YAHWEH IS MY REFUGE:

A COMMENTARY ON PSALM 91

Rev. Hoshea Jonathan Garcia Felix, MDiv

MDiv Biblical Studies, International Graduate School of Leadership, 2018
BS Biology, University of the Philippines-Diliman, 2012

CRITICAL COMMENTARY

Federico Villanueva, PhD

INTERPRETING THE PSALMS
Asia Graduate School of Theology
Valenzuela City, Philippines

Submitted May 11, 2019

 Translation of Psalm 91
(1) The one who dwells in the hideout of Elyon /
will rest all night in the shadow of Shaddai. //
(2) I will say, “O Yahweh, you are my refuge and my fortress/,
my God in whom I will trust!”//

(3) Truly, he will rescue you from the trapping net of the fowler/
and from the plague of destruction. //
(4) With His pinions, He will cover you /
and under His wings, you will find refuge. /
your shield and protective wall is his faithfulness. //
(5) You will not be afraid of the terror by night/
nor the arrow that flies by day/
(6) nor the plague that stalks in darkness/
nor the destruction that devastates at the light of noonday. //
(7) At your side, a thousand may fall /
ten thousand at your right, /
but it will not come near you. //
(8) Yes, you will see with your own eyes/,
and look at the punishment of the wicked. //

(9) “Truly, O LORD, you are my refuge.”/

You have made the Most High your dwelling place. //

(10) No evil shall happen to you by chance, /

and plagues shall not come near your tents. //
(11) Truly, he will command His angels concerning you/
to guard you in all your ways. //

1
(12) They will lift you up on their hands, /
lest your foot hit a stone. //
(13) You will walk over the lion and the viper. /
And you will walk over the young lion and the serpent. //

(14) Because to me he is devoted, (thus) I will keep him safe, /

I will protect him because he knows my name. //
(15) He will call, and I will answer. /
I will be with him in trouble. /
I will deliver him and honor him. //
(16) I will satisfy him with long life, /
and I will show him the way to salvation. //

Structure, Form, and Setting

Psalm 91 has three major divisions based on thematic, grammatical, and literary
movement within the psalm. The first major division (vv. 1-8) has two subsections. It starts with
a confession of trust (vv. 1-2) and the promises of protection (vv. 3-8). The confession of trust in
Yahweh in verses 1-2 present the theme of the psalm- Yahweh protects those who trust in Him.
The shift from a third-person point of view in verse 1 to an “I”-voice in verse 2 (I will say, my
refuge, my fortress, my God) frames the confession of trust as a dialogue. Though the
perspectives are different, thematic and grammatical similarities connect verses 1 and 2. The
second section (vv.3-8) is marked by an emphatic affirmation ‫כּ ִ֤י‬, “Truly,” followed by a shift in
voice back to the third person, ‫ה֣וּא‬. Promises that answer the question, “How will Yahweh
provide safety to those who trust in Him?” fill this portion. Literary markers and themes
subdivide this segment into two smaller units, (i) verses 3-6 and (ii) 7-8.

2
 The second major division is marked in v.9 by another emphatic affirmation ‫ כּ ִ֤י‬followed
by a quote of the portion of the thematic statement at the start of the Psalm ‫י ְהו֣ה מַחְס ִ֑י‬. Like in the
opening verses the theme of trust in Yahweh is framed as a dialogue through a shift in
perspective from the first-person- “I” in line A of verse 9 to the second person “you” in the
parallel line B. Also, note the usage of multiple terms to refer to Yahweh. Verse 9 may be
considered a shorter refrain of the opening lines (vv. 1-2) for the second set of promises of
protection (vv. 10-13). The promises of protection in this section like the first one (vv. 3-8) also
show how Yahweh provides safety for those who trust in Him, but the similarity is not static.
Verse 10 summarizes the content of verses 3-8. Verses 11-13 sharpen the message by showing
heavenly beings as agents of Yahweh’s protection and wild earthly beings conquered underfoot.
This sharpening anticipates the climactic divine oracle in the final division of the psalm (vv. 14-
16). Yahweh himself speaks to affirm the promises of protection. This section shows a chiasm of
seven parallel lines in which the middle line is verbless with an emphatic “I.” This middle line
communicates Yahweh’s personal promise of his presence in the “middle” of trouble. The
following is a schematic of the proposed structure of Psalm 91:
Longer stanza (vv. 1-8) I
Thematic statement (vv. 1-2) A
Promises of protection (vv. 3-8) B
Protection from different evils (vv. 3-6)
Protection from a plague (vv. 7-8)
Shorter stanza (vv. 9-13) II
Thematic statement (v. 9) A’
Promises of protection (v. 10) B’
Protection from different evils (10a)
Protection from a plague (10b)
Heavenly beings’ protection from earthly beings (v. 11-13) C
Angels as agents of safety
Victory over wild animals

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Divine oracle III
I will keep him safe D
I will protect him E
I will answer F
I will be with him in trouble Central Theme
I will deliver him and honor him F'
I will satisfy him E'
I will show him the way to salvation D'

The nature of the specific sitz im lieben of Psalm 91 proves hard to pin down. Reflective
of this is Longman III’s classification of Psalm 91 as a psalm of confidence. His classification is
based on “tone and content,” rather than on its structure.1 Interpreters offer various suggestions
based on each assumed “cultic-historical hypothesis.” Dahood classifies Psalm 91 as a royal
psalm and situates it in the court. He asserts that the psalm is “recited before the king.”2
Following Dahood, Eaton argues that the description in verses 1-4 situates the speaker “on Zion’s
rock,” and the dangers in verses 3-7 are dangers faced by the king in his military campaigns. He
adds that verses 11-12 suggest the notion of Assyrian kings that rode palanquins and Egyptian
kings that were transported by sedan chairs. Ultimately, the extravagance of the oracle in verses
14-16 that promises “invulnerability, triumph, glory and surpassing life” can only be attributed to
a king.3 Traditionally, the Targum presents Psalm 91 as a royal Psalm. There, the psalm is a
three-way dialogue between David, Solomon, and Yahweh.

1
Tremper Longman III, How to Read the Psalms, (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1988), 31.

2
Mitchell Dahood, Psalms II: 51-100, ed. William Foxwell Albright and David Noel Freedman, First
Edition., The Anchor Bible (Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1968), 329.

3
John H. Eaton, Kingship and the Psalms, 2. ed., The biblical seminar 3 (Sheffield: JSOT Pr, 1986), 57-58.

4
 The majority of scholars situate the psalm in the temple as part of specific liturgies. The
hypothesis that Psalm 91 is for liturgies is common among interpreters. Anderson, following
Schmidt’s suggestion, associates the psalm with entrance liturgies that serve both as instruction
and blessing to the pilgrims.4 For Westermann, it is the opposite; he classifies Psalm 91 as a
psalm of blessing that is given to the pilgrims when they leave the temple. He states that “all
important celebrations at the sanctuary ended with a bestowal and reception of the blessing.”5
Others, while maintaining that Psalm 91 is a psalm of blessing, also suggest other elements. Tate
acknowledges the possibility that Psalm 91 has royal and liturgical elements. It can be that Psalm
91 is initially used “in a pre-battle liturgy of worship for the king.”6 For Mowinckel, the blessing
in the psalm is a form of an answer. In the form of a blessing, “the priest promises the protection
of Yahweh to a person asking for it.”7 Gerstenberger identifies Psalm 91 as a benediction, a form
of blessing that has didactic elements and is “preached to the community in worship.” 8 Briggs9
and Seybold10 propose that Psalm 91 explicitly teaches about divine protection.

4
Arnold Albert Anderson, The Book of Psalms. 2: Psalms 73 - 150, Reprinted., The new century Bible
commentary (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans [u.a.], 1992), 655.

5
Claus Westermann, The Psalms: Structure, Content & Message (Minneapolis: Augsburg Pub. House,
1980), 102.

6
Marvin E. Tate, Psalms 51 - 100, ed. David Allen Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker, 9. Dr., Word Biblical
Commentary [General ed.: David A. Hubbard; Glenn W. Barker. Old Testament ed.: John D. W. Watts. New
Testament ed.: Ralph P. Martin]; Vol. 20 (Waco, Tex: Word Books, Publ, 2000), 425.

7
Sigmund Mowinckel, The Psalms in Israel’s Worship, vol. 2, 2 vols., The biblical resource series (Grand
Rapids, Mich. : Dearborn, Mich: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. ; Dove Publishers, 2004), 50.

