994), openness to feelings, warmth (Costa,
Terraciano, & McCrae 2001), sympathy (Mitchelson et al., 2009) and especially nurturance
(Mitchelson et al., 2009) can be coupled to the leadership style Consideration. These traits
characterise a caring person, who feels concern for people. Leaders have relationships with
employees based on mutual trust, the leader shows respect, cares for them, is sensitive and
approachable (Judge, Piccolo, & Ilies, 2004; Robbins & Judge, 2007). The leader of this style
cares for personal interest and needs of his or her employees and builds up relationships with
them (Trevino, Brown, & Hartman, 2003; Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson 2008). Eagly and
Johannesen-Schmidt (2001) confirm this by stating that women are more personally oriented
than men.
27
When looking at the Managerial Grid; based on the characteristics found in Chapter 3 it can
be concluded that characteristics of women match to leadership style which focuses on
people; so a style with the maximum of 9 on the vertical axis. Team Management is the
leadership style with great concern for people. Rosener (1990) confirms that women show
more concern for their subordinates and women try to make sure everyone is participating and
involved.
Transformational leadership seems to be suitable for women based on the characteristics

openness to feelings, trust and morality. These characteristics fit to this style because
relationships built on trust are needed and a leader is required who is aware of the emotions
and needs of his or her employees and serves as a moral agent. A specific style of
transformational leading is Inspirational Motivation which requires an optimistic and
enthusiastic leader, Rosener (1990) states that women use their enthusiasm to get others
excited, which indicates that Inspirational Motivation fits women perfectly.
Shared Leadership requires cooperation because the responsibilities of the leader are shared
with another leader; women score higher on cooperation than men. Chin (2004) showed that
female leaders tend to be more collaborative in their leadership styles. Rosener (1990) states
that women share more information and power, which fits this style of leading. Also
according to Zhao and Seibert (2006) agreeableness shows that a person has cooperative
values and women scored higher on agreeableness in comparison to men (Chapman,
Duberstein, Sorensen, & Lynes 2007).
28
Chapter 5 Conclusion, Limitations and Recommendations
5.1 Introduction
In this chapter a conclusion is drawn from the results of chapter 4, by doing so an answer is
given to the research question: Which effective leadership styles are more suitable for women,
based on their most common characteristics? Hereafter the limitations of this thesis are
discussed and some recommendations are given for female managers in practice. Furthermore
some recommendations are given for future research.
5.2 Conclusion
The results in chapter 4 indicate that there are leadership styles which match to the
characteristics of women found in this thesis. Consideration matches with the characteristics
of women founs in this thesis, for example a caring leader is required and especially
nurturance is a characteristic of women which indicates a caring personality. Eagly and
Johannesen-Schmidt (2001) confirm this by stating that women are more personally oriented
than men. Leaders have relationships with employees based on mutual trust, the leader shows
respect, cares for them, is sensitive and approachable (Judge, Piccolo, & Ilies, 2004; Robbins
& Judge, 2007). To be sensitive, openness to feelings and sympathy are two very important
characteristics. Trust is very important to build up relationships and tenderness and warmth
make people more approachable.
The leadership styles which are focussed on the variable „people‟ can also be assigned to
women based on the traits, tenderness, trust (Feingold 1994), openness to feelings, warmth
(Costa et al., 2001) nurturance and sympathy (Mitchelson et al., 2009. When coupled with the
Managerial Grid, it can be concluded that women should adapt a style with a maximum of 9
on the vertical axis. Team Management would therefore match to several characteristics
women. There can be concluded that the characteristics of women match best wit employee
oriented leadership styles like Team Management and Consideration.
29
A clear match is found between the required characteristics of Transformational Leadership

and the most common characteristics of women. For example women score higher on the trait
openness to feelings (Costa, Terraciano, & McCrae 2001) and a Transformational Leadership
style requires a leader that is aware of the feelings of his adherents (Bass, 1990). In the same
way, a couple of links are found to the characteristics of women with the characteristics
required for Transformational Leadership. The conclusion can be drawn that several
characteristics of women found in this thesis match Transformational Leadership.
Also a number of matches are found between the characteristics required for Shared
Leadership and the common traits of women. For example women score higher on the trait
corporation (Mitchelson et al. 2009), a desirable characteristic when executing Shared
Leadership. Furthermore other links are made and research is found which confirms women
tend to be more collaborative in their way of leading. Taken this all together, the conclusion
can be made that Shared Leadership matches with several characteristics of women.
30
5.3 Limitations
There are some limitations to the research of this thesis. First of all, not all leadership styles
and not all traits of women are taken in consideration. Lots of research has been done to
different styles of leadership and to the characteristics of women, it would take too much time
to consider all styles and traits. Subsequently only the positive traits of women are taken in
consideration, negative characteristics are not discussed. For some leadership style there is not
found a link based on the characteristics found in this thesis. When all characteristics are
taken in consideration, it could be possible that there also will be found a link for these
leadership styles. Second the characteristics of women in average may not represent the
average characteristics of women participating in the labour market. Even more important
female managers could have on average different characteristics than women in general. It
could be that female managers have more masculine characteristics than women in general.
Third, in practice the use of a leadership style is not as black and white as described here. For
example research of Lowe, Kroeck and Sivasubramaniam (1996) has showed that it is
possible and can be effective to combine different leadership styles, such as transformational
and transactional leadership. The combination of these styles may improve the chance of
achieving the desired goals and objectives. Finally, situation is also one variable that should
be taken into account. An effective leader should vary the use of decision methods and select
a method that is suitable for the immediate situation (Lowe, Kroeck & Sivasubramaniam
1996).
31
5.4 Recommendations
In practice women should consider adapting a Transformational Leadership style; women

