LEGACY OF FREEDOM STRUGGLE

I. DEMOCRACY AND CONSTITUTION

 Elections and all the series of events associated with it seeped into the Indian political
system
 Democratic institutions: Vision of Democracy
 Emphasis on civil liberty
 Ide of universal adult franchise
 Freedom of press
 Freedom of speech
 Democratic ideals in the minds of our leaders led to the idea of India being a democratic
nation even before independence.
 1931 Karachi Session:
 Resolution on Fundamental Rights passed.
 Idea of FRs in GoI, 1935 was a result of this.
 Thus idea of constitutionalism emerged.
 1937 Elections:
 Based upon GoI Act, 1935: First time an All India election happened
 Important form legacy perspective: ministries were formed comprising of CMs
and these CMs were Indians.
 First time Indians got the right of internal administration
 Attempts made to bring reforms.
 However, this failed because of the dominant presence of a Governor.
 “No engine, but all the brakes”
 Nevertheless, Indian leadership matured and got refined.
 Ram Chandra Guha: Idea of Making of India.
 Right to Dissent:
 Everyone can be a patriot but the view can be different.
 In JNU, Kanhaiya Kumar charge sheet filed on the ground of sedition. Sedition
has turned out to be a Draconian law.
 Such issues become relevant in the recent time
 It is different from right of expression it is about deferring
 Amendments
 Non Violence
 If we had adopted violence, we would have shifted towards different ideologies.
(extremist and aggressive tendencies).
 Example: What SU has experienced post 1917.
 The whole trajectory of Indian development was slow but steady.
 National Sovereignty
 There was an already existing debate about sovereignty For example: the idea
of Poorna Swaraj
 When India became independent, sovereignty was a central issue.
 It was the historical debate because of which sovereignty is ingrained so strongly
in our constitution.

II. ECONOMIC LEGACY

 Brilliant Critique by Freedom Fighters on Colonialism
 Important legacy in the sense that the criticism becomes fundamental.
 Globally if there is any exploitation, India will not support it.
 Strategy to deal with Poverty
 It didn’t come in one go.
  Poverty eradication was a long thought out process.
 MAHALNOBIS MODEL: Become socialist in nature
 Socialistic model was something very fundamental which emerged out of the
freedom struggle.
1. Khadi Industry (Cottage Industry): more than 80% resided in villages, these
villages are to be developed and made sufficiently independent.
2. Agrarian Relations: Zamindari Abolition Act. Land reform became a very
significant agenda. Brilliant example of land reforms: Kerala, Bengal.
3. State intervention: Privatisation was not encouraged at that point of time. State
must control the economic institutions. Although fundamentals of private
institutions were developed. This continued till 1990s. In case of LPG there
was slack given but not otherwise.
III. SOCIAL JUSTICE
 Pro-poor orientation (Congress)
 1931 Karachi Resolution: Landless people or exploited people should get the benefit.
 Idea of Bhoodan Movement
 Reduction of land revenue: time and again the Government reduced the land revenue
wherever there were problems such as droughts.
 Women Empowerment: Pre-independence society conservative; Freedom struggle gave
them the opportunity to move out this conservatism; For example: picketing of liquor
shops by women [this has been continuing even today]; Moving out of the house was
something very significant; In due course feminist movements emerged. Origin of the
feminist movements can be traced from the freedom struggle.
 Untouchability and attack on Caste System: it got attacked during the freedom struggle
and the further movements in India have a deep connection with that.

IV. SECULARISM
 Opposition to communalism
 When Khilafat was merged with NC  merging of religion into politics 1920 onwards
many communal riots began once Gandhi withdrew the movement unilaterally. RSS and
Muslim Fundamentalist organizations emerged.
 Even today India considers it opposite to communalism
 Secularism is delinking State and Religion in the real sense
 Although the term “secularism” was inserted later on, seeds grew earlier.
 If we were able to derive the idea of secularism from History, Congress wouldn’t have
failed.
V. UNITED INDIA
 Congress always said that India was to be united.
 600 princely states wanted to become independent but it was this vision of over 5-6
decade, that they were able to integrate.

VI. FOREIGN POLICY AND INTERNATIONALISM

 Policy of Non-Alignment we won’t be ruled or guided by any other power
 Policy of Anti-colonialism, Anti-imperialism, support to Mandela Government
 India’s image in the international community
 MOUNTBATTEN PLAN

 Sanctioned by 3 leaders  Nehru, Jinna and Sardar Baldev Singh (representing the Sikh community)
 Third June Plane June 3, 1947
 Muslim majority provinces in the British India NWFP (Punjab, Pakistan, Baluchistan) were asked
if they wished to have a future constituent assembly of their own or would join the existing
constituent assemble for independent India,
 Provision for Referendum in NWFP Reason: some wanted to be a part of India, especially the
group led by Abdul Gaffar Khan
 The whole referendum was manipulated by Pakistan (the group led by Abdul Gaffar Khan boycotted
it).  end result which happened later on
 DIVIDING CRITERIA (for Bengal and Punjab)
 Majority-Minority ratio.
 Division done district wise
 In Bengal, a referendum was kept in Sylhet which was a Muslim majority province because
some wanted to be a part of India.
 A Boundary Commission was to be constituted for both Bengal and Pakistan which would
demarcate the boundaries between India and Pakistan, after the division takes place. This was
also called the Boundary Award.