8
Erhard Gerstenberger, Psalms. Part 2, and Lamentations, The forms of the Old Testament literature v. 15
(Grand Rapids, Mich: Eerdmans, 2001), 167.

9
Charles A. Briggs and Emilie Grace Briggs, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of
Psalms: In Two Volumes. 2: ..., Repr., The International critical commentary on the holy scriptures of the Old and
New Testaments (Edinburgh: Clark, 1986).

10
Klaus Seybold, Introducing the Psalms (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1990), 151.

5
 Tate perceives that the purpose of the instruction and exhortation of the psalm is to
“strengthen the faith of those who trust in Yahweh.”11 However, as a warning against a “one-
sided interpretation of the psalm as a wisdom instructional poem,” Hossfeld and Zenger suggest
that Psalm 91 is a “psalm of trust sui generis.” For them, Psalm 91 is not only a religious
teaching but also a practical promise that Yahweh indeed saves. The petitioner in reciting the
psalm embodies three different points of view of trust and salvation. He establishes a counter-
reality in a dangerous world.12 Keil and Delitzsch, on the other hand, classify Psalm 91 as a
“Talismanic Song in Time of War and Pestilence,” that praises Yahweh for his work. 13 This
understanding of Psalm 91 as “anti-demonic” goes back to ancient interpretation and ritualistic
use of the psalm
Psalm 91 contains elements that fit different settings in life. Words like hideout, refuge,
shield, and arrow conjure images of warfare that fit a royal psalm in pre-battle liturgies. The
antiphonal reading of the psalm and the divine oracle at the end places the psalm in temple rites.
Echoes of ancient wisdom literature reverberate in the exposition of truths about Yahweh and
His active role in the salvation of the faithful. The confessions of faith, the promises of salvation,
and the divine oracle abound in cries of trust. According to Gerstenberger14 and Tate, 15 Eissfeldt
posits that the Qumranic form of Psalm 91 is a conversion psalm. The confessions of trust in the
psalm is the declaration of a former devotee of Elyon-Shaddai of his new allegiance to Yahweh.
For those that expound on the close integration of the physical and the spiritual realms in the
ancient worldview, the promises of protection, salvation, and long-life are apotropaic and
exorcistic.

11
Tate, Psalms 51 – 100, 450.

12
Frank-Lothar Hossfeld and Erich Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51-100, ed. Linda M.
Maloney and Klaus Baltzer, Hermeneia--a Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible (Minneapolis, MN:
Fortress Press, 2005), 429.

13
C. F. Keil and Delitzsch F., Commentary on the Old Testament, Accordance electronic ed. 10 vols.;
(Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 1996), paragraph 17270.
14
Gerstenberger, Psalms, 167.

15
Tate, Psalms 51 – 100, 450.
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 This commentary’s conjecture, like most interpretation, is that Psalm 91 is probably a part
of a liturgy. In addition to features mentioned above, the repeating structural parallels, along with
poetic intensifying that climax in the divine oracle suggest a ritualistic pattern. Also, the different
perspectives that repeat the message of trust in Yahweh involve various members of the faith.
However, the specific circumstance of the psalm’s use proves to be elusive16 As stated above, the
psalm shows elements that are suitable for many situations when the supplicant needs help. The
psalm can instruct about Yahweh, assure those who face danger, give voice to praises, and
confess trust. Psalm 91 is for the faithful who lives in the reality of trust in Yahweh- his dwelling
place.

Exposition
Verses 1-2
Grammatically, both verses are similarly structured, suggesting the link between
verses 1 and 2 as a unit.17 Nevertheless, there are thematic movements between the verses. The
parallelism is not static. Various features sharpen the theme of trust in Yahweh. (1) The shift in
perspective, i.e., from the third person in verse 1 to the first-person in verse 2. (2) The locus of
the security of the faithful moves from the “hideout” and “shadow” of Elyon, probably
referencing the temple, to Yahweh himself as “my refuge, my fortress, and my God.” (3)
Different terms are employed to refer to Yahweh.18 (4) Moreover, line B of verse 2 explicitly
states what the images are conveying- “my God in whom I will trust.”
In line A of verse 1, the psalmist indicates the security and concealment from harm of
“the one who dwells” in the presence of God through the term ‫סֵתֶר‬, “hideout.” Elsewhere, ‫ סֵתֶר‬is
used by Jonathan to indicate where David should hide under Saul’s death threat (1Sm 19:2).

16
Tate, Psalms 51 – 100, 452.

17
Verse 1 opens with a participle ‫ יֹ֭שׁ ֵב‬and its line B closes with the hitpolel verb, ‫יִתְלֹונָֽן‬. Verse 2 likewise
is framed with the verbs ‫ אמַ֗ר‬at the beginning of line A and ֹ‫ אֶבְטַח‬at the end of line B. Suffixing the preposition (‫־‬
‫ )בּֽו‬at the end emphasizes this deliberate parallelism.

7
Yahweh also conceals Himself in darkness as “cover” (Ps. 18:12). It is used to designate
secluded places such as mountains (1Sm 25:20), among the reeds of a marsh (Job 40:21) and a
cliff face (Sg 2:14). In the context of Psalm 91, it is used metaphorically, emphasizing
concealment from all kinds of harm and calamity for those who trust in Yahweh. Parallel line B
enhances this idea. The term ‫צ ֵ֥ל‬
ֵ ְ‫בּ‬, “shadow” emphasizes the awareness of divine protection. On
occasions ‫ בְּצֵֵ֥ל‬is used in conjunction with Yahweh, it is used to denote His protection in
different instances such as in childbirth (Is 49:2), in delivering Yahweh’s message (Is 51:16),
return from exile (Ho 14:8), and in zoomorphic representations of Yahweh in the Psalms as
having wings (Ps 17:8, 36:8 57:2 63:8). These occasions in the Hebrew Bible that show the
protective purposes of a deity’s shadow have similar parallels in other Ancient Near East oracles.
Usage of ‫צ ֵ֥ל‬
ֵ ְ‫ בּ‬in conjunction with Yahweh is comparable to the Akkadian concept of ṣillu and
ṣulūlu as an “epithet for their deities.”19 In one instance, the deity Ishtar of Arbela says to
Esarhaddon through the prophet Urkittu-sharrat of Calah, “Who is now lonely, who is now
wronged? Fear not! Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, is in my shadow.”20 The term shadow here, like
in Psalm 91, is understood as divine “protection” specifically meant for the king/royalty.
The verb ‫יתְלֹונָֽֽן‬, “he shall abide” in line B carries the same idea of dwelling with as the
Qal participle ‫יֹֹ֭שׁ ֵב‬, “one who dwells” in line A. The 3rd person Hithpolel imperfect ‫יתְלֹונָֽֽן‬, occurs
only here and in Job 39:28. Here, the terms allude to the hospitality given to vulnerable homeless
and travelers that need protection security and a place they can take shelter.21
The images of secure spaces that vividly describes Yahweh evokes a personal confession
of trust in verse 2. The repeated use of the first-person singular suffixes in the verse’s two lines
(my refuge, my fortress, my God) highlights this confession.

19
“‫צֵל‬,” HALOT, 3:1025.

20
Martti Nissinen et al., Prophets and Prophecy in the Ancient Near East, Writings from the ancient world
no. 12 (Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003), 81. SAA 9 2.4, line iii 16'.

21
Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51-100, 429.

8
Furthermore, there is a shift from the 3rd person verb ‫יתְלֹונָֽֽן‬, “he will rest all night” in verse one
to the first-person verbs ‫אֹמַַ֗ר‬, “I will say” and ‫אֶבְטַח‬, “I will trust” in verse 2. In line A of the
verse, the declaration to Yahweh is that He is his ‫מַחְס‬, “refuge” and ‫מְצוּדת‬, “fortress.” These two
terms are used elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible. ‫ מַחְס‬is used to signify the place where mountain
goats live (Ps 104:8) and to draw a vision of Yahweh sheltering his people from the elements (Is
4:6, 25:4).22 ‫ מַחְס‬carries the idea of preservation and sustenance of life.23 As for ‫מְצוּדת‬,
“fortress” it is used elsewhere to refer to a mountain stronghold.24 In Psalm 91, these terms
continue the idea of Yahweh’s protection from verse 1 but heighten it by moving the locus of
security from the “hideout” and “shadow” of Elyon, probably referencing the temple, to Yahweh
himself as “my refuge, my fortress, and my God.” Yahweh Himself is the stable, reliable
protection where life can thrive.
Line B of verse 2 enhances the metaphors employed previously by directly stating the
message of trust in Yahweh. The world of imagery builds-up and peak in the declaration of “my
God in whom will I trust!” Also, the first-person personal pronoun suffixed in the term ‫אֱֹלהַַ֗י‬,
“my God” signifies that Yahweh is the psalmist’s personal God. What defines this confession of
the special relationship between the psalmist and Yahweh is ‫אֶבְטַח־בֹּֽו‬. The object trust in this
relationship is Yahweh. The term ‫בטח‬, “trust” with the preposition ְ‫ בּ‬occurs sixty-eight times in
the Hebrew Bible. ‫ בטח‬+ ְ‫ בּ‬is usually used to show Yahweh or one of Yahweh’s attributes as the
object of trust (Pr 16:20, 29:25, Is 26:3, 37x).25

22
“‫מַחְסֶה מַחֲסֶה‬,” HALOT, 2:571.

