Section 1

Essential Electrical Concepts

Introduction Modern vehicles incorporate many electrical and electronic components
and systems:
• Audio
• Lights
• Navigation
• Engine control
• Transmission control
• Braking and traction control

You need to know essential electrical concepts to effectively

troubleshoot these and other electrical circuits.

Electrical and electronic system troubleshooting can be straightforward

if …
• You know what to look for.
• You know how to select and use the appropriate tools and test
equipment.

With the knowledge and techniques you will learn in this course, you
will be able to …
• Diagnose and repair electrical and electronic problems correctly on
the first attempt.
• Reduce diagnostic and repair time.
• Increase customer satisfaction.

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Meters Different meters are used to measure voltage, current, and resistance:

• Voltmeter − to measure voltage

• Ammeter − to measure current
• Ohmmeter − to measure resistance

These three metering functions are combined into a single tester called
a multimeter." Nearly all automotive technicians use multimeters.

A multimeter is often called a volt−ohmmeter," even though most

multimeters also measure amperes (current).

A multimeter can be one of two types:

1. Analog − display uses a needle to point to a measured value on a scale.
2. Digital − display shows measured value in actual numbers (digits).

Metering Functions
Three metering functions are combined in
a typical digital multimeter.

Fig. 1-01
TL623f100c

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Analog Analog multimeters …

Multimeters
• Use a mechanical movement to drive a pointer.
• Display a measured value where the pointer intersects a calibrated
scale.
• Are not suitable for measurements in circuits with sensitive
electronic components (such as ECUs).
• Are more susceptible to damage from mechanical shock than are
digital multimeters.

Typical Analog Multimeter

Analog meters use a mechanical
movement and are not suitable for
measurements in circuits with sensitive
electronic components.

Fig. 1-02
TL623f102

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Digital Multimeters Digital multimeters …

• Use a digital display.
• Display a measured value in actual numbers.
• Are suitable for measurements in circuits with sensitive electronic
components (such as ECUs).
• Are less susceptible to damage from mechanical shock than are
analog multimeters.
• Have a longer battery life.
• Have a higher internal resistance.

Typical Digital
Multimeter
Digital multimeters display
the actual measured value
and are suitable for
measurements in circuits
with sensitive electronic
components.

Fig. 1-03
TL623f103c

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DMM Components The main components found on the front panel of a typical digital
multimeter (DMM) are …
• Digital display
• Range selector
• Mode selector
• Input jacks

DMM
Components
This figure shows the
main components of a
typical digital multimeter.

Fig. 1-04
TL623f104c

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DMM Mode Use the mode selector to set the meter for the type of test to be
Selector performed. These are the modes available on a Fluke 87 DMM:
• Off − Turns the meter off. Turning the mode selector to any other
setting turns the meter on.
• Volts AC − Use to measure voltage in alternating current (AC)
circuits.
• Volts DC − Use to measure voltage in direct current (DC) circuits.
• Millivolts DC (mV) DC − Use to measure very low voltage in
direct current (DC) circuits.
• Resistance/Continuity (ohms) − Use to measure resistance and
check continuity.
• Diode Check − Use to check the operation of a diode (meter sends
a small current through the diode).
• Amps or Milliamps AC/DC − Use to measure current in a circuit.
• Microamps (AC/DC) − Use to measure very small current in a
circuit.

DMM Mode
Selector
The mode selector knob
lets you set the meter for
the type of test you want
to perform.

Fig. 1-05
TL623f105

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DMM Display DMMs display information that must be properly interpreted to get the
correct measured value.

Interpreting DMM Displays

The digital display gives a direct readout in
actual numbers. However, you still must
properly interpret the display to get the
correct measurement value.

Fig. 1-06
TL623f106

Voltage type − The DMM shows the voltage type (AC or DC) in the
upper right hand corner of the display.

Measured value − The large digits in the center of the display

represent the measured value. Typically, the total value will contain
four or five digits with a decimal point.

Units − To the right of the measured value number, the display shows
letters that represent units:
V volts
A amperes

ohms

Range − The DMM displays the measurement range in the lower right
hand corner of the display, just to the right of the bar graph.

