Engineering Geology 200 (2016) 18–30

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Engineering Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

Recurrent liquefaction-induced failures triggered by 2014 Cephalonia,

Greece earthquakes: Spatial distribution and quantitative analysis of
liquefaction potential
George Papathanassiou a,⁎, Athanassios Ganas b, Sotirios Valkaniotis c
a
Department of Geology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
b
Institute of Geodynamics, National Observatory of Athens, Greece
c
Koronidos str, 9, 42100, Trikala, Greece

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Two earthquakes occurred on January, 26 and February, 3 2014 of Mw 6.1 and Mw 6.0, respectively, onshore the
Received 15 May 2015 island of Cephalonia, Greece. The environmental effects e.g. rockfalls, liquefaction and ground cracks triggered by
Received in revised form 14 September 2015 the events were widespread at the western part of the island and mainly in the peninsula of Paliki. The most
Accepted 29 November 2015
remarkable characteristics of these two events were the generation of strong ground motion, the highest ever
Available online 30 November 2015
recorded in Greece and the recurrent liquefaction phenomena at the waterfront areas of Lixouri and Argostoli.
Keywords:
In addition, the grain size distribution curves of soil samples collected along the seafront area at Lixouri indicated
Liquefaction a sandy ejecta and are plotted in the range of possibility of liquefaction defined by Tsuchida (1971).
Quay wall By taking into account the data provided by three post-earthquake field trips that took place immediately after
Lixouri the first and the second earthquake, and the information provided by geotechnical boreholes drilled along the
Earthquake shoreline in Lixouri, a quantitative description of the liquefaction-induced deformations and a preliminary failure
Sand boils mode of the waterfront structures in Lixouri are presented in this study. As an outcome, a post-liquefaction
Greece induced settlement of ≈16 cm at two sites was computed.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction strong, shallow earthquakes [M6.1 and M6.0 respectively according to

Theodoulidis et al. (2015) and NOA magnitudes (Karastathis et al.,
The island of Cephalonia is considered as among the most active 2015) ML 5.8-Mw 6.0 and ML 5.7-Mw 5.9, respectively]. The second
tectonic areas in Europe and one of the most active zones in the eastern event generated the strongest ground motion that has ever been instru-
Mediterranean region. Cephalonia has been repeatedly subjected to strong mentally recorded in Greece; 0.77 g at the station coded as CHV1 located
ground shaking due to the proximity of the island to CTF (Cephalonia at the village Chavriata (Fig. 1; Theodoulidis et al., 2015). According to
Transform Fault) (Louvari et al., 1999; Sachpazi et al., 2000; Scordilis the National Observatory of Athens (NOA; http://www.gein.noa.gr)
et al., 1985). The 100-km long NNE-SSW fault zone accommodates the the epicenter of the first event (Fig. 1; NOA web report, 2014) was located
relative motion of the Apulia (Africa) and Aegean (Eurasia) lithospheric to the north of the town of Argostoli (the capital), while the second one
plates, and has a GPS slip-rate bracketed between 10 and 25 mm/yr was located to the north of village Livadi (Fig. 2; Paliki Peninsula).
(e.g., Pérouse et al., 2012). The most recent large CTF events include the The earthquakes ruptured at least two sub-parallel, strike-slip faults,
Jan. 17, 1983 (M = 6.8 global CMT catalogue; Scordilis et al., 1985) and with right-lateral kinematics (Valkaniotis et al., 2014; Boncori et al.,
the Aug. 14, 2003 (M = 6.2 global CMT catalogue; Papathanassiou et al., 2015; Ganas et al., 2015). The first earthquake was a deeper event
2005a, 2005b). The shallow earthquake activity usually occurs along near- (hypocenter at 16.5 km depth; Karastathis et al., 2015) while the second
vertical, strike-slip faults with dextral sense of motion (NOA Moment Ten- event was much shallower (4.6 km from seismology, Karastathis et al.,
sor solutions available online at http://bbnet.gein. noa.gr/HL/seismicity/ 2015; 3–5 km centroid depth from InSAR; Boncori et al., 2015). In
moment-tensors), in response to ENE–WSW horizontal compression in terms of fault dip-direction of the Jan. 26 rupture, the vast majority of
central Ionian Sea (Ganas et al., 2013a; Hollenstein et al., 2008). published MT solutions point to a fault plane dipping east. On the
On January 26, 2014, 13:55 GMT (15:55 local time) and February 3, other hand, with respect to the shallower Feb. 3 event, the geodetic
2014, GMT 03:07 (05:07 local time) Cephalonia was struck by two data are better satisfied with a fault dip to the west while from seismo-
logical data this is still debatable. The environmental effects triggered by
the earthquakes were mainly concentrated at the western part of
⁎ Corresponding author. Cephalonia Island and particularly at Paliki peninsula where co-seismic
E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Papathanassiou). horizontal displacements of 10–20 cm were measured by InSAR

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.11.011
0013-7952/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 G. Papathanassiou et al. / Engineering Geology 200 (2016) 18–30 19

Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of the island of Cephalonia showing the epicenters of Jan. 26 and Feb. 3, 2014 earthquakes. Rectangles represent surface projections of modeled seismic
sources without surface expression. Starts denote earthquake epicenters.