23
For ‫ מַחְס ֣י‬used metaphorically elsewhere for God see Ps 14:6, 46:2, 61:4, 62:8, 62:9, 71:7, 73:28, 91:2,
91:9, 94:22, 142:6; Pr 14:26; Je 17:17; Jo 4:16.23 For ‫ מְצוּדת‬see 2S 22:2, Ps 18:3, 31:3-4, 66:1171:3 144:2.

24
See 1S 22:1, 4; 23:13, 24:23, 2S 5:7, 9, 17; 23:14, Is 29:3 Jr 48:7, 1Ch 11:5; 11:15, 2Ch 11:16, Jb 39:28,
"‫מְצוּדה‬,” HALOT, 2:622.

25
“‫בּטַח‬,” BDB, 105.

9
 In most cases, it shows that Yahweh is the only object of trust and no one else. The kind
of trust expressed here in its context (see vv. 5-6) is not that of temporary relief, but an enduring
dependence on Yahweh alone for the future. The LXX translates ‫ )בטח‬as ἐλπίζω, “hope,” that
anchors the petitioner’s confidence for the future solely in Yahweh.
According to Tate, Gunkel suggests that a fourfold repetition of referencing Yahweh is
merely a “tautology,” but even though the first two verses show parallel elements, there is a
poetic movement among their lines.26
‫עֶל ְיֹון‬, “Elyon” is used adjectivally in the Bible, referring to “uppermost.” It is used to
describe things (“upper basket” in Gen 40:17), places (e.g. “chamber” in Ezek. 42:5 and “temple
gate” in 2 Kings 15:35 and Jer 20:2), people (“king” referring to David in Ps 89:28) and status
(“honor” in Deut 26:19). It is also used to name a particular deity that is distinct from El but is no
longer the case in the Hebrew Bible. It is an epithet or an attribute of Yahweh (e.g., Ps 7:17, Is
14:14).27 ‫ עֶל ְיֹון‬describes the exalted position of Yahweh over all creation.
The second term for Yahweh in Psalm 91, ‫שַׁדַּי‬, Shadday, has uncertain etymology.
Among different translations in antiquity, the precise meaning of Shaddai is elusive. 28 Recent
suggestions also yielded mixed results. Some scholars suggest that it originated from the Arabic
root šdd, which means “to be strong.” Others propose that it has an Assyrian root šadû that
means high or mountain29 or from the Aramaic word šdʾ, “the one who pours out blessings.” 30
Still, others postulate that the divine name developed from a confluence of the different gods in a
pantheon.31 Suggestions like this include Sumerian divine names, that mean “knower of the
heart” or “the one who hurls thunders.” The LXX translation of ‫שַׁדַּי‬- ἱκανός means “to suffice.”

26
Tate, Psalms 51 – 100, 453.

27
“‫עֶל ְיֹון‬,” HALOT, 2:832.

28
“‫שׁ ַדַּי‬,” TLOT, 3:1306.

29
“‫שׁ ַדַּי‬,” BDB, 995.

30
“‫שׁ ַדַּי‬,” TLOT, 3:1307.

31
“‫שׁ ַדַּי שׁ ַדּ ֽי‬,” HALOT, 4:1421.

10
It occurs for thirty-one times in the Hebrew Bible, usually in parallel with Elohim and Yahweh.
This term is used in the MT to denote Yahweh’s military might (Is 13:6, Ezk 12:4 Jl 1:15).
In Genesis, ‫ שַׁדַּי‬is sovereign in making and fulfilling the covenant promises with the patriarchs
(Gn 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 48:3). ‫ שׁ ַדַּי‬describes YAHWEH as a mighty king that rules over the world
and grants life and blessings to His covenant people.
Accordance search indicates that the personal name of God, ‫ יהוה‬together with its root ‫יה‬
is used 71710 times in the Hebrew Bible. Ancient tradition warns against mispronouncing ‫יהוה‬
that is why it is usually read as ‫אֲדֹני‬, “Lord” and understood as ‫שׁ ְמא‬, “the name.32 The
Pentateuch demonstrates that ‫ יהוה‬is the creator God (Gn 2), the God of judgment and salvation
(Gn 7, 38), the God who made a covenant with the patriarchs and Israel (Gn 12, 25, 28), and the
God who called Moses to liberate the nation of Israel (Ex 5-14). In the book of Psalms, ‫ יהוה‬is
the object of trust and worship. In the prophetic books, ‫ יהוה‬is the lover of Israel (Hos), the judge
of the nations (Jr, Lm), and the restorer of His people (Isa). However, in the book of Exodus lies
the most important disclosures of ‫ יהוה‬about His name. In chapter 3, He proclaims, “I AM WHO
I AM,” showing his self-sufficiency. In chapter 33, He declares, “Yahweh, Yahweh, a God
merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness.” In both
cases, ‫ יהוה‬shows His ‫חנן‬, “grace,” ‫רחם‬, “mercy” and ‫חֶסֶד‬, “covenantal love” in sending Moses
to liberate His people just as he promised to the patriarchs and in showing His glory to Moses as
a sign of forgiving His people. ‫ יהוה‬in His self-sufficiency chose to associate Himself deeply in
accomplishing His covenant to His people.
ַ‫ אֱלֹוה‬/ ‫ אל‬/ ‫אֱֹלהים‬, “heavenly being/s; god/s” can be used to refer to spiritual beings such
as angels and demons. Though, in the Hebrew Bible, most of its occurrence is synonymous with
‫יהוה‬. Here in Psalm 91, it is personalized as ‫אֱֹלהַַ֗י‬, “my God.” ‫ אֱֹלהַַ֗י‬portrays the Yahweh as a
personal God.

32
“‫ ”יהוה‬HALOT, 2:395.

11
 In the opening verses, Psalm 91 introduces the theme that Yahweh protects those who
trust in him by showing what it means to trust in ‫יהוה‬, “Yahweh,” who is ‫עֶל ְיֹון‬, “Elyon” (above
all); ‫שׁ ַדַּ י‬, “Shadday” (powerful); and ‫אֱֹלהַַ֗י‬, “my God” (personal). In Psalm 91’s eloquent
opening, the faithful is “put in his place” through a concentration of images of security, ‫סֵתֶר‬,
“hideout”; ‫צֵל‬, “shadow;” ‫מַחְסֶה‬, “refuge;” and ‫מְצוּדה‬, “fortress.” He is under the self-sufficient
Yahweh who rules above all creation in power and glory. The transcendence of Yahweh is self-
evident in His names. He truly is a steady and solid foundation of trust. In a masterstroke, the
transcendent Yahweh is made intimate.33 The psalmist declares “my God,” and it reminds the
worshipping community that they are Yahweh’s people. The pronouncement of trust evokes the
response of ‫בטח‬, “to trust” in Yahweh.

Verse 3-8
The imagery of Yahweh’s protection intensifies as the psalm proceeds into the promises
of protection in verses 3-8 by giving concrete examples of Yahweh’s protection. The promises of
protection begin with the idea of “saving from danger.” The hifil of the verb ‫ נצל‬used elsewhere
in the Hebrew Bible concerning danger expresses extraction from the current situation (Am 3:12;
Ju 11:26).34 Line A of verse 3 portrays the addressee as an entrapped bird in a ‫פּ ֵ֥ח‬
ַ , “trapping
net.” The term ‫פּ ֵ֥ח‬
ַ in some instances is used to describe Yahweh’s vengeance upon the enemies
of Israel (Is 24:17; Jer 48:43). In the Book of Psalms, they commonly refer to schemes of evil
people (119:110; 140:6; 141:9; 142:4) as in the case here.
The ‫יקַ֗וּשׁ‬, “fowler,” probably referring to the psalmist’s enemy, i.e., the wicked sets up the
trap. Yahweh gives assurance that he will take the faithful out of schemes inflicted by man. ‫דֶּ ֶ֫בֶר‬,
“destruction” on the other hand extends this assurance.