RADCLIFFE BOUNDARY AWARD

 Cyril Radcliffe
 Burnt all his papers while leaving India as he was aware about the dangerous results
Ramchandra Guha
 He did not have much experience in India and he was chosen so that an unbiased decision
could be reached.
 He was given 5-week time.
 EAST BENGAL: 54,500 sq. miles | 40 million (population) | 27 % Non-Muslims (95 % of this 27 %
were Hindus and some tribes)
WEST BENGAL: 28,000 sq. miles | 21 million (population) | 29 % Non-Hindus
Therefore, India received less population and territory than Pakistan. Later migrants from Pakistan
impacted the division negatively.
 EAST PUNJAB: 37,000 sq. miles | 12.5 million | 35% Muslims
WEST PUNJAB: 63,000 sq. miles | 16 million | 25% Hindus and Sikhs
Large part of Punjab went to Pakistan (West Punjab). They had developed a hydraulic society, the
seven-rivers region made it a very good site for irrigation. Most of these canal colonies went to
Pakistan and East Punjab received very less of these colonies. This was one bane from the India
perspective.
 Muslim and Non-Muslim enclaves (more than 1/4th remained minorities) for both India and Pakistan
 Gurdaspur (Punjab): 50.2 % Muslims wanted to go to Pak but remained in India
 Nadia and Murshidabad (Bengal) Muslim majority wanted to go to Pak but remained in India.
 JINNAH AND MUSLIM LEAGUE SAID IT WAS IN INDIA’S FAVOUR
 Muslim majority provinces came to India.  Gurdaspur, Nadia and Murshidabad.
 Kashmir was an undecided issue and Gurdaspur was the only land route through which India
could reach J&K.
 DECLARATION OF AWARD AFTER INDEPENDENCE
  Led to massive killings.
 These killings could’ve been avoided if it was declared before
 Book: Divide and Quit by Penderel Moon shift the blame of massacres on the new Indian
Government

CONSEQUENCES

1. Biggest Refugee Migration More than 18 million people got uprooted (including Hindus, Muslims
and Sikhs) | 1.4 million Muslims and Sikhs got uprooted from Punjab | 5.5 million Muslims got
uprooted from Punjab region.
2. Destruction of Property 1.5 billion rupees (1947 price)
3. Delinking of canals from their head works cotton field and controlling stations separated; thus
water related problem unravelled | Indus Water Treaty (1960)

SITUATION OF EAST/INDIAN PUNJAB

 East Punjab receive 45% of the population of the entire Punjab and received 31% of the total
irrigated and fertile land of the total land area of Punjab. Also, it received 30% of the total income of
Punjab.
 In West Punjab the Hindu and Sikh refugees left 67 lakh acres of land. In East Punjab the Muslim
refugees had left only 47 lakh acres of land. This was another handicap for India.
 TEMPORARY PHASE OF SETTEMENT OF THE REFUGEES (1947-49)
 When the refugees had started coming, the first need that arose was construction of camps but
gradually the refugees started increasing. This resulted in a problem of congestion.
 To tackle the problem of congestion, the exodus of the refugees was diverted to the
neighbouring provinces.
 Psychological Rehabilitation:
1. There were 2 kinds of refugees- Rural Refugees and Urban Refugees. Their first priority
was to settle the rural refugees on the vacuum land. (47 acres of land)
2. Second effort was to settle friends and families together to bring a sense of belongingness
and protection.
3. They could also work together and share the implements.
 Food loans were provided.
 Other than agriculturists, there were also artisans such as blacksmiths, etc. They were also
provided loans.
 PERMANENT PHASE OF SETTEMENT OF THE REFUGEES (1949 onwards)
 Land Records: Most refugees were without any land records. The problem that the
government faced was that on what basis lands were to be allotted to the families. This
problem was solved by the village panchayat.
 Land Allotment:
 Concept of Standard Acre one standard acre was considered to be that area of land
which could produce 4 to 5 quintals of wheat or grains. Trilok Singh had come up
with this concept of standard acre.
 Concept of Graded Cut

Grade (Standard Acre) Rate of Cut Allotment

0-10 25% 7.5
 10-30 30% 21
40-50 50% 25
Above 1000 95% 50
 In 1948 the government passed the East Punjab Holdings Consolidation and Fragmentation
Act: large areas of lands got consolidated into blocks. If there are small areas of land, the use
of higher technologies was facilitated. As a result of this the area of agriculture lands
increased.
 Punjab was chosen for Green Revolution because:
 The main reason was the availability of large areas of land.
 Historically Punjab had a Mehalwari system where land ownership was with the
village and there was no individual ownership. As a result, there were large areas of
land
 Bhakra Nangal Dam was started in 1948 and was completed in 1963. Water was used
for irrigating the land and tube well sinking was made possible because of the
production of electricity. Thus came about the tube well revolution as well as the
mechanisation of agriculture and the use of HYV seeds. Role of M.S. Swaminathan
was also of a lot of significance.
 Salinization and water logging were the challenges faced by Punjab in the aftermath
of the revolution.

INDUS WATER TREATY

 It was a pursuit for India from 1947 itself.