(Boncori et al., 2015). No primary fault surface ruptures were Detailed and precise information concerning the economic loss due
observed, however one patch of the rupture of the second event to damages in infrastructure and property are still hard to obtain. The
may have nearly reached the surface, because of the abundance of prefecture of Ionian Islands submitted a detailed report (unavailable
surface cracks with cm-size offsets mapped in the field in north Paliki to public up to this date) to the EU Solidarity fund which estimates
Peninsula (Valkaniotis et al., 2014). It must be noted that most envi- the total direct damage at 147.3 million EUR. The majority of this
ronmental effects, induced by the first event in Jan. 26, were amount is believed to be based on damages to the transportation
reactivated one week later by the second (Feb. 3) one. In particular, network, public buildings, and port installations. Declared losses to
severe earthquake-induced slope failures e.g. rock falls and landslides privately owned properties, as reported by the Hellenic Association
were widespread at the western coast and south/central part of Paliki, of Insurance Companies (2014), were found worth 7.8 million EUR.
and at the east coast of Argostoli Bay and resulted in days-long closure The most frequent cover for which claims were declared was that
of these roads for traffic (Valkaniotis et al., 2014). In addition, liquefac- of the building (321 cases) and that of building-content (83 cases).
tion phenomena were reported in reclaimed lands at the waterfront These claims concern houses and enterprises (96%) and hotels/tourist
areas of Lixouri and Argostoli and induced severe damages to port facil- facilities (4%). Geographic distribution of losses based on insurance
ities e.g. quay walls and piers, mainly at the port of Lixouri. claims is 51.1% for Lixouri area, 34.75% for Argostoli, 12.3% for the
20 G. Papathanassiou et al. / Engineering Geology 200 (2016) 18–30

Fig. 2. Map showing the location of earthquake-induced liquefaction phenomena and the sites (green boxes) where strong ground motions have been recorded.

rest of Cephalonia and 1.9% for properties sited outside of Cephalonia angle. Recent tectonic activity on Paliki peninsula is also dominated by
island. NNE and NE striking right-lateral strike-slip faults. The NW–SE striking
In this paper, we focus on the liquefaction-induced failures and Argostoli thrust fault is believed to continue northwards below the
provide quantitative information regarding their characteristics based Argostoli Gulf, re-appearing on the gorge separating main Cephalonia is-
on observations that were reported during three post-earthquake field land from Paliki peninsula (Underhill, 1989, Lekkas et al., 2001).
surveys (Jan. 28–31, 2014; Feb. 4–6, 2014 & Feb. 6–9, 2014). In addition, The alpine bedrock of western and central Cephalonia consists of
the liquefaction potential of the subsoil at the waterfront area of Lixouri Oligocene–Middle Miocene flysch sediments (marls and sandstones)
was quantitatively evaluated and presented by taking into account data and Mesozoic–Oligocene limestones (Fig. 1). These formations belong
provided by borings with in-situ tests. to the Paxos–Pre-Apulian zone of External Hellenides (Underhill,
1989, Lekkas et al., 2001). The basement is overlain by a sequence of
2. Geology and seismotectonic characteristics Pliocene marine deposits. Blue-gray marls, sands, sandstones and
conglomerates comprise the Pliocene deposits in Paliki and the area
Cephalonia is the most prominent island of the Ionian Sea, located at south of Argostoli, while a Tyrrhenian conglomerate-sandstone formation
the edge of the Hellenic Arc. In the central Ionian Sea, there is strike-slip outcrops in the eastern Paliki near the coast (BP Co. Ltd., 1971, Sorel,
(dextral) movement between Apulia microplate and Eurasia, accommo- 1976). Cemented debris and landslide deposits of late Pleistocene age
dated along the Cephalonia Transform Fault (CTF) (Louvari et al., 1999; can be found along the Aenos Mt. slopes and locally. Extensive swamp
van Hinsbergen et al., 2006; Ganas and Parsons, 2009; Ganas et al., and lagoonal deposits are found in the Livadi coastal plain and the
2013b). Situated outside the western coast of Cephalonia Island, the Krane coastal plain south of Argostoli (Hadler et al., 2011, Willershauser
CTF has an average strike of N10°–20° and dips to the east at a high- et al., 2011).
 G. Papathanassiou et al. / Engineering Geology 200 (2016) 18–30 21