33
Derek Kidner, Psalms 73–150: An Introduction and Commentary, TOTC 16; IVP/
Accordance electronic ed. (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1975), 364.

34
“‫נצל‬,” HALOT, 2:717.

12
In the Pentateuch, the term ‫דּבֶר‬
ֶ֫ ֶ is used to depict Yahweh’s power to punish the Egyptians and
those who transgress the covenant (Ex 5:3, 9:3;15, Lv 26:25, Nu 14:12, Dt 28:21). It also refers
to natural or spiritual disasters that Yahweh inflicts to Israel when they transgress His covenant
(1Cr 21:12-14; 2Cr 6:28, 7:13; Ezk 5:17, 38:22; Jer 14:12, 21:9, 27:8-13). In Hos. 13:14, like in
this psalm, ‫ ֶדֶּ֫בֶר‬is associated with death. Even if the whole nation incurs the plague of Yahweh,
He spares those who trust in Him from calamity. Yahweh will rescue those who trust in him
from dangers of human-made schemes and from the wide-scale plague that is of divine origin.
If verse 3 depicts Yahweh as a rescuer from dangers, then verse 4 portrays Him as an
impenetrable guard. It places the faithful from the middle danger into the center of Yahweh’s
protection. Verse 4 uses a series of metaphors and poetical movements within its three parallel
lines to build a world of imagery. It has four images of defense that are placed at the beginning
of each line, ‫אֶבְרה‬, “pinions” in line A, ‫כּנף‬, “wings” in line B, and ‫צנּה‬, “shield” and ‫סֹחֵרה‬,
“protective wall” in line C. These images seem to match the four dangers later in verse 5. Verse 4
starts with a zoomorphic portrayal of Yahweh. He is depicted as a mother bird covering her
chicks and staving off hostile attackers with her ‫אֶבְרה‬, “pinions” and ‫כּנף‬, “wings.” Change in
temporal perspective from part 1 to part 2 is employed to sharpen the message of the line. In line
A, the mother hen covers up ‫ סכך‬her chicks, showing a view from above. Then in line B,
signaled by the preposition ‫תחת‬, “under” the view from above shifts to the view of the chick
where its mother hen’s wings look like a stable refuge when viewed from below. This change of
perspective from part 1 to part 2 sharpens the imagery depicting Yahweh protecting the faithful
from all sides, i.e. from above and below. Egyptian iconographies also portray this metaphor.
Deities in the form of large birds such as vultures and eagles are depicted to spread their wings
around and over the Pharaoh.35

35
See Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51-100, 71-72.

13
 This metaphor also occurs in Assyrian oracles. In the context of protection from enemies,
Ishtar says to Esarhaddon, through the prophet Sinqisha-amur, “I brought you up between my
wings; I will see how you prosper.”36 In another instance, the prophet La-dagil-ili promises
divine protection by uttering this oracle from a deity to Esarhaddon, “Like a winged bird ov[er its
fledgling] I will twitter above you, going aroun[d yo]u, surrounding you.”37 The verb ‫ סכך‬that
means “to make inaccessible” in its hifil form38 together with ‫“ חסה‬to take refuge” completes the
zoomorphic portrayal of Yahweh as a protective bird of her chicks is a reminder of Yahweh’s
protection portrayed in Deuteronomy 32:11. Line C, also use imagery to describe Yahweh’s
protection. If lines A and B elaborately present Yahweh as a caring mother hen, line C transitions
the world of imagery to that of a battlefield. This shift sharpens, figuratively and literally, the
promises of protection by equating Yahweh’s faithfulness to a sturdy ‫צנּה‬, “shield” and ‫סֹחֵרה‬,
“protective wall.”
The LXX translates the hapax legomenon ‫סחרה‬, “protective wall” as a participle meaning
“will surround you” (Ps 90:4, NET Septuagint). This translation that starts with a noun and then
shifts to a participle in words connected by “and” seems awkward The translation here concurs
with the definition of HALOT that appeals to the Syriac cognate sḥartā that means “fortress.”39.
Also, maintaining the translation of ‫סחרה‬, as “protective wall,” is consistent with the psalmist’s
intended use of four parallel feminine nouns for the images of Yahweh’s protection. Yahweh’s
protection from harm is all around and has the protective care of a mother hen and the sturdiness
of trusty battle shield and wall.

36
Martti Nissinen et al., Prophets and Prophecy in the Ancient Near East, Writings from the ancient world
no. 12 (Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003), no 82. SAA 9 2.5, iii 26'.
37
Martti Nissinen et al., Prophets and Prophecy in the Ancient Near East, Writings from the ancient world
no. 12 (Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003), no 80. SAA 9 2.3, ii 3'.

38
“‫סכך‬,” HALOT, 2:754.
39
“‫סֹחֵרה‬,” HALOT, 2:750.

14
 Verses 5-6 promises the faithful that because he will be rescued and protected from
danger, he ‫תירא‬, “will not be afraid” of the different dangers life may continuously bring. It
intensifies the imagery of Yahweh’s protection by showing how grave the situation can be. Verse
5 uses four time-markers in two meristic pairs, ‫ ליל‬and ‫יום‬, “night and day” in verse 5 and ‫אֹפֶל‬,
and ‫צהֳרַ ים‬, “darkness and light of noonday” to show that the different dangers can come anytime.
This section specifies four dangers, ‫פּ֣חַד‬
ַ , “terror;” ‫חצץ‬, “arrow;” ‫ ֶדּבֶר‬, “pestilence;” and ‫קֶטֶב‬,
“destruction.” The dangers given here are much varied than in verse 3, but ‫ ֶדּבֶר‬, “pestilence;”
connects the two sections, forming a “surround” on the different images of defense in verse 4.
They show different sources of danger, ,‫פּ֣חַד‬
ַ and ‫ חצץ‬when paired together probably invokes the
image of night attacks during wars. While ‫ ֶדּבֶר‬, and ‫קֶטֶב‬, can mean natural and spiritual
attacks.40 If the four images for Yahweh’s protection in verse 4 are parallel singular feminine
nouns. The images of danger in verses 5-6 are four parallel masculine nouns. This use of
antithetical gender-matched parallelisms41 connects the verses, but in opposing ways. The four
defenses promised in verse 4 already match the dangers in verses 5-6. The dangers the supplicant
face are varied and can come anytime from different causes, but Yahweh rescues and shields him
(verses 3-4). Indeed, the faithful “will not be afraid.”
These dangers described that surround the faithful are not trivial matters. Verses 7-8
serve to amplify the dangers in verses 3, 5, and 6, by showing their deadliness. The imagery here
is possibly that of a battlefield, which works with the images of ‫פּ֣חַד‬
ַ and ‫ חצץ‬in verse 5.
However, they most probably refer to the times when Yahweh sends a ‫( ֶדֶּ֫בֶר‬vv. 3 and 6) of
natural and spiritual causes against His enemies and those that break His covenant. Whichever
the case, Yahweh spares those who trust in Him from such calamities.

40
See discussion of ‫דּבֶר‬
ֶ֫ ֶ in verse 3.

41
On gender-matched parallelisms see and Wilfred G. E. Watson, Traditional Techniques in Classical
Hebrew Verse, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 170 (Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press,
1994).

15
 In lines A and B of verse 7, the intentional reverse order of pair words,42 gender-matched
parallel lines,43 and the ellipsis of the verb in line B connect them structurally. These
connections emphasize the buildup that happens in the word-pair ‫אֶל ֶף‬, “thousand” and ‫רְ בָבָה‬,
“ten thousand”44 that climaxes in line C, “it will not come near you.” By raising the stakes of the
danger, Psalm 91 highlightsYahweh’s protection all the more. Verse 8 build on the idea of
protection from line C of verse 7 by adding that the faithful will not only be protected but will
also witness ‫בְּעֵינֶֶ֣יָך‬, “with your own eye” Yahweh’s judgment. Verses 7-8, shows that when
dangers do transpire, then the wicked, in contrast to those who trust in Yahweh, will receive their
punishment. The comparison of the faithful and the wicked echoes wisdom texts that encourage
their hearers to trust in Yahweh.
The use of strong imagery in verse 7, perhaps a calamitous plague that Yahweh sends in
His wrath, is meant to exalt the special protection given by Yahweh. By showing the terrible
effects of the dangers that may come, verse 8 shows the absolute strength of Yahweh’s protection
that will shield the faithful in contrast to the demise of the wicked.