score higher on the characteristics that suit this style in comparison to men. Also women
should consider adapting Shared Leadership, which also has been proven by this thesis to
have several matches with the characteristics of women. Pearse and Congor (2003) indicate
that today‟s workforce is expecting more opportunities for voice and meaningful influences.
Shared Leadership improves the opportunity for meaningful impact (Pearse and Congor,
2003). Pounder and Coleman (2002) state that the leadership of modern organizations needs
to be non coercive and based on teamwork and that this is the very style of leadership
naturally employed by women. Pounder and Coleman (2002) also assert that modern
organizations should adapt leadership styles that are focussed on building relationship so they
become experts on the area of building relationships with employees and that this also is an
aspect of a leadership style that women employ naturally.
Future research should, if possible, consider all leadership styles and examine all traits of
women, to improve the quality of this research. Also research could be done to the
characteristics of working women and especially female leaders. Future research could also
take in consideration the combination of different leadership styles and consider situational
requirements. Finally, future research could investigate the effectiveness of matching a style
to the characteristics of a leader, especially for women.
32
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Appendix
Figure 1 Time Schedule
Week Scheduled Tasks Deadline/Appointments
9 Make subject more specific, make specific Thursday 4 March

research question, find more papers of 16.00
topic and make thesis proposal Deadline Thesis Proposal
10 Find more articles of subject and read Thursday 11 March
more carefully, start selecting useful 13.00
information Individual Meeting
11-14 Work out thesis proposal and use this for Thursday 8 April
making chapter 1, start writing chapter 2 16.00
and 3 by answering research questions. Deadline Thesis Chapters 1-3
(Research different management styles
and characteristics men vs. women)
15 Read the work of fellow students and Thursday 15 April
prepare feedback 15.00 – 17.00
Group Meeting
16-17 Write last chapters and finish first version Thursday 29 April
thesis. (Start comparing results and 16.00
linking them, find overlap between leader Deadline Thesis
style and gender characteristics.)
18 Read the work of other students and Thursday 6 May
provide critical feedback 10.00-12.00
Group Meeting
19-20 Rework on first version and make use of Thursday 20 May
comment fellow students, make second 16.00
version Deadline Thesis
20-21 Read the work of other students and Thursday 27 May
provide critical feedback 10.00-12.00
Group Meeting
22-23 Rework on second version and make use Friday 11 June
of comment fellow students, make last 13.00
version Final Deadline Thesis
39
Figure 2
40
Figure 3
41
Figure 4
42

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Different Leadership Styles for Women

Bachelor Thesis Organization & Strategy

Simone van den Berg

Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 5

1.1 Problem Indication ................................................................................................... 5

1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................... 6

1.3 Research Questions .................................................................................................. 7

1.4 Relevance ................................................................................................................. 7

1.5 Research Design and Data Collection ...................................................................... 8

1.6 Demarcation ............................................................................................................. 8

1.7 Overview of the Rest of the Chapters ...................................................................... 9

Chapter 2 Leadership Styles ................................................................................................ 10

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 10

2.2 Employees vs. Tasks .............................................................................................. 11

2.2.1 The Managerial Grid ........................................................................................... 11

2.2.2 Initiating Structure vs. Consideration ................................................................ 11

2.2.3 Three styles of The Managerial Grid .................................................................. 14

2.3 Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership ..................................................... 15

2.4 Autocratic vs. Democratic Leadership ................................................................... 17

2.5 Shared Leadership .................................................................................................. 18

2.6 Laissez-Faire Leadership........................................................................................ 19

2.7 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 21

Chapter 3 Characteristics Men and Women ...................................................................... 21

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 21

3.2 Definitions .............................................................................................................. 21

3.3 The Big Five .......................................................................................................... 21

3.4 Characteristics Women vs. Men ............................................................................ 22

3.5 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 23

Chapter 4 Leadership Styles and Gender Characteristics ................................................ 24

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 24

4.2 Effective Leadership Styles for Women ................................................................ 24

4.2.1 Employees vs. Tasks ........................................................................................... 24

4.2.2 Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership .................................................. 26

4.2.3 Shared Leadership ............................................................................................... 27

4.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 27

Chapter 5 Conclusion, Limitations and Recommendations .............................................. 29

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 29

5.2 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 29

5.3 Limitations .............................................................................................................. 31

1.1 Problem Indication

1.2 Problem Statement

As mentioned before, the number of women in leadership positions is significantly low

Consequently, this leads to the following thesis statement:

1.3 Research Questions

The following questions are answered during the research:

1.5 Research Design and Data Collection

1.7 Overview of the Rest of the Chapters

Chapter 2 Effective Leadership Styles

2.2 Employees vs. Tasks

2.2.1 The Managerial Grid

2.2.2 Consideration vs. Initiating Structure

2.2.3 Three styles of The Managerial Grid

2.3 Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership

Transactional leadership pays attention to managing the day-to-day operations of the

2.4 Autocratic vs. Democratic Leadership

Autocratic Leadership seems to promote greater quantitative productivity (Fiedler, 1969).

Democratic Leadership is according to Gastil (1994) a style with a degree of comradeship,

Democratic Leadership on average results in higher morale and qualitative productivity

2.5 Shared Leadership