3. Historical seismicity at the island of Cephalonia sec2, respectively (Theodoulidis et al., 2015). Thus, taking into account
these values, it can be assumed that the ejection of material with gravels
The island of Cephalonia is considered as one of the most active in the waterfront area of Lixouri is the outcome of the generation of high
tectonic areas in Europe and in eastern Mediterranean region. More excess pore pressure due to the strong ground motion. In addition, the
than ten (10) damaging earthquakes occurred since 17th century fact that the second event triggered higher severity ground failures
and their consequences have been reported by the authorities and in the Paliki peninsula in comparison to the central and eastern parts
local witnesses. Information regarding the generated macroseismic of Cephalonia can be explained by the differences in the recorded PGA
effects that has been collected from seismic catalogues (Papazachos values in Paliki peninsula and Argostoli, respectively.
and Papazachou, 1989; Galanopoulos, 1955) and by reports published
by local authorities, agencies and researchers (Barbiani and Barbiani, 5. Liquefaction manifestations and structural damages
1864; Vergotis, 1867; Partsch, 1892; Moshopoulos, 1994; Albini et al.,
1994; Makropoulos and Kouskouna, 1994; Papathanassiou et al., The most significant structural damages, induced by the earthquakes
2005a, 2005b) are briefly presented below. of January and February 2014, were correlated to liquefaction (Fig. 2). In
Taking into account the collected information, it is concluded that at particular, extensive liquefaction phenomena were triggered in near-
least 4 earthquakes triggered similar earthquake-induced failures in the shore extensions of land towards the sea and reclaimed land in the
peninsula of Paliki as the ones generated by the 2014 earthquakes. In waterfront areas of Argostoli and Lixouri (Valkaniotis et al., 2014). The
particular, the 14 June 1759 event caused severe damages in the district triggering of liquefaction within these areas induced structural damages
of Paliki peninsula and in Lixouri where most of the houses collapsed to quays, sidewalks and piers. Most of the affected areas were those that
and a few lives were lost. In Argostoli the shock was strongly felt but had been artificially filled with debris after the devastating 1953 events;
caused no damage (Albini et al., 1994). The 24 July 1766 earthquake a sequence of earthquakes that totally ruined the majority of houses in
induced structural damages at the western part of the island and the island.
particularly in the area of Paliki peninsula where most of the houses The most remarkable characteristics of liquefaction phenomena
were destroyed. Earthquake damages extended to Assos, Lixouri and triggered by the 2014 earthquakes are i) the recurrent liquefaction at
Argostoli (Fig. 1; Albini et al., 1994). The 22 July 1767 was a destructive the same sites within a period of one week (Fig. 3) and ii) the boiling
earthquake, with casualties (253 deaths). Severe structural damages in of sandy material with gravels in the quay of Lixouri during the second
Lixouri and in the villages located at Paliki peninsula were reported. In earthquake.
particular, in Lixouri many deaths (50) were reported and almost the The liquefaction-induced failures were more severe at the water-
whole town suffered great damage. In Assos, houses were completely front area of Lixouri and particularly, according to the reconnaissance
destroyed and rockfalls were triggered. In the town of Argostoli very report published by Geotechnical Extreme Events Reconnaissance
few houses were left inhabitable (Makropoulos and Kouskouna, (GEER, 2014), the horizontal displacement increased from 9 cm to
1994). The 4 February 1867 event triggered rockfalls and liquefaction 49 cm and the vertical displacement from 6 cm to 30 cm, from the
phenomena almost at the same sites as the last one. In particular, a first to the second event. In addition, the lateral displacement generated
subsidence of 1 m width and 100 m length was observed along the on the initial part of the pier (Fig. 7B) was measured as 1.5 m. The rele-
riverbank in Lixouri, sand craters and ejection of material was reported vant cumulative horizontal and vertical displacement in the waterfront
in a field at the area of Kouvalata while in the village of Agios Dimitrios, area of Argostoli varied from 3 to 8 cm and 2 to 5 cm, respectively.
a sand crater with 1 m diameter and 0.5 m high was documented Furthermore, ground settlement in Lixouri port is confirmed by InSAR
(Partsch, 1892). In addition, the earthquake triggered large-scale land- evidence (Boncori et al., 2015) where negative Line-of-Sight values
slides and rockfalls in the area of Ag. Stefanos and Anogi, respectively. are reported (see Fig. S6 of the paper by Boncori et al., 2015). The
InSAR-measured subsidence reaches values of 20 cm in coastal areas
4. Strong motions due to the January, 26 and February, 3 2014 of Lixouri and Argostoli, respectively. It should be pointed that these
earthquakes values refer to the co-seismic surface displacements caused by the
second earthquake (Feb. 3, 2014).
Both earthquakes generated strong ground motions that were During the post-earthquake field surveys, the inhabitants answered
recorded on the installed accelerographs in the island. Regarding the to questions posed by the authors of this study regarding the process of
first event, Jan. 26, 2014 the accelerographs installed in Argostoli the occurrence of liquefaction and particularly the timing of boiling, the
(ARG2) and Vasilikades (VSK1) by EPPO-ITSAK (Earthquake Planning duration of the outflow and the height of the boiled sandy water. Based
and Protection Organization — Institute of Engineering Seismology on their answers, the following outcome arises: the amount of the
& Earthquake Engineering) recorded a peak ground acceleration ejected sandy material was larger during the second event in both
(PGA) value (horizontal component) equal to 393 cm/ sec2 and 95 areas (Argostoli and Lixouri), the spewing out of sandy material started
cm/sec2 (Theodoulidis et al., 2015). The accelerograph installed at almost at the same time with the earthquake and stopped few seconds
Lixouri (LXR1) by National Observatory of Athens (NOA) recorded a after the end of the shaking, and the height of the ejecta varied between
PGA value equal to 531 cm/xsec2 (Kalogeras, 2014a, 2014b; http:// 40 and 120 cm. It should be pointed out that most of the answers refer
www.gein.noa.gr/Documents/pdf/Cefalonia_20140126_preliminary_ to the liquefaction phenomena triggered by the first event due to the
web.pdf). According to Theodoulidis et al. (2015), the former station time of occurrence of the second one (05:08:44 local time). However,
(ARG2) is located on Pleistocene sediments (ground type B according the amount of the ejected material could be estimated for both events
to EC8), the VSK1 station is located on limestone (ground type A accord- because locals were able to observe on the following morning the mate-
ing to EC8) and the LXR1 station on Plio-Pleistocene marine deposits rial that covered the areas.
(ground type B according to EC8). Regarding the Argostoli and Lixouri Scattered liquefaction phenomena of small-scale size were also
area, it is obvious that these high ground motions are the triggering fac- reported at several locations of Paliki peninsula (Valkaniotis et al.,
tor of the liquefaction-induced failures. The second event, Feb. 3, 2014 2014). In particular, small amount of coarse sandy material ejected
caused severe damages mainly in Paliki and less damages in the through a fissure with width less than 2 cm in a field located between
area of Argostoli. According to the records of the accelerographs the villages of Atheras and Livadi, a sand crater with diameter less than
installed by EPPO-ITSAK, see location in Fig. 2 in Chavriata (CHV1); 5 cm was reported in a bank of a stream that crosses Plio-Pleistocene
located on Plio-Pleistocene sediments (ground type B according to sediments in Soulari, and finally at the south area of Paliki, brown coarse
EC8), Lixouri (LXR1), ARG2 (Argostoli) and Vasilikades (VSK1) the PGA sandy material ejected through a crack at the edge of a paved road (Fig. 4).
values were equal to 754 cm/sec2, 664 cm/sec2, 262 cm/sec2 and 57 cm/ At these areas, the generated strong motion by the second event should
22 G. Papathanassiou et al. / Engineering Geology 200 (2016) 18–30