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Unit modifiers − The letters m, k, µ, and M modify unit values:

Volts −
mV millivolts volts x 0.001
kV kilovolts volts x 1,000

Amperes −
mA milliamps amps x 0.001
µA microamps amps x 0.000001

NOTE Automotive technicians rarely use readings at the microamp level.

Ohms −

ohms
k
kilo−ohms ohms x 1,000
M
megohms ohms x 1,000,000

DMM Over-Limit
Display
The “O.L” or “over-limit”
display appears whenever
the test produces a value
that exceeds the selected
range. For resistance,
that typically indicates an
open circuit.

Fig. 1-07
TL623f107

Over−Limit Measurement − Most DMMs display an over−limit sign

when the meter is measuring voltage or current that exceeds the selected
or available range.

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DMM Auto-Ranging Many DMMs offer a feature called auto−ranging." Meters with this
feature allow you to disable it when you want to select ranges manually.
When the meter is set to auto−range, it automatically selects the range
most appropriate for the measurement being performed.

EXAMPLE Auto−ranging is convenient for making most measurements. It is

especially helpful when you do not know what value to expect. A
resistance measurement provides a good example.

A typical DMM has these ranges available for resistance

measurements:
• 400

• 4 k./40 k
/400 k

• 4 M./40 M

If the DMM is connected to a component with an internal resistance of

about 700 ohms, the meter can automatically select the 4 k. range. Without
auto−ranging, you might scan through several ranges before determining
that the 4 k
range is most appropriate for this measurement.

DMM Auto-
Ranging
Digital multimeters with
auto-ranging will
automatically select the
appropriate scale for a
test measurement.

Fig. 1-08
TL623f108

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DMM Test Leads The typical DMM has two test leads and four input jacks. The leads
and Input Jacks plug in as follows:
• BLACK − always plugs into the COM input jack.
• RED − plugs into one of the three remaining jacks, depending on
what measurement is being performed.
− V/
/diode input for measuring resistance, conductance, and
capacitance, as well as checking diodes (Voltage).
− A input for measuring current up to 10 amps.
− µA/mA input for measuring current up to 400mA.

DMM Input Jacks

The meter leads must be
plugged into the proper
input jack for different
tests (voltage and
resistance or two ranges
of current).

Fig. 1-09
TL623f109c

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Voltage Voltage is the electromotive force between two points in a circuit.

EXAMPLE When you place the probes of a DMM on the terminals of a battery, you
are measuring the electromotive force, or voltage, between the positive
and negative battery plates.

Overview
This meter is connected to
measure battery voltage.

Fig. 1-10
TL623f110c

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Section 1

Applications of voltage − Technicians are concerned with voltage in

different applications:
• Source voltage
• Available voltage
• Voltage drop

Source voltage − the battery supplies source voltage in most

automotive electrical systems.

Measuring voltage − use the DMM to measure voltage. Note that

voltage measurements are made by placing the voltage leads in a
parallel circuit to the circuit you are testing. (Parallel circuits are
covered in Section 2.)

Available voltage − is the voltage in a circuit available to operate the

load.

Voltage drop − most parts of an electrical circuit offers some

resistance to current. Every element that has resistance causes a
voltage drop. Voltage drop increases as resistance increases.

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Measuring
Voltage
The meter leads in this
figure show three
different ways to
measure voltage.

Fig. 1-11
TL623f111c

You can measure voltage …

• Between any two points in a circuit
• Between any point in a circuit and ground
• Across any component in the circuit
− Switches
− Relay contacts and coils
− Connectors
− Wires
− Cables

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Section 1

Available Voltage
The meter probes are
placed to test the
available voltage at
the switch.

Fig. 1-12
TL623f112c

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Available Measure available voltage using a digital multimeter with these steps:
Voltage 1. Set the mode selector switch to Volts DC.
2. Select the Auto−Range function or manually set the range.
− Because the battery supplies available voltage in automotive
circuits, you will typically measure voltages between zero and 12
to 14 volts.
− For Fluke Series 80 DMMs, set the range to 40.
− For other DMMs, set the range to the value closest to and higher
than 12 volts.
3. Connect the voltmeter leads in parallel with the circuit element to
be tested.
− Red lead closest to the battery (connect first).
− Black lead to a good ground.
4. Read measurement on DMM display.
− Note polarity.
− Correctly apply units.