Verse 9-13
Translated literally, the lines ‫שׂ֣מְתּ‬
ַ ‫ כּֽי־אַתּ ֣ה י ְהו֣ה מַחְס ִ֑י עֶֶ֝ל ְיַֹ֗ון‬in verse 9 renders as “Because
(causative)/ Truly (affirmative) you Yahweh my refuge, Elyon you made your refuge.” The
problem arises in identifying as to whom ‫אתה‬, "you" in line A apply in connection to the shift to
first-person in line B’s ‫מַחְס ִ֑י‬, “my refuge.” NASB chose to translate it as literal as possible- “For
you have made the LORD, my refuge” (Psalms 91:9 NAS95) causing vagueness.

42
The intentional difference in word order, not only shows parallelism but also brings ‫ אֶל ֶף‬and ‫ רְ בָבָה‬in
proximity, intensifying the imagery.

43
‫“ צַד‬side” and ‫אֶל ֶף‬, “thousand” in verse 7 are masculine nouns, while ‫רְ בָבָה‬, “ten thousand” and

44
Used together elsewhere (1S 18:7, Mi 6:7),‫ אֶל ֶף‬and ‫ רְ בָבָה‬show increasing number/ intensity.

16
 Others like ESV followed the proposition suggested by BHS to revise the first-person
suffix “my” in ‫ מַחְס ִ֑י‬to the second person “your” as in ‫מַחְסֶָך‬- “Because you have made the
LORD your dwelling place—” (Psalms 91:9 ESV). The LXX retains “my refuge” but translates
the next line of verse 9 as middle voice- “Because you, O Lord, are my hope, the Most High you
made your refuge” (Psalms 90:9 NETS)- understanding the second line as a form of self-
encouragement. The translation of verse 9 here chooses to retain the MT and understood ‫ כי‬as an
affirmative, “Truly” that, together with an emphatic ‫ אַתּ ֣ה‬signals a direct address to Yahweh.
This opening, ‫כּֽי־אַתּ ֶ֣ה‬, “Truly, you” forms a connection but signals a new major division
from verses 3-8 that starts with, ‫כּ ִ֤י הֶ֣וּא‬, “Truly he.” This prioritizing of the MT rather than
following the proposal of the BHS suggests that the shifts in perspective in verse 9 is intentional
and forms a refrain with the opening verses 1-3. Verse 9 starts by another emphatic affirmation
‫ כּ ִ֤י‬followed by a quote of the portion of the thematic statement at the start of the Psalm ‫י ְהו֣ה‬
‫מַחְס ִ֑י‬.
Like in the opening verses, the theme of trust in Yahweh is framed as a dialogue through
a shift in perspective from the first-person- “I” in line A of verse 9 to the second person “you” in
the parallel line B. Also, note the usage of multiple terms to refer to Yahweh. Line A once again
directly addresses ‫י ְהוֶ֣ה‬, like in verse 2. Likewise, line B of verse 9 repeats the idea of ‫ עֶל ְיֹ֗ון‬as a
dwelling place in verse 1. This arrangement in lines A and B of verse 9 is the reverse sequence of
verses 1 and 2 at the opening. This thematic similarity, the direct confession, and the reversed
sequence all point that the next major division is a “reflection” of the first one.
Verse 10 does not only summarize the promises made in the previous verses- the faithful
will be protected from all kinds of dangers, but also adds another dimension to Yahweh’s
protection. In verse 10, the pual form of ‫אנה‬, “befall” adds another dimension to the dangers the
addressee of the Psalm faces. Yahweh protects from ‫“ רעה‬evil” that may fall upon the faithful by
unintentionally and will not allow any plague to come near the faithful. The usage of the image
of ‫אהֶל‬,
ֹ֫ “tent” brings the theme of a dwelling place in this verse.

17
 Verses 11 adds another layer of imagery in the psalm. Previously Yahweh is shown as a
rescuer and protector; in the following verses, he is a royal commander. The verb ‫צוה‬, “entrust”
with Yahweh as the subject, has a nuance of a royal command.45 Its piel form is used mainly in
situations where a superior is “ordering and commanding a subordinate.”46 In this passage,
Yahweh is the superior of ‫מַל ְאָכי‬, “angels” as they are ‫“ שׁמר‬to guard.” Verse 12 expands this
imagery by showing how the commissioned angels will carry out their command from Yahweh.
The faithful is assured that the angels’ protection will not let ‫תּגּ ֹ֖ף בּאֶ ֶ֣בֶן ַרג ְ ֶל ָֽך‬, “your foot hit a
stone.” This promise of not letting the faithful’s feet even bruise, given the dangers given in the
preceding verses, i.e., arrows, traps and deadly plagues that kill multitudes, show how tight proof
the angels’ security will be.
Verse 13 moves the idea from protection for the faithful towards victory over the dangers
itself. The ‫שׁ֣חַל‬
ַ and the ‫ כְּפיר‬interpreted here as are wild beasts known for their exceptional
strength and skill in hunting prey while the reptiles ‫ פֶּתֶן‬and ‫ תַּנּין‬are known for their cunning and
poison. ‫“ דרך‬to tread” over these cunning and wild animals show that those who trust in Yahweh
are not only protected from dangers but also experience victory over them. If verses 5-6 promises
protection at different times of the day (temporal), verses 11-13 talks about the protection of
Yahweh in different places (spatial). Together with the image of angels of verses 11-12, the
picture of trampled wild beings shows how the faithful is protected in different spheres- the
heavenly and earthly realms.

Verse 14-16
The faithful confesses his trust, and in response, he receives promises of protection on
Yahweh’s behalf. Now, through a divine oracle, Yahweh is given voice. The Book of Psalms
primarily give voice to the emotions of Yahweh’s people, but portions like these, i.e., divine
oracles give glimpses of Yahweh’s emotional life.

45
“‫צוה‬,” HALOT, 3:1010.

46
“‫צוה‬,” TLOT, 2:1062.
18
 The portion climaxes by Yahweh’s deep-seated acknowledgment of the faithful’s
confession of trust. Yahweh sees the confessions as an expression of devotion to Him. The verb
‫חשׁק‬, “to be devoted” communicates love that is passionate and deeply attached (See Gn 34:8 Dt
21:11).47 Line B’s ‫ידַ ַ֥ע שׁ ְמֽי‬, “he knows my name” reflects the same. Yahweh hears the way the
faithful address Him as Elyon, Shadday, Yahweh, and my God in the opening (vv. 1-2) and the
refrain at the middle of the psalm (v. 9). ‫ ידע‬in this context, coupled with ‫ חשׁק‬is not only
mental assent, nor cognitive understanding, but also relational awareness. Yahweh acknowledges
that the faithful’s confessions of trust are not mere rituals prescribed by religion, and to these
confessions of devotion and attachment, Yahweh responds. He expresses Himself in a flurry of
action words- no less than seven “I wills” arranged in seven parallel lines in a span of two verses!
Yahweh declares, ‫טִ֑הוּ‬
ֵ ְ ‫אֲפַלּ‬, “I will keep him safe; ‫אֲשַׂגְּבֵ֗הוּ‬, “I will protect him; ‫אֶעֱנ ֵ֗הוּ‬, “I will
answer him;” ‫אֲחַלְּצֵ֗הוּ‬, “I deliver him;” (‫)כַבְּדֵ ֽהוּ‬, “I will honor him;” ‫עִ֑הוּ‬
ֵ ‫אַשׂ ְבּי‬, “I will satisfy
him;” and ‫אַרְ אֵ֗הוּ‬, “I will show him.” At the center of all these action verbs is a verbless middle
line (4th line), ‫עמֹּֽו־אָנכ ַ֥י בְצר ִ֑ה‬, translated here as “I will be with him in trouble”48 but has an
emphatic first-person singular personal pronoun ‫אָנכ ַ֥י‬, “I” that guarantees Yahweh’s presence.
This central emphasis recalls the concept of dwelling place and refuge in the faithful’s
confessions of faith (vv. 1-2 and 9) that precedes the promises of protection in the first two major
divisions. This concentration of action words affirms everything the promises of protection of
verses and add into it. Yahweh himself promises ‫א ֶרְך י ָ֭מים‬,
ֶ֣ “long life” and ‫ישׁוּעת‬, “salvation” in
addition to the promises of rescue, protection, and preservation in the earlier promises.

47
“‫חשׁק‬,” HALOT, 1:362.