Fig. 3. Recurrent liquefaction phenomena triggered by the Jan. 26 (A) and Feb. 3 (B) earthquakes at the same site located at waterfront area of Lixouri. The latter photo (B) was taken on Feb
8 and the former one (A) on Jan 31.

have been very high in order to trigger liquefaction since the soil material to eyewitnesses and mapped by our team during the post-earthquake
is not characterized as likely to liquefaction. It should also be pointed out field surveys (Jan. 28–Jan. 31 and Feb. 6–Feb. 9). These typical liquefaction
that weather conditions during and after the two events (sustained and phenomena were triggered at the waterfront area of the town inducing
heavy rainfall) decreased the size or even erased the singular and small- structural damages to port facilities (Fig. 6). However, it should be pointed
size liquefaction manifestations, making their identification difficult. out that typical lateral spreading phenomena were not observed at the
In order to assess liquefaction susceptibility at these sites, a back broader area of the gulf of Argostoli.
analysis was performed after the field surveys, by correlating the epi- The buildings of customs and port authorities (points 2 and 3 at
central distance of the liquefaction manifestations with the earthquake zone B in Fig. 6), located in the main dock of Argostoli, were settled
magnitude. This assessment was achieved by using the regressions about 3–4 cm and coarse sandy material was ejected from cracks on
proposed by Ambraseys (1988); Papadopoulos and Lefkopoulos the pavement along the perimeter of the buildings. According to an eye-
(1993) and Papathanassiou et al. (2005b); regressions that have been witness, the boiling of sandy water started immediately with the earth-
developed by taking into account information regarding earthquake- quake shaking and stopped few seconds later while the height of the
induced phenomena in Greece. In the diagram (Fig. 5), we employed ejecta was approximately 70 cm. In addition, similar material ejected
the seismic parameters (M and epicenter's coordinates) as they were from a crack of 3 cm wide at the ground floor of the customs building.
defined by Karastathis et al. (2015). As it is shown in Fig. 5, the sites Ejected brown sand-silty material with small amount of coarser
where liquefaction phenomena triggered by the Cephalonia 2014 earth- material (gravels) was also documented at the parking lot (zone B),
quakes and documented during the field surveys fall within the distance indicating high excess pore pressure generated during the earthquake.
commonly defined as ‘liquefiable zone’ (to the left of the curves). The At this site, cracks on the pavement were observed, with 3–5 cm
outcome arises by this plotting is that the published curves are still opening, and the ejecta covered the whole area of parking. It should
valid and accordingly they can be used for a preliminary screening of be mentioned that thought the fact that most of the ejected material
liquefaction susceptibility. washed away from the asphalt pavement due to the heavy rainfall
period of 4 days, following the first event, evidence of the flow was
5.1. Liquefaction-induced failures at Argostoli still visible. Small amount of brown sandy material was also ejected
through fissures with opening less than 2–4 cm at zone A.
In the town of Argostoli, clear evidences of liquefaction occurrences, At the area of municipality market, in the second dock named
like sand boils and ground fissures with ejection of silty sand-water “agora” (zone D in Fig. 6), sandy material spewed out through existing
mixture, have been triggered by the first and second events according cracks on the sidewalk and on the pavement along the perimeter of

Fig. 4. Small-scale liquefaction manifestation in Soulari (A) and south Paliki (B). Both photos were taken on Feb. 8, 2014.
 G. Papathanassiou et al. / Engineering Geology 200 (2016) 18–30 23

Fig. 5. Distribution of the liquefied sites based on their epicentral distance and comparison to the upper bound curves proposed by Papathanassiou et al. (2005b); Ambraseys (1988) and
Papadopoulos and Lefkopoulos (1993) for the assessment of liquefaction susceptibility of the sites.

buildings, inducing a vertical displacement of 3–4 cm. According to eye- cracks, parallel to the coastline, were induced with horizontal movement
witnesses, the amount of the ejected sandy material during the second of few cm towards the sea and vertical displacement up to 8 cm.
earthquake was larger than the one that spewed out after the first event. Furthermore, typical liquefaction phenomena were documented at
The mean direction of the cracks is parallel to the coastline and their the sidewalk area located to the south of the De Bosset bridge, zone E
opening ranges from 2 to 6 cm. in Fig. 6, where sandy material ejected through ground cracks with
Between these two areas, no liquefaction manifestations were length up to 6 m and 10 cm opening and from joints opened between
observed along the sidewalk and the coastal road though the fact that the pavement and the artificial fill. At the same area, vertical displacement