 The agreement got cancelled because of the war.
 Indian hasn’t stopped the flow of water because of the effect it could have on the people.
 In 1960, the treaty was signed between Ayub Khan and Nehru
 It is a treaty of 6 rivers. 3 eastern flowing (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) and 3 western flowing rivers (Chenab,
Jhelum, Indus)
 EFR: these rivers pass through Pakistan but flows towards.
 WFR: Passes through Indian territory but flow towards Pakistan
 Due to the above factors EFR were allotted to India and WFR were allotted to Pakistan.
 India is the Lower Riparian in case of WFR and Pakistan is the Lower Riparian in case
 Condition for the treaty:
1. UR states can use the water for the purpose of navigation.
2. UR can also use the water for drinking but a large hydro power project which can interfere the
flow of water.
3. Both the nations will exchange the information. If one nation starts a hydro project, it should
share all the data with the other nation for the purpose of transparency.
 World Bank played a very important role in this treaty. It has been found recently that WB just
facilitated the treaty but is not the guarantor of the treaty.
 At the time of this treaty, India agreed to grant a compensation of 100 crores to Pakistan.
 Provision of conflict resolution:
 Multi-tier resolution system
 Lower Level: Indus Commission it will comprise of various commissioner from both the
nations and these commissioner will observe the entire. If nay dispute regarding the flow of
 water, the issue will first go to the IC. There will be a join sitting of the IC of India and that of
Pakistan. IC is a autonomous commission.
 Governmental Level consisting of 3 tier system: Foreign Secretary  Foreign Minister
Prime Minister
 Conflict resolution through international arbitration. Here the role of WB becomes important
as the matter will go to the WB for arbitration. WB will appoint a neutral expert, who will
(Scandinavian countries are a good example from where neutral expert can be appointed).
Neutral Expert will prepare a report after visiting the site. He can judge the matter as a
“difference” or as a “dispute” on the basis of the report.
 If it is declared to be a difference, WB’s decision will be final. If it is declared to be a dispute,
it will go to International Arbitration (ICJ). Examples: Tulbul Navigation Project (India
started making a large hydro power project), Baglihar Dispute and Kishanganga (big hydro
power projects constructed by India but India was able to get award in its favour)
 3 ISSUES
I. Tulbul Navigation Project
 This project was started by India in 1984 on Jhelum.
 This was meant for navigation purposes. (apples from Baramulla to Srinagar)
 Pakistan put forth their objections on many grounds in 1987:
1. This was violation of the induct water treaty because it clearly says that the flow of
water should not get affected. This was a large project an dit would definitely affect
flow of water
2. Secondly, Jhelum flows into Punjab province of Pakistan. The project would thus
affect agricultural activities in this region.
3. Since Jhelum is an important tributary of Indus, this would affect agricultural activities
in the Sindh region as well because the flow of Indus river will get affected.
 Thus started the negotiations between the 2 countries.
 By 1989, India had forgone its right to go ahead with the project because the project would
actually affect the flow of water and it was evident that at the forum of International
Arbitration, the award would go in favour of Pakistan. This issue was resolved between
the foreign secretaries and it didn’t go further.
 The project has been in limbo till date.
 It was a 3 lakh acre feet project and once there was realisation about the flow of water,
India became careful in the subsequent projects.

II. Baglihar Hydropower Dispute

 This was started by India in 1992 on river Chenab which is also a western flowing river.
India was Upper Riparian and Pakistan was Lower Riparian for Chenab.
 450 MW was the capacity of electricity to be produced.
 Pakistan put forth the following objections:
1. It is a large project and is violating the Indus Water Treaty.
2. Chenab is an important river and if the flow gets affected, the agricultural activities
could be affected.
3. The project had the capability of causing flood in Pakistan and it was a security
problem.
  Negotiations began at the 3 tier level. The talks continued for 7-8 years but no solutions
could be reached even at the summit level.
 In 2005, after almost 13 years, Pakistan referred this matter to the neutral expert. The
neutral expert was then appointed by WB. The NE visited the site and they observed the
flow of water for almost a year and collected technical details.
 In 2007, it was referred as a difference. This itself was an important victory for India. Thus
the NE’s award would be final and binding.
 After a few months they said that India had not violated the treaty. The height of the dam,
which was 144 mitres, was to be reduced by 1.5 mitres and the bondage capacity
(measured in acre feet) was to be reduced by 13%. India was finally allowed to go ahead
with the project.
 The capacity of this dam was 37.5 million acre feet. IVT says that 10,000 acre feet should
be the limit unless it would affect the flow of water. India had realised that the technical
aspect to be kept it mind was the flow of water and not the 10,000 acre feet limit. India had
learnt from the western technique of Sediment Management, through which sediments can
be pushed out. This is what the NE had observed that India was able to maintain the
prescribed flow of water and thus the award was given in India’s favour.
 Pakistan committed to not further raising the issue at any other international forum.

III. Kishanganga Project

 Kishanganga is a tributary river of Jhelum. It is also known as Neelam river in Pakistan.
 Both India and Pakistan started constructing dams on this river in 2007. It was to be
completed between 2007-2016 but it was subjected to a lot of delay.
 The projected capacity of this dam is 330 megawatts.
 Negotiation talks began between the 2 countries at the 3 tier level.
 The case went to the neutral expert and after collecting the details of both the projects,
NE termed it as a dispute.
 In 2010, the case went to ICJ. The first reaction of ICJ was to turn down the application
by Pakistan. But after further pleadings the case was accepted by ICJ for adjudication.
 Because India was constructing a large dam, it would affect the flow of Neelam river and
their project would fail.
 An investigating team was formed to look into the project.
 India was to stop the construction of the project till the result of investigation comes out.
 This came as a blow to India.
 In 2011, both the sites were visited and the flow of water was observed. The technical
data was collected. ICJ gave a partial award in 2013 which was a great relief for India. It
said that India had not violated IVT and as per the IVT India (UR State) could divert the
water for non-consumption purpose, that s for the generation of electricity. Thus India
could continue with the project.
 The final award came in December 2013 and the Court specified conditions on which the
project could be made:
1. The flow of water should not go below 9 cubic metre per second. This tab was much
lower than what Pakistan was claiming (100 cubic metre per second). Thus the award
was very convenient for India.
 2. Height of the dam should be 37 mitres and not more than that. India was under the
process of construction and so it was not problematic for India.
 After this, India went on to build projects on Jhelum and Chenab and we plan on making
more projects in future.
 Unlike Baglihar, this issue received a lot of media attention and protests had emerged in
both the countries.