NOTE The meter leads are most likely reversed if the DMM display indicates
negative polarity. It could also mean there is a fault in the circuit.

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Section 1

Voltage Drop

Voltage Drop
Voltage drop indicates
the voltage being used in
that section of the circuit.

Fig. 1-13
TL623f113c

Voltage drop is one of the most useful tests you can perform. A voltage
drop test isolates voltage used in the portion of the circuit being tested.
A voltage drop test is done as follows:
1. Place the positive lead in the most positive section of the circuit you
are testing.
2. Place the ground lead on the most negative section of the circuit
you are testing.
3. Operate the circuit with the meter leads in place and note the reading.

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Typical voltage drops are as follows:

• Across a switch, relay contacts or connector: Less than 200 mV
(< 0.2 V).
• Across a section of the harness: Less than 200 mV (< 0.2 V).
• Across the load: Approximately source voltage (> 12.4 V).

The sum of all voltage drops in a circuit equals the source voltage. A
voltage drop that exceeds normal limits indicates excessive resistance
(an unwanted load) in that portion of the circuit.

A voltage drop test can quickly isolate excessive resistance in a circuit

that may not be detected using a resistance test. The Ohmmeter only
passes a small current through the portion of the circuit you are
testing. A voltage drop test is done with circuit operating at normal
current levels. A loose pin in a connector or a damaged wire may show
continuity with the Ohmmeter but under load show a voltage drop due
to the increased resistance during normal current levels.

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Section 1

Converting
Voltage Values
To convert volts to
millivolts (and vice versa)
just move the decimal
point three places.

Fig. 1-14
TL623f114c

Converting Voltage Values − Automotive voltage values vary from

around 14 volts to very small values under 50 mV.

CAUTION Hybrid vehicles such as the Prius use circuits with high voltage and
current (over 100 volts). Follow all safety precautions and service
procedures when working on high voltage circuits.

Values under 1 volt are often expressed as millivolts. 1 volt is equal to

1,000 millivolts.

Convert the values as follows:

• Volts to millivolts, move the decimal point 3 places to the right.
(example: 1.34 V = 1,340 mV)
• millivolts to volts, move the decimal point 3 places to the left.
(example: 289 mV = .289 V)

Practice − Convert the following voltage values:

50 mV = V
3,233 mV = V
9.48 V = mV
.27 V = mV

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Current Current is measured in amperes or amps." Current is sometimes called

amperage.

Current is present in a circuit when …

• There is sufficient available voltage.
• There is a continuous path from the source, through the load, to
ground.

You will not use current measurements as often as voltage

measurements. Most diagnostic specifications for automotive circuits
specify voltage or resistance.

You will measure current to diagnose …

• Faults in starting and charging systems.
• Parasitic load faults.

A parasitic load is an unwanted load that draws current when the

ignition switch is turned to OFF. This problem is typically reported as
battery drains while vehicle is parked overnight."

Measuring
Current
A convenient place to
measure current is at the
fuse holder. When you
remove the fuse to
measure current, always
use a fused jumper wire
or leads as shown.

Fig. 1-15
TL623f115c

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Section 1

DMM connections − A DMM is connected differently for measuring

current than it is for measuring voltage:
• Voltage − meter connected in parallel with circuit element.
• Current − meter connected in series with circuit (current actually
flows through the meter).

Maximum current capacity − It is important to observe the

maximum current capacity of the DMM you are using. To determine
the maximum current capacity:
• Read the rating printed next to the DMM input jacks.
• Check the rating of the meter’s fuse (maximum current capacity is
typically the same as the fuse rating).

NOTE Use only fuses of the correct type and rating for each meter.
Substituting an incorrect fuse could cause damage to the meter.

If you suspect that a measurement will have a current higher than the
meter’s maximum rating, use an optional inductive pickup. Some
specific testers, such as the Sun VAT series, have built in ammeters
with high current ratings for testing starting and charging systems.