48
The verb “will be” is not in the Hebrew Text, but is added here to smoothen the reading of the verse.

19
 The Canonical Context of Psalm 91
Book III of Psalms ends in a disappointed tone. Its last psalms are lament psalms. Psalm
88 considered as the darkest psalm does not offer any consolation to its cries of suffering. It does
not have any element of praise, not even an expression of hope in a “certainty of a hearing” from
Yahweh. Psalm 89, on the other hand, starts with praise in remembering the covenant of Yahweh
to David’s dynasty. However, it then turns to a lament for the defeated people of Yahweh. The
covenant with David is broken and distant reality.49 It struggles to see Yahweh’s faithfulness and
integrity amid humiliation and even identifies Yahweh as the one responsible for the fall of the
Davidic dynasty (vv. 33-37, 49).
In the last psalms of Book III, the cause of lamentation is Yahweh, who does not hear and
rejects his people. Book IV starts by looking back further back into the past than the Davidic
covenant. Psalm 90 is attributed to Moses, the leader of Israel a long time ago before the
establishment of the kingdom. Moses’ prayer starts with a declaration ‫אֲֽד ֹנ ַ֗י מעֹ֣ון אַֹ֭תּה הי ֵ֥ית לַּ֗נוּ‬
‫בְּ ֹ֣דר ו ֹֽדר‬, “Lord, you have been our dwelling place from generation to generation.” The real
“dwelling place” of Yahweh’s people is Yahweh Himself even before the time of kings. 50
Nonetheless, despite this confession, lament is still evident in Psalm 90. The question of
“How long?” in Psalm 89 persists in Psalm 90. If Psalm 89’s cause of lament is Yahweh, Psalm
90 laments the frailty and sinfulness of man (vv.3-11). This shift and the sharp contrast between
Yahweh who is ‫ֽמֵעֹול ֵ֥ם עַד־עֶֹ֝ולַ֗ם‬, “from everlasting to everlasting” and man who is “like grass”
that is present in the morning and gone in the evening, provide an answer to the problem of a
broken covenant in Psalm 89. Yahweh rejects his people not because He is unfaithful, but
because man is sinful. Even if affliction and suffering continue, as expressed by the persistence
of the lament of “How long?” there is a development from Psalm 89 to 90.

49
Note ‫)הראשֹׁנ ֵ֥ים‬, “former times” in v. 50. David Howard, Jr., “A Contextual Reading of Psalms 90-94,” in
The Shape and Shaping of the Psalter, ed. J. Clinton McCann, Journal for the study of the Old Testament 159
(Sheffield, England: JSOT Press, 1993), 109.

50
Dwelling place is a usual reference to the king in the ANE.

20
There is now trust and expectation (vv. 1-2, 12-17) not in human agents like the king; but rather
on Yahweh himself- the real “dwelling place’’ of Yahweh’s people.
This theme of Yahweh as the dwelling place for His people continues in Psalm 91. Also,
the lack of superscription of Psalm 91 links it with Psalm 90.51 Like in Psalm 90, Psalm 91
presents Yahweh Himself as the “dwelling place” for His people (vv. 1-2, 9), but Psalm 91 builds
upon this concept. Promises of protection and security belong to those who trust in Yahweh as
their dwelling place. Furthermore, Yahweh Himself seals these promises with a divine oracle.
Moreover, the question of Psalm 89 ‫עַד־מ ֣ה יְֹ֭הוה תּסּתֵ ֣ר‬, “How long O LORD will you hide
yourself forever?” that continues in the ‫שׁוּב֣ה יְֹ֭הוה עַד־מת ִ֑י‬, “Return, O LORD! How long?” of
Psalm 90, find their answer in Psalm 91‫יק ְראֵני ׀ וְֽאֶעֱנ ֵַ֗הוּ‬, “He will call to me, and I will answer
Him.” Psalm 91’s last lines, ‫עִ֑הוּ וְֶ֝אַרְ אֵַ֗הוּ בּ ֽישׁוּעתֽי‬
ֵ ‫אֹ ֶרְך י ֹ֭מים אַשׂ ְבּי‬
֣ , “I will satisfy him with long life,
and I will show him the way to salvation” answer the lament of Psalm 90 for the frailty of man
(vv.3-11), its request for satisfaction (vv.14-17), and wisdom (v. 12) from the Yahweh. This
highly positive message breaks the negative tones of laments and petitions found at the end of
Book III and the start of Book IV. For Tanner, Psalm 91 “seems unbelievably naïve.”52 On the
other hand, Hossfeld Zenger justifiably comments that the positioning of Psalm 91 adds
“additional dimension” to its meaning.53 Because, Psalm 91’s teaching- trusting Yahweh leads to
the path of wisdom and long satisfying life, understood in the context of Psalms 89-90, is not
mere theologizing nor wishful thinking. Psalm 91 cries out trust and security in Yahweh amid
humiliation, disappointment, and frailty.54

51
Nancy L. De Claissé-Walford, Rolf A. Jacobson, and Beth LaNeel Tanner, The Book of Psalms, The
New International commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing
Company, 2014), 697.

52
De Claissé-Walford, Jacobson, and Tanner, The Book of Psalms, 697.

53
Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51-100, 432.

54
According to Wilson Book IV is “especially a product of purposeful editorial arrangement” and “stands
as the “answer” to the problem posed in Ps 89.” Gerald Henry Wilson, The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter,
Dissertation series / Society of Biblical Literature no. 76 (Chico, Calif: Scholars Press, 1985), 214-15.

21
 The following Psalm 92, the only psalm that is dedicated ‫ל ְיֹ֣ום הַשּׁ ַבּ ֽת‬, “for the Sabbath” is
a song of thanksgiving for the works of Yahweh. This psalm gives the appropriate response of
celebration for the fulfillment of the promises of Yahweh in Psalm 91. Psalm 91 starts the Psalm
by addressing Yahweh by his personal name, ,‫ יהוה‬and as ‫עֶל ְיֹון‬. These names for Yahweh that
are prominent in Psalm 91 connect with 92. Also 92:11, ‫וַתַּ ֵבּ ֵ֥ט עֵינ ַ֗י בְּשֶׁ֫וּר ֵ֥י‬, “I have seen the
(downfall) of my enemies,” is a direct affirmation to the promise found in 91:8,
‫ ַרק בְּעֵינֶ֣יָך תַבּ ִ֑יט ו ְשׁלּ ֻ ַמ ַ֖ת רְ שׁע ֣ים תּרְ אֶ ֽה‬, “Yes, you will see with your own eyes, and look at the
punishment of the wicked.” Both employ the image of the ‫עַין‬, “eye” along with its operative verb
‫נבט‬, “to see” concerning the demise of the enemy to link the psalms, but there are also details
that show movement between them. The shift from the second-person perspective in Psalm 91-
“you will see” to the first-person in Psalm 92- “I have seen;” the identification of the “wicked” in
Psalm 91 as “my enemy” in Psalm 92; the intensification of the sensory imagery in Psalm 92 by
adding ‫אָז ְנֽי‬, “my ears” in the second line of the verse sharpen the message of fulfillment. The
“downfall of the wicked” promised in Psalm 91is not only “seen” but also “heard” in Psalm 92.
Psalm 91 in its canonical context gives it depth. It becomes part of the tension in the life
of the faithful, where Yahweh’s promise and the reality of life collide.55 Psalm 91’s message that
“Yahweh is the refuge of those who trust in Him” is anchored in Yahweh, who in Psalm 90 is
His people’s “dwelling place in all generations.” Thus, Psalm 91’s promises of protection are not
mere good wishes nor wishful thinking. It does not shy away from the laments and questions of
Psalm 88 and 89 to Yahweh. The cries of suffering, shame, and danger at the end of Book III are
not denied. They are acknowledged, transcended, and answered in resounding confessions by the
faithful who trusts in Yahweh- “O Yahweh, you are my refuge and my fortress.”