Fig. 6. Map of Argostoli showing the liquefaction manifestations (black star) and the areas covered by ejected material (gray color areas). These areas have been coded as A, B, C, D and E for
the purposes of this study and particularly for facilitating the reader to follow the description. In particular, it is shown crack and ejecta around the port authorities building (A) and on the
ground floor of customs building (B), ejected material covers the area of municipality market (C), a sketch showing the orientation, spatial distribution and dimensions of ground cracks
and the displacement of pavement at area E (D) and liquefaction phenomena triggered at the area of marina (E). Photos (A), (B) and (C) were taken on Feb. 7, 2014. Photo (E) was taken on
Feb. 8, 2014. With solid black circles are indicated the sample points (4th in area D, 5th in area E and 6th in area C).
24 G. Papathanassiou et al. / Engineering Geology 200 (2016) 18–30

of 8 cm and horizontal displacement towards the sea of 4 cm of the Furthermore, buckling and thrust phenomena, similar to the ones
sidewalk were identified. This failure was induced by the liquefaction of documented after the Emilia 2012 (Papathanassiou et al., 2015) and
the subsoil layer, which is evident by the presence of ground fissures Great East Japan 2011 earthquakes (Yasuda et al., 2012), respectively,
and the ejected sandy material. A characteristic sketch of the liquefied were observed in the sidewalk and in a back-alley in Lixouri (Fig. 9).
area in this area is shown in Fig. 6, where information regarding the orien- Taking into account the outcome arises by Yasuda et al. (2012), it can
tation, dimensions and spatial distribution of the liquefaction-induced be assumed that these failures could be occurred due to a sloshing of
ground disruption is provided. the liquefied layer. Following the classification proposed by Yasuda
Another site where liquefaction phenomena were documented is et al. (2012), we concluded that the mechanism of the former case
the marina of Argostoli (zone C in Fig. 6). This area is located at the east- should be correlated to a horizontal buckling at a boundary (e.g. quay
ern shore of the gulf and was constructed in 2002 in order to accommo- wall) and the mechanism of the latter case to a horizontal buckling on
date yachts and sailboats (Valkaniotis et al., 2014). In this zone, a large a sloped bottom of liquefied layer. However, further investigation will
area was covered by gray fine sandy material that was ejected through be performed in order to analyze in detail both cases.
ground cracks. The length of the fissures was up to 6 m and their open-
ing up to 8 cm. In the same zone, vertical displacements of the artificial 5.3. Grain size analysis of ejecta
fill that was placed between two piers, varied from 15 cm to 40 cm,
were reported without surface evidence of liquefaction. During the field surveys, six (6) samples of ejected material were
collected and analyzed at the Laboratory of Engineering Geology and
Hydrogeology of the Department of Geology at the Aristotle University
5.2. Liquefaction-induced failures at Lixouri of Thessaloniki in order to define their grain size characteristics. The
first sample (1st) was collected in-situ by an expose of the fill due to
Both earthquakes triggered liquefaction-induced failures at the the tilting of the quay wall at Lixouri port. This material that was used
waterfront area of Lixouri while the induced damages to port facilities as a fill beneath the asphalt is classified as silty sand (SM) with non-
by the Feb. 3 event caused the complete loss of functionality for 24 h. plastic fine particles based on the Unified Soil Classification System
In particular, ejection of sandy material, quay wall displacement toward (USCS). The fines content of the fill is 22% while few gravels were also
the sea, opening of cracks and significant vertical and horizontal mixed in this material. The second sample (2nd), collected from the
displacement of the sidewalk in the backyard of the quay wall and pavement in the central dock at Lixouri, is characterized as sand with
lateral spreading displacement of the pavement in a pier were docu- 10% fine particles. It should be mentioned that the ejected gravels
mented along the waterfront area as it is shown in Fig. 7. were not collected and hence, were not taken into account in these
In the area of the building of port authorities, the Feb. 3 event trig- analysis. The third sample (3rd) was collected from the park behind
gered the ejection of brown sandy material through cracks that opened the sidewalk and is also characterized as sand with 8% fines. The low
on the pavement aprons due to the subsidence behind the quay wall. percentage of fines in the second and third samples in comparison to
Few meters to the south, more than 10 sand craters with diameter up the first one can be justified by the fact that silty and clay size particles
to 50 cm were generated by the second earthquake. Similar phenomena are more easy to washed out by the rainfall, followed the earthquake,
of smaller size had also been triggered by the first event (Jan. 26) as it than the sandy material. Regarding the two samples collected in the
was documented during the first field survey. An eyewitness stated town of Argostoli, the analysis of their grain characteristics indicates a
that the boiling started immediately with the first earthquake and sandy material with fines content 15% (4th sample) and 11% (5th
stopped few seconds after the end of shaking in front of the building sample), respectively. Finally, the gray ejected material that was collected
of port authorities and that the height of the ejecta varied from 70 cm in the area of marina (6th sample) is classified as sand with 14% fine
to 1 m during the first event. In addition, the material that was spewed content. As it is shown in the following diagram (Fig. 10), the particle
out from cracks covered the area of the sidewalk and the park situated size distribution curves of the collected samples are in the range of possi-
behind. bility of liquefaction defined by Tsuchida (1971).
Furthermore, walking towards the main dock of Lixouri (to the
North), at the central part of the waterfront area, cracks with vertical
displacement up to 4 cm and length of more than 10 m were documented 6. Quantitative assessment of liquefaction potential in the waterfront
during the second field survey (Feb 6–Feb 9). The direction of these cracks area of Lixouri
was not parallel to the seashore, as it would be expected. Through these
cracks, sandy material and gravels were ejected indicating the high excess Few days after the event of February 3, a comprehensive geotechnical
pore pressure generated by the second event. These cracks were initially investigation was funded by the Ministry of Public Works, Port Division
opened during the first earthquake but their width and the amount of and conducted by the consultant firm Geosymvouloi Ltd. The aim of this
ejected material were not as large as the one generated by the second campaign was the drilling of borings with in-situ tests and the excavation
one. In addition, ejection of gravels was only reported during the second of trial pits along the waterfront area of Lixouri in order to assess the
event. In the same area, large vertical and horizontal displacements geotechnical characteristics of the subsoil layers. In particular, eleven
were documented behind the quay walls, however without any evidence (11) boreholes with depth up to 20 m were conducted and samples of
of ejecta. the encountered soils were collected and analyzed. By taking into account
At the northern part of the waterfront area, lateral spreading dis- the data provided by this geotechnical campaign, we quantitatively
placement of the pavement was generated by the second earthquake evaluated the liquefaction potential of the subsoil layers at the waterfront
in the pier of Lixouri (Fig. 7). As it is shown in figure, cracks with direc- area of Lixouri. Furthermore, a preliminary assessment of the failure mode
tion parallel to the seashore were induced, without any evidence of at the waterfront structures is attempted.
ejected material. However, the area located behind the pier and towards
the town of Lixouri, was covered by brown sandy material that was 6.1. Geotechnical characteristics of the subsoil layers
ejected through cracks with opening up to 9 cm.
Moreover, along the coastal road of Lixouri that can be considered as a As is shown in Fig. 7, the boreholes were drilled in a direction N–S,
boundary line between the old and the new waterfront area, constructed parallel to the shoreline. In this study, a cross-section A–A′ (Fig. 11),
after the 1953 earthquake, cracks on the paved road were documented was developed by taking into account the information provided by the
and sandy material spewed out during the first and the second logs of boreholes G4, G5, G6, G8, G9 and G10; where the most severe
earthquake (Fig. 8). damages were induced by the two earthquakes.
 G. Papathanassiou et al. / Engineering Geology 200 (2016) 18–30 25