Measure current with a DMM using these steps:

1. Turn the circuit to be tested off.
− Make sure leads are in correct jacks on DMM.
2. Set the DMM mode selector to the appropriate current function
(typically amps or milliamps).
3. Select the Auto−range function or manually select the range for the
expected current value.
4. Open the circuit at a point where the meter can be inserted in
series.
− A fuse holder makes a convenient point to open a circuit.
− Use a jumper wire (with a fuse of the same rating in the circuit)
to connect one of the meter leads.
5. Turn the circuit to be tested on.
6. Note the measured value on the DMM display.
− Apply the correct units.
− Convert units as needed to match diagnostic specifications.

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Converting
Current Values
To convert amperes to
milliamps (and vice versa)
just move the decimal
point three places.

Fig. 1-16
TL623f116c

NOTE Make sure that current values are expressed in the same units when
comparing measured current values to diagnostic specifications.

Current should match the specifications in the service information.

• If current is too high, check for a short circuit or a faulty
component.
• If current is too low, check for excessive resistance (with resistance
and voltage drop measurements).

Converting amperage values − Automotive system currents vary

from large to small:
• Large currents (up to 100 A) − charging and starting system.
• Small currents (less than an amp) − electronic control circuits.

Large current values typically display in amperes. Smaller current

values may be expressed as milliamps. To convert from one to the
other, simply move the decimal point three places:
• Amperes to milliamps − decimal point moves 3 places to the right.
1.000 ampere = 1,000 milliamps

• Milliamps to amperes − decimal point moves 3 places to the left.

0.001 ampere = 1.000 milliamp

Practice − Convert the following amperage values:

90 mA = A
9,416 mA = A
6.30 A = mA
.78 A = mA

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Inductive current probes − These are also called current clamps."

They are …
• An optional accessory for DMMs.
• Convenient (no need to open the circuit being tested).
• Safe.
Current probes work by sensing the magnetic field generated in a wire
by the current.
NOTE The following procedure applies to most Fluke DMMs and current
probes. Some meters may operate differently. Check the operator’s
manual for your equipment to confirm.
Measure current with a clamp−on current probe using these steps:
1. Set DMM mode selector to millivolts (mV).
2. Connect probe to meter.
3. Turn probe on.
4. Use the zero adjust knob (if equipped) to zero the DMM display
(with jaws empty).
5. Clamp probe around wire in circuit to be tested.
6. Orient the arrow on the clamp in the proper direction (in the
direction of current flow).
7. Note the voltage reading on the DMM display.
8. Convert the voltage reading to amperes (1 mV = 1 ampere).

EXAMPLE If the reading is 1 mV (millivolt), then the current is 1 ampere. If the

reading is 15 mV, then the current is 15 amperes.

Current Clamp
Attach an accessory
current clamp to a digital
multimeter to measure
current without breaking
the circuit.

Fig. 1-17
TL623f117c

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Resistance Circuit load − The load has the highest resistance in a typical circuit.
Other circuit elements may be used to control current by providing
additional resistance.

EXAMPLES Resistance used to control current:

• Instrument panel lighting controlled by dimmer switch.
• Blower speed controlled by blower motor resistors.

Excessive resistance − Excessive resistance in a circuit can prevent

it from operating normally. Loose, damaged, or dirty connections are a
common source of excessive resistance.

Resistance
To get accurate
resistance measurements,
isolate the circuit or
component and make
sure it is not connected
to a power source.

Fig. 1-18
TL623f118c

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Section 1

Measure resistance with a DMM using the following steps:

1. Make sure the circuit or component to be tested is isolated and not
connected to any power source.

CAUTION Some meters may be damaged if you apply voltage to the meter leads
when the mode selector is set to measure resistance.
2. Set the DMM mode selector to measure resistance.
3. Select the Auto−range feature or manually select a range
appropriate for the test.
4. Confirm the meter calibration by touching the meter’s two probes
together.
− For a typical DMM, resistance of the leads should be 0.2 ohms or
less.
5. Connect the meter leads across the component or circuit segment to
be tested.
6. Read the measured value on the DMM display.
− Note the units.

Other Ohmmeter Functions − The ohmmeter function of a DMM

can also be used for other tests and measurements:
• Circuit continuity (with audible beep to confirm continuity)
• Conductance (very high resistance)
• Diode test (some DMM’s cannot test)
• Capacitance (some DMM’s cannot test)

Circuit continuity tests verify a path for current exists. The DMM may
beep to indicate continuity and display a very low ohm reading. An
open circuit is indicated by a very high reading or OL (out of limits −
infinite resistance).