55
Walter Brueggemann, “Bounded by Obedience and Praise: The Psalms as Cannon,” JSOT 50 (1991): 63–
92.

22
 Reception
The message of Psalm 91 applies to diverse life settings. As such, ancient interpreters
treat Psalm 91 in different ways.
In the Septuagint (LXX), it bears the title Αἶνος ᾠδῆς τῷ Δαυιδ, “A praise of an ode by
David” (Psalm 90:1, LXX) probably due to several terms familiar in earlier Psalms attributed to
David.56 It translates the verbs “to trust” (‫בטח‬, v. 4), “to find refuge” (‫חסה‬, v. 5) and “to love”
(‫חשׁק‬, v. 14) as the verb ἐλπίζω “to hope.” Also, the concrete metaphor in verse 9, ‫מַחְסֶה‬,
“dwelling place” is translated as ἐλπίς, “hope.” The LXX appeals to the template of David’s life
to encourage the faithful to hope in Yahweh in times of trouble. In the words of Hossfeld and
Zenger, “Hopeful trust in Yahweh now constitutes the place of protection.”57
The Targum presents a three-way royal conversation among David, Solomon, and
Yahweh. The stage opens with a pronouncement then it reads ‫אֲמַר דוד‬, “David said,” at the
beginning of verse 2. In verse 3, he directly addresses ‫שׁ ְֹלמֹה בְּרי‬, “Solomon, my son,” to which
Solomon answers, ‫עֲנ ֵי שׁ ְֹלמֹה וְכֵן אֲמַר‬, “Solomon replied, and he said thus” (v. 9). After the
conversation between David and Solomon, Yahweh is grandly introduced in verse 10 as ‫אֲתיב‬
‫מרֵי עַל ְמא וְכֵן אֲמַר‬, “The Lord of the world spoke, and he said thus,” and he promises lavish
protection to them from malevolent forces. It is noticeable that while in the LXX there is an
attribution of some of the dangers in the psalm to demonic activity (v. 6), the Targum “sharpens
the demonological statements.”58 The Targum construes the “terror of the night” in verse 5 as
“terror of demons who walk at night” and the “arrow” as “arrow of the angel of death.”

56
Charles A. Briggs and Emilie Grace Briggs, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of
Psalms: In Two Volumes. 2: ..., Repr., The International critical commentary on the holy scriptures of the Old and
New Testaments (Edinburgh: Clark, 1986), 279.
57
Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51-100, 432.
58
Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51-100, 432.

23
In verse 6, the MT mentions a broad “destruction that wastes at noonday,” the LXX identifies a
“noonday demon,” 59 but the Targum attributes the incoming disaster to “the band of demons that
attacks at noon.” Furthermore, the Targum shows that the Lord shall protect David and Solomon
from “plague or demons” (v. 10) and “evil impulse” (v. 12). While both the LXX and the Targum
versions of Psalm 91 appeal to royal situations, they differ in their focus. The LXX calls the
faithful towards hopeful trust in the Lord, while the Targum highlights the might of the “Lord of
the world” against malevolent spiritual forces.
In the Qumran 11QPsAPa scroll, Psalm 91 follows three apocryphal texts that most likely
comprise “four songs against demons.”60 According to Flint, Van der Ploeg connected these to
the description in 11QPsa xxvii 9-10 ‫ושיר לנגן על הפגעים ארבעה‬, “And songs to perform over the
possessed: four”61 that are part of the “Compositions of David.”62 v:4 and vi:3 of the 11QPsAPa
have the attribution ‫לדויד‬, “of David.” Of particular interest is the version of Psalm 91 (vi:3-
14)63 that follows the attribution in vi:3.64 Like in the LXX, this particular Psalm is attributed to
David in the 11QPsAPa scroll. Structurally, the intentional blank spaces after the ending of Psalm
91, ‫ויע]נו אמן[ סלה‬, “And [they] shall ans[wer: Amen. Amen.] Selah,” (vi:14) that is also in v:3,
connects Psalm 91 with the earlier apocryphal texts as the final one in the collection. In content,
the apocryphal texts anticipate Psalm 91 in the following ways:

59
‫ישֵׁ֥וּד‬, “to devastate” is translated as καὶ δαιμονίου in the LXX, which according to the BHS critical
apparatus came from a different reading, ‫וְשׁ ֵד‬, “and demon.”

60
Peter W. Flint, The Dead Sea Psalms Scrolls and the Book of Psalms, Studies on the texts of the desert of
Judah v. 17 (Leiden ; New York: Brill, 1997), 41-42.

61
Florentino García Martínez, ed., The Dead Sea Scrolls: Study Edition. Vol. 2: 4Q274 - 11Q31, Nachdr.
(Leiden: Brill [u.a.], 2005), 1178-1179. See J.P.M. van der Ploeg, Le Rouleau de La Guerre, Studies on the texts of
the Desert of Judah v. 2 (Brill, 1959), 129.

62
Flint, The Dead Sea Psalms Scrolls, 41-42.

63
References to the scroll are given in column numbers, written in lowercase Roman numerals, and line
numbers written in Hindu-Arabic numerals, e.g. Column 4 line 3 appears as iv:3.

64
Martínez, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 1178-79.

24
 1. The different dangers that assail the supplicant (spirits, demons, and the Prince of
Animosity in ii:3-4, a demon in the darkness in v:5) compare to Psalm 91:5.
2. Trust in Yahweh (ii:9-10) compare with Psalm 91:1-2; 9
3. Yahweh commands angels as agents of salvation (iii:4, iv:5-6; v:3,) compare with Psalm
91:11-12,
4. Invoking the name of Yahweh (v:4) compare with Psalm 91:1-2; 14-15.
The11QPsAPa scroll is a part of anti-demonic rituals. Instructions in the texts include
invoking the name of Yahweh, “[… An incanta]tion in the name of YHW[H. Invoke at
an]ytime” (v:4) and asking the identity of the demon, “… you shall [s]ay to him: Who are you,
[oh offspring of] man and of the seed of the ho[ly] ones?” (v:6). These then are followed by
mocking the demon’s visage, e.g. “Your face is a face of [delu]sion” (v:6-7) or by comparing the
demon’s might to that of YAHWEH (ii:2-5). Judgments are carried out against the demon in the
name of Yahweh. In iii:4 it says, “YAHWEH will strike a [mighty bl]ow which is to destroy you.
Also, the usage of large letters and existing handles show that the texts are ritual chants.65
However, Psalm 91 at the end of the scroll functions differently. While the instructions and
contents of the apocryphal parts of 11QPsAPa are exorcistic (to cure present demon attacks), the
contents of Psalm 91 at the end seem apotropaic (to prevent future demon attacks).66 It shows the
aftermath of the exorcism. After the exorcism, Psalm 91 gives divine assurance of protection
against future spiritual attacks. It serves as an overarching conclusion to what transpired in the
exorcism ritual. The confession of trust in vi:3-4 (Psalm 91:1-2) describes the reliance of the
afflicted upon Yahweh. Also, the angels who assaulted the devil (iv:5-6) and healed the afflicted
(v:3) now safeguard the afflicted from harm (vi:10-11; Psalm 91:11-12).

65
Mika Pajunen, “Qumranic Psalm 91: A Structural Analysis,” in Scripture in Transition: Essays on
Septuagint, Hebrew Bible, and Dead Sea Scrolls in Honour of Raija Sollamo, ed. Raija Sollamo, Anssi Voitila, and
Jutta Jokiranta, Supplements to the Journal for the study of Judaism v. 126 (Leiden ; Boston: Brill, 2008), 604.

66
Mika Pajunen, “Qumranic Psalm 91: A Structural Analysis,” in Scripture in Transition: Essays on
Septuagint, Hebrew Bible, and Dead Sea Scrolls in Honour of Raija Sollamo, ed. Raija Sollamo, Anssi Voitila, and
Jutta Jokiranta, Supplements to the Journal for the study of Judaism v. 126 (Leiden ; Boston: Brill, 2008), 605.
25
This tradition of using Psalm 91 to counter demons is not only found in the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Talmudic Judaism also interprets Psalm 91 as ‫שיר של פגעים‬, “song against evil spirits.” (Bab.
Talmud, Shevuot 15b),
Ironically a portion of Psalm 91 is spoken by the devil, ὁ διάβολος, to Jesus in the New
Testament. In Matthew 6:4b, the devil said, “(11) τοῖς ἀγγέλοις αὐτοῦ ἐντελεῖται περὶ σοῦ καὶ
(12) ἐπὶ χειρῶν ἀροῦσίν σε, μήποτε προσκόψῃς πρὸς λίθον τὸν πόδα σου.”67 The same is
quoted in a parallel narrative in Luke with the addition of τοῦ διαφυλάξαι σε, “to protect you,”
that is a portion quoted from verse Psalm 91:11. The quotation seems to be taken directly from
the LXX version of Psalm 91 (90:11-12), except for the portion, ἐν πάσαις ταῖς ὁδοῖς σου, “in
all your ways.” Thus, Calvin, “… the prophet’s meaning is wickedly corrupted and mutilated by
Satan, when he applies it, in a violent and wild and confused manner, to extravagant and
mistaken courses.”68 He sees the omission of the last part of Psalm 91:11 as Satan’s invitation “to
put himself (Jesus) unnecessarily in danger… contrary to the will of God.” Menken notes that the
devil uses the passage as an invitation “to be some kind of Messianic stunt man.”69 The purpose
of showing the devil quote a portion of Psalm 91, albeit with obvious omissions, is to display the
wrong usage of the Hebrew Bible.70
In addition to twisting the words of the Hebrew Bible, Morris suggests that the
understanding of Psalm 91 as an apotropaic psalm plays a role in understanding why the devil
used the psalm in the temptation narratives.