Fig. 7. Map showing the liquefaction surface manifestations (red star), the cracks/fissures along the waterfront area and the location of buckling phenomena in the town of Lixouri. In ad-
dition, the locations of boreholes drilled during the geotechnical investigation are also shown. In particular, it is shown ejected material behind the pier (A), lateral spreading phenomena in
the pier (B), liquefiable material ejected in the area behind the quay wall (C), brown sandy material and gravels ejected through cracks on the pavement and covered the area of central
quay G7 (D), ejected brown sandy material through cracks in the area of park (E), sand craters generated in the area of port authorities building (F). Photos (A), (B), (C), (D) and (F) were
taken on Feb. 7, 2014. Photo (E) was taken on Feb. 8, 2014. With solid black circles are indicated the sample points.

According to this section, the height of the gravity quay wall, Beneath the rubble mound at borehole G4 is encountered a sandy
constructed at the waterfront area of Lixouri, varied from 2.60 m (bore- soil layer with 55% of gravels (classified as GC-GM) of 1.0 m thickness.
hole G10) to approximately 4.5 m (boreholes G4, G5, G8 and G9) while At borehole G5, beneath the rubble mound layer, a non-plastic sandy
at borehole G6 and G7 reaches the 7.0 m. These block-type quay walls silt ML layer of 1.4 m thickness was encountered. The content of silt
were built on a rubble mound with thickness that at the southern part and clay-size grained is 47% and 10% respectively. These layers,
of the wharf ranges from 1 m (borehole G9) to 2 m (borehole G10). At GC-GM and ML, overlies a stiff clay layer (CL) which in some depths
the northern part of the wharf, the thickness of this material is approx- turns into a non-plastic silty sand soil (SM) with N-SPT value equal to
imately 2.5 m (boreholes G4 and G5) while at borehole G6 the quay wall 10 and 12% fines content at borehole G5. According to the provided
was built upon a sandy gravel material classified as GC-GM of 1.5 m logs, this silty sand SM soil layer was not encountered at the sites
thickness. where boreholes G6 and G8 were drilled.

Fig. 8. (A) The old sidewalk at Lixouri in 1915 and (B) the coastal road covered by ejected material (photo taken on Feb. 7, 2014).
26 G. Papathanassiou et al. / Engineering Geology 200 (2016) 18–30

Fig. 9. (a) Buckling phenomena in a back-alley at Lixouri (photo taken on Feb. 7, 2014) and (b) in the sidewalk (photo taken on Feb. 8, 2014).

Regarding the southern part of the wharf and particularly along the evaluate the susceptibility to liquefaction and classify the fine-grained
area where the boreholes G9 and G10 were drilled, a non-plastic silty soil layers encountered in the boreholes, the liquefaction susceptibility
sand SM soil layer with 26% fines content is encountered beneath the criteria proposed by Bray and Sancio (2006) were applied. In particular,
thin layer of rubble mound. This SM soil of 0.7 and 1.7 m thickness is Bray and Sancio (2006), based on data provided by Adapazari silts and
encountered at the depth of 5.3 and 4.6 m at boreholes G9 and G10, clays from the Kocaeli 1999 event that have been tested in laboratory,
respectively. The measured N-SPT value at this layer was equal to 7 recommended that a fine-grained soil can be characterized as susceptible
based on the log of borehole G9. In the same borehole, the SM soil to liquefaction when the Plasticity Index PI ≤ 12 and water content to
layer overlies a low plasticity clay (CL) soil layer, which in some depths liquid limit ratio (wc/LL) ≥0.85. In our case, the fine-grained sandy silt
turn into a sandy gravel (GC-GM) soil. In borehole G10, beneath the silty ML soil [based on Bray and Sancio (2006) criteria] and the non-plastic
sand soil layer, a sandy gravel soil of 18% fines content and 1.8 m silty sand SM one that were encountered in boreholes G5, G9 and G10,
thickness was encountered that overlies a low plasticity fine grained were classified as susceptible to liquefaction (Fig. 12). In addition, the
soil of 52% silt and 12% clay. The thickness of this layer is 1.7 m and GC-GM soil layer could be conservatively classified as potentially
the measured N-SPT value was equal to N = 18. liquefiable based on the recommendation of Youd (1998). However, as
Following the development of the soil stratigraphy cross-section, a it is listed in Table 1, the computed value of factor of safety
relevant liquefaction-based section was prepared (Fig. 12). In order to against liquefaction fs for this soil layer was higher than two
 G. Papathanassiou et al. / Engineering Geology 200 (2016) 18–30 27