GANGA WATER SHARING ISSUE

 This was a geo-political issue between India and East Pakistan, where Ganga was called Padma.
 This issue as old as 1951 and arose in the aftermath of partition.
 India planned to construct a barrage in Farakka and the purpose as to flush the sediments from the
Calcutta Port to make it more navigable. Sediments not only kills dams but also negatively affects
the ports.
 East Pakistan raised an objection. Like Ganga is revered in India, Padma was also revered in
Bangladesh.
 The plan came about in 1951 but the project was started in 1961 and in 1975 the barrage was
completed.
 When Bangladesh emerged in 1975, although we had good relations with Bangladesh, it raised an
objection keeping water sharing in mind. The barrage could stop the flow of water and kill various
forms of life in Bangladesh
 A temporary settlement was reached wherein a temporary treaty came into being, which was to be
renewed after every 2 years.
 However, the need for a permanent treaty has always been there.
 1997- H.D. Devgowda was the PM of India at that time and Sheikh Haseena was the PM of
Bangladesh. During his period the treaty came into being. Bengal’s CM, Jyotibasu, played a very
important role in this permanent treaty. [West Bengal had always objected this treaty and so due to
that the treaty was delayed];
 The treaty was to deal with certain important areas
1. Flood Management: this is a constant problem for both Bangladesh and West Bengal. Thus both
the nations were to deal with these flood problems. Bangladesh had made the Harding barrage
and India had the Barakka barrage for dealing with floods.
2. Irrigation
3. Generation of Electricity- hydropower
4. Navigation and Fishing
 Provisions of the treaty:
1. Period: water sharing arrangement was not for the entire period. It was to be from 1 st January to
31st May. This period was chosen because this is the lean period where there is water scarcity.
After this period there are constant rainfalls and thus water sharing is not needed.
2. 10 Days’ Basis: water was to be shared on a 10 days’ basis. Every month was divided into three
parts of 10 days each and after every 10 days, experts will examine the flow of water. If flow
falls below 5000 cusecs, then it will be considered as an emergency. If during lean period water
 falls below 5000 cusecs, it will be declared as an emergency and there would be subsequent
meetings to deal with the emergency.
3. Join Committee: it would comprise technicians from both the countries. first function was to
observe the flow of water on 10 days’ basis and if the flow goes below the prescribed limit then it
has to report to the respective authorities. They were to regularly send data to the governments of
both the countries. it was also responsible for implementing the treaty.
4. Indo Bangladesh Join River Commission: this comprised commissioners from both the countries.
Joint Committee was to report to the Joint River Commission and the Commission was to send
the report to the respective Governments. Everything was to be filtered and then finally sent to
the government. Thus there was a 3 tier system.
5. After every 5 years either of the nations can go for a review of the treaty and either party can
seek the first review and through this review they can suggest for measures to be deleted or
added. This is again subjected to agreement between both the nations.
6. There was no provision for international arbitration. Issue were to be settled bilaterally.
 It is to continue for 30 years. It is to continue till 2027.
 After the period of 30 years the treaty can be further renewed by mutual consent.
 There was great bonhomie between the nations and rejoicing in both the nations in the aftermath of
signing of the treaty. It was a confidence building measure between India and Bangladesh.

SIACHEN ISSUE

 Literal meaning of the term “Siachen”- the land of wild roses.

 It was a no man’s land before the Indo-C
 NJ9852- the last point where LOC ends and on that point the Siachen glacier is located. It is 73 km
long and 3 to 5 km wide. It is located on Karokoram range of the Himalayas. Soltoro Range is the
range in Karokoram where Siachen is located.
 After the 1962 Indo-China war, China started gaining interest in the region.
 1970 onwards Pakistan was sending a number of mountaineering expeditions comprising
international trekkers to Siachen. The primary motive was to establish its claim on the region When
India noticed this, India sent its first trekking mission in 1978. It was a civilian mission and school
children were also made a part of it. It was led by army commander but most of the people were
civilians.
 In 1984, the conflict originated. India got some intelligence report by RAW and some foreign
agencies that Pakistan had ordered for some mountaineering equipments and clothing. Thousands of
orders were made by Pakistan and India, alarmed by this, launched the Operation Meghdoot
beginning in 1984. Mission of the operation was to get rid of Pakistan’s acquisition of the post.
Subedar Bana Singh led the operation. Quaid post was occupied and was called the Bana post.
 Height of permafrost- 6000 metres and Siachen is even above that. The average eight of Siachen
glacier is between 6000 and 7000.
 Two third of the glacier is in India’s possession and one third is with Pakistan. India has the strategic
advantage.
 India has around 7 battalions and Pakistan has around 3 battalions.
  Siachen is called as the highest and the costliest battlefield in the world. Costliest in the sense that as
per the estimate, every day we are investing more than 50 million rupees for the maintenance of the
troops in Siachen.
 If Pak acquires Siachen then it will gain control over Leh and Ladakh and here lies the strategic
importance of the region. This is why India is spending so much on the region by stationing the
troops.
 Temperature dips to -50 degree Celsius and that’s why there is high energy requirements for the
soldiers. We have drilled a pipeline, which is 250 mitres long, to supply kerosene to the troops in
Siachen. Cost of making one chapatti in Siachen is more than 1000 bucks. Also everything has to be
airlifted and thus more are the costs.
 The only PM who has gone to Siachen is Manmohan Singh. He went there in 2005 and said that we
want to declare the area as a region of peace. There are also proposals by international organizations
to open the area for trekkers to relax the tensions. But the Siachen issue is creating a lot of ecological
issue. The melting of the glacier gives rise to Shyak river which falls into Indus river. All the human
waste and the chemicals resulting from shelling are contaminating the water. This has caused serious
issues from ecological point of view.
 There is also a lot of threat to biodiversity of the region. Flora and fauna is getting negatively
affected by human settlements in the region.
 The glacier is also meting very fast due to the human presence.
 The northern-most point of Siachen is called the Indira Col.