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Measuring
Resistance
This meter is connected
to measure the resistance
across the switch. Notice
the fuse and relay have
been removed to isolate
the component
being tested.

Fig. 1-19
TL623f119c

NOTE Make sure that resistance values are expressed in the same units when
comparing measured resistance values to diagnostic specifications.

Resistance should match the specifications in the service

information.
• If resistance is too high, check for an open circuit or a faulty
component.
• If resistance is too low, check for a short circuit or faulty component.

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Section 1

Converting
Resistance Values
To convert ohms to
kilo-ohms (and vice versa)
just move the decimal
point three places. To
convert ohms to
megohms (and vice versa)
just move the decimal
point six places.

Fig. 1-20
TL623f120c

Converting resistance values − Automotive system resistance

values vary from large to small.
Low resistance levels are expressed in ohms. Large resistance values are
expressed in kilo−ohms and very large values are expressed in megohms.
• 1 kilo−ohm = 1,000 ohms (1.0 k
)
• 1 megohm = 1,000,000 ohms (1.0 M
)

Convert ohm readings as follows:

• kilo−ohms to ohms − decimal point moves 3 places to the right.
• ohms to kilo−ohms − decimal point moves 3 places to the left.
• Megohms to ohms − decimal point moves 6 places to the right.
• Ohms to Megohms − decimal point moves 6 places to the left.
Practice − Convert the following resistance values:
2,458
= k

.896 k
=

5.87 M
=

3,234,000
= M

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Common Mistakes
This figure shows similar looking (but very
different) values that can easily be
mistaken when reading the display.

Fig. 1-21
TL623f121

Common mistakes in resistance measuring − There are some

common mistakes a technician can make when doing resistance
measurements. You can save yourself time and aggravation by avoiding
these simple errors:
• Mistaking ZERO OHMS and O.L for over−limit − Take care to note
whether the display is showing zero ohms (no resistance) or O.L
(resistance higher than selected range or capacity of meter).
• Using the wrong UNITS OF MEASURE − Look for the modifying
units on the DMM display. There is a big difference between 10
ohms, 10 kilo−ohms (k
), and 10 megohms (M
).
• Confusing DECIMAL POINT POSITION − Look for the position of
the decimal point. It is important when dealing with large numbers.

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Section 1

Diode Check
To check a diode,
use the Diode Check
function on the meter and
apply both forward and
reverse bias.

Fig. 1-22
TL623f122c

Diode Check − A diode is like an electronic valve. It allows current to

flow in one direction but not in the other.
• The diode conducts current in a circuit when a small voltage is
applied in the correct polarity (direction).

Use the diode check function to test a diode with the following steps:
1. Set the DMM mode selector to diode check.
2. Connect the red lead to the anode (the end away from the stripe on
the diode).
3. Connect the black test lead to the cathode (end closest to the stripe).
4. Read the DMM display.
− Forward bias voltage for most diodes in automotive applications
is about 0.5 and 0.8 volts.
5. Reverse the test leads to test the diode in reverse bias.
6. The DMM display should show O.L for over−limit."

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Power
Power is typically
calculated, not measured.

Sample Calculation for Power Consumption of Load X:

• Voltage drop across Load X = 12 V
• Current through Load X = 200 mA
• Convert 200 mA to amps (0.2 A)
• Voltage x Current = Power
12 V x 0.2 A = 2.4 Watts

Fig. 1-23

Power Definition of power − Power is the amount of work being done by the
load in a circuit. Light bulbs are typically rated by voltage and watts.

Equation for power − Power is typically calculated rather than

measured. This is the equation for calculating power:
Voltage x Current = Power

Units for power calculations

• Voltage − volts
• Current − amps
• Power − watts

EXAMPLE This example shows the power consumption of Load X:

• Voltage drop across Load X = 12 V
• Current through Load X = 200 mA
• Convert 200mA to amps (0.2 A)
• Voltage x Current = Power
12 V x 0.2 A = 2.4 Watts

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Section 1

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