Fig. 10. Grain size analysis of the collected samples and comparison with boundary lines proposed by Tsuchida (1971).

and accordingly the generation of post-liquefaction settlement is for rod length Cr and the correction for samplers with or without liners.
not likely to occur. The Cn was calculated according to the equation proposed by Liao and
Whitman (1986), while the other factors were estimated using the
6.2. Evaluation of liquefaction potential parameters recommended by Youd et al. (2001). Afterwards, a “fine
content” correction was applied to the calculated N1(60) value in order
Taking into account the data provided by boreholes logs e.g. fines to obtain an equivalent clean sand value N1(60)cs given by the equations
content, N-SPT values and thickness of soil layers, and having assessed proposed by Youd et al. (2001).
the liquefaction susceptibility of the soil layers, a quantitative evaluation The CSR value defines the seismic demand and depends on the peak
of liquefaction potential was performed. In this study, in order to evaluate horizontal ground acceleration, PGA. In this study, the seismic loading
the liquefaction potential of soils, the procedures that were established in parameters that have been used as an input for the computation of
1996 NCEER and 1998 NCEER/NSF workshops and summarized by Youd the CSR were equal to M 6.1, PGA = 0.54 g for the first event and M
et al. (2001) for data provided by SPT were applied. In particular, the 6.0, PGA = 0.68 g for the second one. Afterwards, the CSR values were
ability of a soil element to resist liquefaction is defined as factor of safety divided by the magnitude scaling factor, MSF, estimated using the
against liquefaction, fs, and two variables are required for its calculation: formulation of Youd et al. (2001). Furthermore, the post-liquefaction
the cyclic resistance ratio CRR and the earthquake induced cyclic stress induced settlement is estimated based on Ishihara and Yoshimine
ratio CSR at a specific depth for a given earthquake. This assessment is (1992) approach; developed on the basis of the observation that the
based on the use of geotechnical information, namely N1(60), which is volumetric strain is equal or close to the vertical strain of the soil
influenced by the measured standard penetration resistance N, the layer. In particular, by taking into account data provided by laboratory
overburden pressure factor Cn, the correction for hammer energy ratio tests and D (relative density)-NSPT correlation, Ishihara and Yoshimine
(ER) Ce, the correction for borehole diameter, Cb the correction factor (1992) correlated the post-liquefaction volumetric strain with the SPT

Fig. 11. Cross-section showing the type of soil layers encountered in boreholes drilled along the waterfront area at Lixouri after the Feb. 3, 2014 earthquake.
28 G. Papathanassiou et al. / Engineering Geology 200 (2016) 18–30

Fig. 12. Cross-section showing the susceptibility to liquefaction of soil layers encountered in boreholes drilled along the waterfront area at Lixouri.

blow count and factor of safety against liquefaction. Integrating this In the case of Cephalonia 2014 earthquakes, the waterfront structures
volumetric strain with depth, an index of liquefaction-induced vertical at the port of Lixouri e.g. quay walls, experienced severe damages. These
deformation is provided. damages are associated with seaward movement and tilting of the wall,
The computation of liquefaction potential parameters e.g. factor of cracking of the pavement aprons and ejection of mixture of sand and
safety and the liquefaction-induced settlement were realized with the water. The latter indicates the triggering of earthquake-induced liquefac-
aim of software LiqIT v. 4.7.6.1 developed by Geologismiki (www. tion of the backfill soil. Similar phenomena have been documented by
geologismiki.gr). It should be pointed out that for the purposes of this Papathanassiou et al. (2005a) and Kakderi et al. (2006) at the waterfront
study, only the susceptible to liquefaction layers were taken into area of Lefkada.
account for the estimation of post-earthquake settlement. A possible failure mode of the quay walls can be related to the lique-
faction of the silty sand (SM) foundation soil and of the reclaimed soil,
and the generation of earth pressures behind the quay wall. Focusing
6.3. Qualitative assessment of failure mode on the liquefaction as triggering factor, it has been previously shown
in Table 1 that the cumulative liquefaction-induced settlement of the
Having evaluated the liquefaction potential of the subsoil at the foundation soils at borehole G10 was equal to 16.31 cm (7.66 and
waterfront area, it was attempted to qualitatively assess the failure 8.65 cm for the first and second event), at borehole G9 4.34 cm
mode of quay walls. In general, the earthquake-induced damages to (2.17 cm per event) and 16.56 cm (8.28 cm per event) at borehole G5.
quay walls are mainly due to the increase of induced earth pressures The computed slightly higher settlement ≈1 cm (for the second earth-
caused by inertia forces and liquefaction of the soil layers e.g. reclaimed quake comparing to the first one) for the soil layer encountered at depth
land and uncompacted fills (Kakderi and Pitilakis, 2010). of 8.5 m in G10 is due to the fact that the evaluated factor of safety fs was

Table 1
Liquefaction potential parameters of the susceptible and potentially liquefiable soil layers encountered in the boreholes that were drilled along the waterfront area of Lixouri (NP = non
plastic, n.a. = non available).