67
Numbers in the parenthesis show the parts of the quotation that correspond to the verses in the LXX.

68
John Calvin, Calvin’s Commentaries (Complete), trans. John King; Accordance electronic ed.
(Edinburgh: Calvin Translation Society, 1847), paragraph 67711.

69
Maarten Menken, “The Psalms in Matthew’s Gospel,” in The Psalms in the New Testament, ed. Steve
Moyise and Maarten Menken, The New Testament and the Scriptures of Israel (London ; New York: T & T Clark
International, 2004), 64.

70
Hans-Joachim Kraus, Theology of the Psalms, 1st Fortress Press ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992),
196.

26
The 11QPsAPa, the Targumic translation (see earlier discussion) and the utility of lines from the
psalm as charms, show that there is a traditional “anti-demonic” understanding of the psalm in
the time of the composition of the synoptic gospels.71
If understood this way, then the devil not only misuses Psalm 91 but shows that he, the
devil himself, uses a supposedly “anti-demonic” psalm, as a weapon of temptation. It would then
seem that the gospels use this narrative as a polemic against common exorcism rituals of its time.
Elsewhere in the gospels also show Jesus criticizing or overturning common understanding of
anti-demonic activity (see Matthew 12:22-32; Matthew 8:28-34; Mark 1:21-28; Mark 3:22-30;
Luke 4:31-37; and Luke 8:26-39).

Conclusion: A Filipino Reading of Psalm 91

Psalm 91, with its vibrant imagery, does not deny the presence of danger that will
surround the faithful. Though, Yahweh’s divine affirmation of its confessions of trust and
promises of safety shows the faithful a different reality- amid life’s dangers Yahweh is His true
refuge. In its canonical context, Psalm 91does not shy from the questions and lamentations of
Yahweh’s people. Yahweh, who is His people’s “dwelling place in all generations,” is the anchor
of its confessions of trust and promises of protection. It gives voice to the confession of the
faithful’s trust in Yahweh in this life filled with the tensions of triumph and defeat, safety and
danger and life and death. It gives voice to confessions of trust and affirmations of hope. Psalm
91 can teach about Yahweh’s ability to answer and protect. It can be a prayer for those who are in
need. It is no wonder that in its reception in different communities of faith,72 people go to this
psalm to find hope and protection. These characteristics of Psalm 91 can empower the people
who are down and out. For ancient Israel, this psalm gave voice to the hopes and dreams of

71
Michael Morris, “Apotropaic Inversion in the Temptation and at Qumran,” in Das Böse, der Teufel und
Dämonen =: Evil, the devil, and demons, ed. Jan Dochhorn, Susanne Rudnig-Zelt, and Benjamin G. Wold,
Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament. 2. Reihe 412 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2016), 94-95.

72
This is reflected by the translations and transmissions of the Psalm 91 text (LXX, Targum),
understanding (rabbinic, New Testament), and forms (exorcistic and apotropaic uses).

27
restoration and glory amid the fall of her kingdom and the exile of her people. The Christian
church, through its ownership of the Old Testament texts and with it the Book of Psalms,
lamented her persecutions, offered her prayers of deliverance and rejoiced in her fellowships
through “psalms and hymns and spiritual songs” (Ephesians 5:19 ESV). Our people, the Filipino
people, got hold of the Book of Psalms through our conquistadors, who in the name of God,
colonized our Inang Bayan (Mother Land).
This experience of colonization shattered our dignity as a nation and as individuals. Even
though we received our independence, this feeling of inferiority still lingers.73 We, as a people,
are still down and out, experiencing the dehumanizing and demoralizing effects of our dark
history. Ironically, our colonizers passed on to us, in the name of Christianizing, the Book of
Psalms that record the laments, hopes and bitter prayers of t people like us. Messages in the
psalms that elude our powerful and abusive oppressors are very much at home in the cultural
resources of us Filipinos.
We, as Filipinos, have a strong sense of kapwa and kadamay. We are always connected.74
We value relationships, especially our family in such a way we feel a deep sense of pride in
other’s successes, and we consider other members’ failure and shame as our own. Given this, we
as Filipinos can lament and hope as a community.75 The cries of the people of Yahweh, “How
long, O Yahweh?” because of their fall and exile resonate with us. We can ask Yahweh the same
“How long?” to our plight as a nation. “How long will we be bullied by nations more powerful
than us?” “How long will poverty “exile” our people out of our motherland to find opportunities
in other nations?”

73
Federico Villanueva, “The Transforming Power of Lament: Reading the Psalms from a Filipino
Context,” in The Gospel in Culture: Contextualization Issues through Asian Eyes, ed. Melba Maggay (Manila: OMF
Literature Inc. : Institute for Studies in Asian Church and Culture, 2013), 223-25.

74
Melba Maggay, “Towards Contextualization from Within: Some Tools and Cultural Themes,” in Doing
Theology in the Philippines, ed. E. Acoba (Quezon City, Philippines : Manila, Philippines: Asian Theological
Seminary ; OMF Literature, 2005), 46-47.

75
Federico Villanueva, “The ‘Dark Night of the Soul,’ The Lament Psalms and Juan De La Cruz,” in
Walking with God: Christian Spirituality in the Asian Context, ed. Charles Ringma and Karen Hollenback-Wuest
(Manila, Philippines: OMF Literature Inc : Asian Theological Seminary, 2014), 136.
28
 We, as Filipinos, can embrace the plight of our country and people through the words of
the Psalms. To talk to Yahweh and find solace in Him is not a foreign concept to us. In our deep
spirituality, we find resilience.76 We are familiar with the emotional movements within the
canonical context of the Psalms.
After the laments of Psalm 88 and 89, our hearts as a people can understand Psalm 90’s
“Lord, you have been our dwelling place in all generations” (ESV). We can listen to the message
of hope and protection of Psalm 91, and hope is what our people need. OFWs, who in poverty,
left home and country, need to hear Yahweh’s affirmation of protection for them and their
“tents.” Our people must know that there is someone who listens to their confessions of trust and
acknowledges them with “I will keep,” “I will protect,” “I will answer,” “I will be with you in
trouble,” “I will deliver and honor,”
“I will satisfy,” and “I will show him the way to salvation.”
We, as kapwa Filipino with our deep sense of spirituality, can understand and own the
message of the Psalms. We are familiar with the emotional journey from the end of Book IV to
Psalm 91. We know of faith that arises out of lament and suffering. The Book of Psalms,
together with our cultural resources, can teach us and give voice to our laments of suffering and
confessions of trust. We can use these resources to gather the pieces of our shattered dignity as a
nation. We can add authenticity and strength of character to our resilience in the face of hardship
and suffering because we, as a people, can have Yahweh as our refuge.
O Yahweh, aking Diyos pagtawag ko ay dinggin
Hanggang kailan Panginoon, ang aming bayan ay mamaliitin?
Hanggang kalian Panginoon, dahil sa hirap, aming bayan ay lilisanin?
Tainga mo ay ituon sa mga luha ng bata, ina ng tahanan ay matagal mawawala
Mata mo ay ibaling sa hikbi ng mga nanay , kanilang mga anak sa iba ibibigay.
Sino ang sa kanila’s magpapatahan?

76
Federico Villanueva, “My God, Why?: NAtural Disasters and Lament in the Philippine Context,” in Why,
O God?: Disaster, Resiliency, and the People of God, ed. Athena E Gorospe, Charles Ringma, and Karen
Hollenbeck-Wuest, (Manila, Philippines: OMF Literature Inc : Asian Theological Seminary, 2017), 88.
29
 Paano muling mabubuo ang kanilang tahanan?
Dakila ka O Yahweh, tunay ang iyong katapatan
Sa iyo kami ay umaasa, sa iyo kami mahihimlay
Ikaw ang aming tahanan mula pa sa ugat ng aming lahi
Kung hindi sa iyo, saan kami uuwi?
O Yahweh, dangal ng aming bayan ay tinapakan
Sarili naming bayan ay nililisan.

30
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