LINGUISTIC REORGANIZATION OF STATES

REASONS

1. Haphazard Boundaries: Haphazard boundaries created by the British for their own administrative
convenience and not keeping in mind the ethnic concentrations or demographic conditions.
2. Plurality: as far as the nature of the state and people is concerned, India is multi-cultural and very
diverse. When question arose regarding basis for reorganization, caste and religion as basis was
discarded. Language was the most intelligible basis for the formation of an administrative union.
3. Education: if the administrative union is carved on the basis of mother tongue, education will spread
very fast as the students can be taught uniformly in their common mother tongue.
4. Enrichment of Language: if state is created on the basis of a particular language, there will be more
grants and resources for the enrichment of the language.
5. Pre-independence: there was discussion even in the pre independence era regarding language as the
basis for formation of administrative unions. Many INC discussions were about division on the basis
of language.
6. People’s Movement: this movement was started in Andhra Pradesh. It put pressure on the
government to carve states on the basis of language.

WHY GOVERNMENT GAVE LOW PRIORITY TO LINGUISTIC DIVISION

 1. Pangs of Partition
2. Security and Stability: Following the partition of India, security was a major concern of India. Also,
stability of the nation was to be maintained. Nation was not to further fragment.
3. Internal turmoil: there were food shortages. Food riots became rampant throughout the country. Thus
linguistic reorganization was not the priority of the government.
4. Dar Commission Report:

CARDINAL PRINCIPLES LAID DOWN FOR CARVING OF STATES

1. Anti-Separatism: demands dominated by separatist tendencies were not to be accepted and tolerated.
2. No religious demand: states could not be carved on the basis of religion. This principle was
applicable in case of Punjab. Religious demand from Punjab had existed for decades and thus the
reorganization was delayed by almost 2 decades.
3. Mutual Differences: Demand for a separate linguistic state will not be met despite the fact that a
particular language is dominant in the region if there are mutual differences between two groups.
This existed in Maithili speaking region of Bihar. People of this region demanded that they had a rich
language and thus wanted a Mithilanchal state. This was opposed by the Bhojpuri speaking group
and thus this demand was not met.
4. Demand for State- Mutual Demand: if there are 2 more linguistic groups and they don’t have any
issues with the formation of a state for the other linguistic group, then there will be mutual demand
for the formation of states. For example: in case of Punjab: as long as religion was a factor it was
denied. But when Punjabi speaking state Punjab, Pahadi speaking state- Kangra (later merged with
Himachal Pradesh, Hindi speaking state- Haryana. State of Madras had both Telugu and Tamil
speaking people had agreed that they should have separate states. In Bombay, Gujarati speaking
population and Marathi speaking population of the Bombay region accepted each other’s dean of
formation of separate states.