Borehole Depth Fines content (%) Atterberg limits (%) N-SPT Jan. 26 Feb. 3

LL PI Fs Settlement (cm) Fs Settlement (cm)

G4 7.2 14 18.2 5.4 27 N2 – N2 –

G5 7.5 57 NP NP 10* 0.58 3.89 0.48 3.89
G5 10.5 12 NP NP 10 0.37 4.39 0.31 4.39
G6 8.5 17 17.1 6.0 27 N2 – N2 –
G9 5.5 n.a. n.a. n.a. 7 0.51 2.17 0.42 2.17
G10 5 26 NP NP 6 0.44 5.82 0.36 5.82
G10 8.5 64 25.9 8.8 18 1.01 1.84 0.83 2.83
*
Due to the non existence of direct N-SPT measurement at that depth, it was assumed that the relevant N-SPT value is equal to the one measured at the depth of 7.5 m at the same
borehole.
 G. Papathanassiou et al. / Engineering Geology 200 (2016) 18–30 29

less than 1 by taking into account the seismic loading of the second sections, the thin susceptible to liquefaction soil layers that were
earthquake and higher than unity for the first event (Table 1). In encountered beneath the quay walls, are considered as liquefiable
addition, a horizontal movement due to the earthquake-induced sliding (fs b 1) under the seismic loading of the Jan. 26 and Feb. 3 earthquakes.
between layers of block is possible, since the block-type quay walls are Having quantitatively estimated the liquefaction potential of the
vulnerable to this failure mode (Kakderi and Pitilakis, 2010). subsoil layers, it was attempted to generate the failure mode of the
Thus, it can be concluded that the first event (Jan. 26) triggered the waterfront structures in Lixouri. As an outcome, it can be concluded that
liquefaction of the foundation soil and accordingly induced the differen- the first event (Jan. 26) triggered the liquefaction-induced settlement of
tial settlement of the quay wall while the dynamic earth pressure, that the foundation soil and accordingly the differential settlement of the
were applied to the back face of the quay wall, induced the seaward quay wall, and in conjunction with the dynamic earth pressure induced
movement and tilting of the quay wall, and the cracking of the pavement the seaward movement, the tilting of the quay wall and the cracking of
aprons. Few days later, a second event (Feb. 3) generated a stronger the pavement aprons. Few days later, a stronger shaking, generated by
shaking and triggered a re-liquefaction of the foundation and reclaimed the second event (Feb. 3), re-triggered a liquefaction-induced settlement
soils while stronger forces acted to the already damaged quay wall. Taking of the foundation and reclaimed soils while stronger forces acted to the
into account that the waterfront structures were on unstable conditions quay wall that was already on unstable conditions. Thus, the documented
during the second event, since the quay walls were failed, the structural structural damages are the cumulative result of the Jan. 26 and Feb. 3
damages e.g. vertical and horizontal displacements were more severe as earthquakes. In addition, the amount of ejecta of the second event (Feb.
it was expected. In addition, the cracking of the pavement aprons during 3) was significantly larger then the one during the Jan. 26 earthquake,
the first event facilitated the upward migration of liquefiable material and since the cracking of the pavement aprons during the latter one facilitated
the ejection of the mixture of sand and water. A simplified sketch of the the upward migration of liquefiable material.
above failure mode is shown in Fig. 13. It should be pointed out that the
profiles shown in Fig. 13 were modified and simplified in order to focus
on the liquefaction-induced failures at the quay walls. For a detailed Acknowledgments
presentation of the soil stratigraphy in both sites, the reader should
check Figs. 11 and 12. Field work was funded by the GSRT project INDES-MUSA (Grant
number 12CHN124) http://www.indes-musa.gr/ and the FP7 project
7. Conclusions RASOR (Grant number 606888 / FP7SPACE-2013-1) http://www.
rasor-project.eu/ and partially funded by the European Union
The 2014 Cephalonia earthquakes are considered as very significant (European Social Fund — ESF) and Greek national funds through the Op-
events mainly for two reasons; the extreme strong ground motions that erational Program “Education and Lifelong Learning” of the National
were generated and the recurrent liquefaction of the subsoil that was Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) — Research Funding Program:
induced within one week (Jan. 26 and Feb. 3). The goal of this study Thales. Investing in knowledge society through the European Social
was to describe in a quantitative way the liquefaction-induced ground Fund (Project 85330 — Characterization of site conditions in Greece for re-
failures by providing information regarding their characteristics e.g. alistic seismic ground motion simulations: pilot application in urban
width and length. In addition, samples of ejected material were collected areas. The documentation of the earthquake-induced environmental ef-
and analyzed in the laboratory in order to define their grain size charac- fects was realized using the recently released Earthquake Geo Survey
teristics. The results of this analysis confirmed the boundary lines of likely App, which is available via Google Play (https://play.google.com/store).
and very likely to liquefaction areas based on the soil gradation, as they We also thank the Ministry of Public Works, Port Division and the
have been proposed by Tsuchida (1971). Geosymvouloi Ltd. providing the geotechnical data from the conducted
Furthermore, geotechnical information provided by SPT that have borings at the waterfront area of Lixouri.
been conducted in the Lixouri waterfront area was used in order to The authors of this study would like to thank the three reviewers for
develop cross sections parallel to the shoreline. As it is shown in these their comments that help improve the manuscript. We would like to

Fig. 13. Sketch showing the failure mode at the locations of G9 and G10 boreholes and the relevant liquefaction-induced failures at the waterfront area. The initial sketch for each case is
modified by the profile provided by Geosymvouloi (2014).
30 G. Papathanassiou et al. / Engineering Geology 200 (2016) 18–30

also thank Prof. Pavlides and M. Papanikolaou for their help during the Liao, S., Whitman, R.V., 1986. Overburden correction factor for SPT in sand. J. Geotech.
Eng. ASCE 112 (3), 373–377.
field surveys. Louvari, Ε., Kiratzi, Α.Α., Papazachos, B.C., 1999. The CTF and its extension to western
Lefkada Island. Tectonophysics 308, 223–236.
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