REORGANIZATION

1. Andhra: this was the first state to be formed on linguistic basis. Telangana region was a part of
Hyderabad region which was under the Nizam and was Telugu speaking region. Telangana was
transferred to Andhra Pradesh and thus the state came into being.
2. Kerala: Malabar region was part of the Madras presidency. It was an entirely Malayalam speaking
region. This was transferred to Travancore, which was a princely state. Malabar and Travancore then
become a part of Cochin. All three got clubbed together.
3. Karnataka: Kanadda speaking region of Bombay, Madras and Hyderabad presidencies got added into
the state of Mysore, which was a princely state. Later Coorg region was added to Mysore state.
4. Bombay: this was enlarged by adding Kuchh, Saurashtra and Marathi speaking region of Hyderabad
state.
In 1960, Bombay was reorganized. There were 2 linguistic communities- Gujarati speaking and
Marathi speaking communities. Thus it was divided into Gujarat and Maharashtra. The important
issue which emerged was related to Bombay. Bombay was the centre of business and commerce for
both the communities and both wanted Bombay to be their capital. Thereby there were agitations by
 both the communities. A compromise emerged later wherein Bombay was made the capital of
Maharashtra and Ahmedabad was made the capital of Gujarat.
5. PEPSU (Patiala and East Punjab State Union): this region was added to Punjab and thus Punjab
region was enlarged.
In 1966 Punjab was reorganized. It had a communal overtone which had been created by the Akali
Dal and thus the reorganization got delayed. A Shah Commission was constituted and was given the
responsibility to give recommendations. By this time, the Akali Dal had toned down their
communal/religious demands. Shah Commission recommended a trilingual division of the state of
Punjab. 3 linguistic communities- Punjabi speaking, Hindi speaking and Pahadi speaking.
Punjabi speaking area formed Punjab, Hindi speaking formed Haryana and Pahadi speaking
constituted Kanghra which was added to Himachal Pradesh immediately after this division.
Chandigarh was given UT status and made the common capital of Punjab and Haryana.
 India had 14 states and 6 UTs by 1966. (Daman and Diu became a UT in 1987).
6. Nagaland: Nagaland as a state emerged in 1963. In 1957, the Naga Hills Tuensang Area was brought
under central control and administered from Assam. The Governor of Assam was responsible for the
administration of Nagaland. With increasing calls and protests for a separate identity to preserve its
unique culture, the region was separated from Assam and the state of Nagaland was formed in 1963
with Kohima as its capital.
7. French and Portuguese territories: Process of transfer of French territories to India was very amicably
carried out in 1963. There were issues related to Portuguese territories. There had to be police action
by the Indian government in these territories because the autonomy of people was restricted by the
Portuguese. Portugal had raised this issue at an international level but their claims weren’t awarded.
8. Meghalaya: The north-eastern state of Meghalaya was formed as an autonomous state within Assam
where it had an autonomous state. It became a separate full-fledged state in 1969 with Shillong as its
capital.
9. Himachal Pradesh: Himachal Pradesh was created with the merger of 30 princely states in 1950, and
in 1956, was declared a Union Territory. It became an independent state in 1971 with Shimla as its
capital.
10. Sikkim: This peaceful state was an Indian protectorate till 1947 (India would protect it against
external aggression. Foreign policies and external affairs would be decided by India). There was also
fear against Chinese influence and there was also the example of Tibet in their minds. In 1974, it
wanted to associate with India at its own volition because of the developments in India and thus it
was given the status of an “Associate State” (India can contribute in its infrastructural development,
education, etc.) by India. A referendum took place in which maximum people (more than 90% of the
population) wanted to become a part of India. It merged with the Indian Union as an independent
state in 1975 with Gangtok as its capital.
 China has a claim over Sikkim (ethnically the population is of Chinese origin) and Arunachal
Pradesh.
11. Mizoram: It was declared a UT in 1972. After the peace accord was signed with the Mizo National
Front in 1986, Mizoram was declared an independent state in 1986 with Aizawl as its capital.
 12. Arunachal Pradesh: The strategically important state of Arunachal Pradesh was part of the North East
Frontier Agency (NEFA) and controlled by the Central government but was part of Assam region. In
1972, it became a Union Territory and in 1987 became an independent state of India with Itanagar as
its capital.
13. Goa: This Portuguese colony was liberated in 1961 by the Indian Army and made part of the Union
Territory along with Daman and Diu. The state of Goa was formed in 1987, while Daman and Diu
continue to remain as Union Territory.
14. Jharkhand, Uttarakhand and Chhattisgarh: Socio-economic reason was the factor behind the
formation of these states. In 2000, NDA was in power was at the centre.
 There was Laloo-Rabdi government in Bihar. It was in the southern part of Bihar. Laloo’s
RJD government realised that if the southern part was made a separate state, then RJD will
have full-fledged majority. Thus keeping this political interest in mind, Jharkhand was carved
out. It was carved along with 18 southern districts. Most of these districts were mineral-rich
regions and thus there could be more development of these regions f they became a part of a
separate state.
 The hilly state of Uttaranchal was carved out of Uttar Pradesh as an independent state in 2000
with Dehradun as its capital. In 2007, the state was renamed Uttarakhand. There were 11 hill
districts of Uttar Pradhesh. They had claimed that their development had been ignore. Also,
the size of UP was very large and thus carving out a separate state would provide
administrative convenience.
 The central Indian state of Chhattisgarh was carved out of Madhya Pradesh and formed as an
independent state in 2000 with Raipur as its capital. (similar reasons as in the case of
Uttarakhand it was a mineral-rich region). 25-30% percent of the territory of MP became a
part of Chhattisgarh.
 By 2000, after the formation of Jharkhand, Uttarakhand and Chhattisgarh, there were 28 states and 7
UTs.
15. Telangana: Socio-economic reason of backwardness. The state was carved out of Andhra Pradesh as
an independent state in 2014 with Hyderabad as its capital. The demand for an
independent Telangana dates back to the time of reorganization of Indian states in the post-
independence period.

LANGUAGE CONTOVERSY IN INDIA

Subhash Chandra Bose, Mahatma Gandhi, Rajagopalchari etc. were in favour of having a national language.

It was during the period of Sultanate (Allauddin Khilji), that Hindi emerged as a language. When soldiers
came from Arab and Persia. There were Indians and Persians in the army camps and thus “Hindavi”
emerged as a common dialect.

When “Hindavi” was written in Devanagri script, it became the Hindi language (around 11-12 th century) and
when the same was written in Persian script, it became the Urdu language.
One of the prominent persons who had created the Adi Kal period (11 th and 12th centuries) of Hindi Amir
Khusro

Adi Kal is followed by Bhakti Kal (16 th and 17th centuries). Various Bhakti saints (Kabir, Meera Bai, etc.)
wrote their dohas and teachings in that language and thus Hindi flourished.

Riti Kal (18th century) Hindi got enriched. “Shringar ras”. Various traditions flourished and got merged.

Aadhunik Kal (19th century onwards) after independence

Hindustani language: confluence of Hindi and Persian.

 TAMIL vs. HINDI (1937)

 In Madras, C. Rajagopalchari became the chief minister.
 Despite being a Tamilian, he was in line with Gandhi, Patel and S.C. Bose that Hindi should
be the national language of India.
 Thus he wanted to declare Hindi as the official language.
 When this news was released by media, there were protests. One of the leaders of these
protests was C. Annadurai. Karunanaidhi was a 14-year-old boy at this time and he was
chosen as Annadurais possible successor at that time itself.
 This marked the beginning of the entire controversy.
 Possibly there was a superiority complex because Tamil is the oldest language and thus the
issue arose here and not in any other South Indian state.

Throughout South-Asia a single language formula had negative repercussions. For example: imposition of
Urdu in Pakistan, 1956: Single only language policy in Sri Lanka.

OFFICIAL LANGUAGE ISSUE

 STATUS OF HINDI
 Those who advocated for Hindi, the justification given was that this is spoken by almost 40%
of the people in India.
 A funny statement came from a leader in Madras as an opposition to the statements of the
supporters of Hindi as the national language “Crows are in majority in India, so should we
declare crow as the national bird?”
 It was argued that other languages are also equally national
 A counter argument was that languages like Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu are confined within
the geographical boundaries of the respective states and because Hindi is comparatively more
widespread, it should be the national language.
 There are various dialects within Hindi itself. The Hindi of UP style was being propagated
and thus it was considered unfair.
 Hindi as a national language will become a great unifying factor. The argument against this
was that this will instead of creating unity, may lead to division because when one language
is put as national language, the sentiments of non-Hindi speaking groups will get affected and
will create separatist tendencies.
 STATUS OF ENGLISH
  We have just come out of colonial rule and thus English as national language would bring a
colonial element to the nation.
 A parallel argument that had developed was that we don’t have a choice. Considering the
multi-ethnic and multi-lingual character of the nation, English could be used as the common
medium of communication not only between states but also between the centre and the states.
 A general consensus, regarding the 2 languages, emerged that Hindi should be declared as the official
language and English will remain as the associate official language of the Union and the language of
the Parliament will be in both Hindi and English. The communication between the states will also be
in both the languages. After 15 years, a Parliamentary Review Committee will review whether
English should be retained or should be phased out as the associate official language.
 Official Language Act passed by Parliament in 1963 Hindi became the sole official language of
the Union. English was to be continue as the associate official language. It was through this act that
the general consensus was legalised. Earlier ordinances were in function but this was the Act which
concretised and legalised this stance.
 Multi-lingual Solution Three Language Formula: 3 languages will be taught, one regional, one
foreign and Hindi for the non-Hindi areas and any other language for the Hindi area, like Sanskrit or
Urdu. This model didn’t work out when it was put into practice. It failed due to a number of reasons:
1. If Hindi is taught in non-Hindi area, there will be an issue regarding teachers who can teach
Hindi. The teachers who could teach were reluctant to move to these states
2. There was also reluctance on part of non-Hindi states to implement this scheme.
3. Non-Hindi states said that why the Hindi areas should be taught Hindi/Urdu and not their
languages such as Tamil, Malayalam, etc.
 In 1964, Girdharilal Nanda was made the Home Minister of India. He had sympathy for Hindi
because he came from Hindi-speaking region. He issued a directive to all Union Ministries regarding
a report to be given for the progress of Hindi in India. The union ministries further forwarded the
directives to the states. Thereby, language riots emerged, especially in Tamil Nadu. Many student
movements also emerged.
 When these language riots happened, leaders. India was not in a condition to handle any further
internal turmoil. A compromise was reached that they must clear their intention that they did not seek
to impose Hindi as the national language.
 Lal Bahadur Shastri was also a supporter of Hindi but if any State is reluctant towards Hindi, they
Hindi cannot be imposed on such a state.
 Official Language (Amendment) Act, 1967 (result of the language riots, especially student
movements) By this time Indira Gandhi came into power. Following provisions were brought under
this Act:
1. Clarity was brought. All ambiguities in the Act were removed.
2. The assurance emerged in black and white terms that Hindi will not be imposed against the will
of the states.
3. It was decided that English will continue to be the associate official language even if a single
state desires that.
4. All the languages which are in the 8th schedule will have equal importance and a person can write
the UPSC exam in any of these languages.
 5. There shall be a joint use of Hindi and English in the Parliament for oath-taking, debates,
discussions, etc.
 With this the language controversy ultimately ended.

INTEGRATION OF TRIBES

 8.6% of the population of India is tribal.

 Currently we have 400 tribal communities.
 Most of the tribes are in poor condition, despite the policies in their support.
 States having tribal population: Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, M.P., Rajasthan, Gujarat, West Bengal,
Maharashtra, North Eastern states.
 Tribal Conditions:
 They have been living in isolation since a millennium. But we notice that a no. of
developments happened in the last couple of centuries when this isolation was broken to
some extent. The main factor responsible for this was colonialism as they had to exploit the
resources from the forests where the tribes resided. The tribes thus came in conflict with
them.
 Due to colonialism the market forces brought a lot of outsiders like moneylenders, traders,
contractors, etc. they got involved with the tribal areas due to the tribal policy of the
government.
 Definitely, the state was responsible for such exploitation but these all people acted as agents.
 England had an interest in the exploitation of resources especially for ship building,
construction of resources. This way the isolation was broken.
 Results:
1. Lost their lands: they became the tenants on these land.
2. They further fell into debt traps and gradually lost everything. Earlier they were self-sufficient,
they had their own land and could use the forest resources
3. From owners they became agricultural labourers, sharecroppers, etc.
4. The tribal rebellion was mainly due to these policies. The core areas in the forests were reserved
and prohibited tribes from entering them. Example: The Khol Bhil Santhal Rebellion.
5. Government officials had an important role to play as agents of exploitation. Thus the official
class had a role to play in this exploitation.
 All of these past considerations were taken into account before formulation of tribal policies. These
groups were to be developed and at the same time their unique tradition and heritage had to be
preserved, their unique traditional educational system had to be preserved.
 Tribal Policy
1. Museum Approach:
 There should be no interference in their lives or else they will rise against the State.
2. Assimilation Approach
 They have to be assimilated into the mainstream society.

Nehru rejected both the approaches as stated above. Considering them as museum specimen was
unethical. Assimilation Approach was rejected because if they are brought in the mainstream
according to any method they will lose their distinct traditional values culture and lifestyle.

Thereby, a third approach came into being which was a hybrid of the above 2 approaches.
 Then the tribal policy was based on 2 objectives:

1. Tribal areas have to progress but they have to progress in their own unique way and pace. We
cannot enforce our own perspective on them. In their development process, there has to be no
imposition of the perspectives of bureaucrats. Their unique identity was to be preserved
2. In the development process the tribes have to be involved. The tribes are considered illiterate and
thus involving them in the process Example: Involvement of Red Indians when a dam was to be
constructed

 Safeguarding Tribes through Governmental Policies

1. Article 46 became a fundamental provision for safeguarding the tribes. Not only economic
support but also protection from exploitation.
2. The states where tribes were large in population, Governors were vested with special powers to
look into the tribal issues. If state passes any law contravening tribal interests, then the Governor
can modify or amend the law.
3. Reservation of seats
4. Tribal Advisory Council: States where the concertation of tribes is more, there is a provision of
TAC. Frame such policies which could be helpful for the welfare of the tribes. They can advise
both Central and State government. Verrior Elwin, who is an activist and intellectual, had
contribute a lot towards tribal development in India
5. Commissioner of SC and ST: It is a central position and is appointed by the President of India.
He has to report to the President. His job is to take care that all the policies and constitutional
safeguards for the tribes are working in their favour in practice.
6. Employment Generation: impetus given to the cottage industry. The benefit can be reaped by
anyone in villages but there was special attention given to tribes. For the purpose of self-
employment, they were provided with a lot of incentives and subsidies.
 It is only in the north-east region that tribes are affluent. In other areas they are poor, illiterate and
disadvantaged. A lot of capital has been contributed in this area but the conditions have remained
poor. Reasons for no change:
1. Role of Missionaries in North-east: They brought funds in this region, conversion took place and
it had become sort of a Christian region. North east remained aloof from the Indian mainstream
initially because government did not pay attention to this region.
2. Report by the Planning Commission and report by Commissioner of SCs and STs: There is
divergence between the Central Government and State Government policies. There is also
inability of the State Government to execute the Central policies. This id working against the
interests of the tribes.
3. Nom Spending and Diversion of Funds: The funds which are kept for tribal welfare are not being
used for them and many a times used for some other purpose there have also been instances of
misappropriation of fund.
 4. Tribal Advisory Council has not worked properly. It has made suggestions but to what extent
they were accepted and helpful is under question. Most of the tome TAC has not worked in the
favour of tribes.
5. Prejudiced Approach of Bureaucracy: The officials are not being trained in their dealings with
tribes. When they reach their respective posts, they already have a prejudiced approach and so
this works against the tribes.
6. Transfer of Sympathetic Officials: If any judges or bureaucrats are sympathetic towards tribal
issue, they get transferred.
7. Most of Tribal People are Unaware: the lack of awareness about rights and illiteracy has further
led to stagnation in their development.
8. Rapid Extension of Industries: Mining and industrial companies are being allowed to use land of
tribal people and this becomes another reason.
 Traditional Knowledge System of Tribes
1. Kani Tribe (Kerala)
 They are in possession of a drug which has medicinal and other purposes. Arya Vaidhya
Pharmacy helped this community to patent this drug and named it “Sanjivini”. It is
considered as a miracle drug because it can be used for anti-fatigue, anti-stress and
immuno-efficiency. The benefit of this drug was to go to the community and the Arya
Vaidhya Pharmacy helped the community to patent this drug. The commercial benefit
eventually went to the community.
2. Raika (Western Rajasthan and Gujarat)
 They are the sheep herders. Earlier these raikas were caretakers of camels. They also took
the job of taking care of sheep.
 They have indulged in wonderful breeding. Sheep can give productivity only in cool
regions and so their productivity is at stake in a place like Rajasthan. They conducted
breeding as per traditional methods and thus the sheep as result became heat resistant.
 They can give mils and other product in the hot conditions of Rajasthan.
3. Tribal groups in Tamil Nadu
 Combination of animal parts and herbs and plants. This combination can help in asthma,
leprosy, epilepsy, and around 60 other diseases.
4. Tribal groups of North East region
 A plant very effective in cases of snake and scorpion bites. The name of this plant is
“Rauwalfia Tetraphilla”. The name has been given by Indian scientists. It was found that
if this plant is used on a regular basis, a person can become resistant to snake bites.
 This plant has thus been patented and capsules are being produced nowadays.
5. Meetei Tribe of Manipur
 They are known for being great nature lovers.
 Bamboo is a source of livelihood for most people
 This community has a great role to play in conservation of bamboo trees.
 They followed apractic eof nt destroying these plants everyfday. Their consciousness
regarding nature has helped in conservation of nature and biodiversity.\

Botanical Survey of India has brought out a list of various traditional knowledge systems belonging to
various tribes. Whenever anything is found about such traditions, it is notified by the Botanical Survey of
India
Son of the Soil Movement [Maati ke Laal]

 Form of regionalism.
 Cartoon that appeared in The Hindu (Mouse playing the flute and riding people out)
 Origin (1960s)
 3 metropolitan cities witnessed this movement- Bombay, Bangalore and Guwahati
 To some extent the problem still persists in these 3 cities.
 The movement was against the immigrants.
 Bangalore
 Percentage of Kanadda speaking population- 23%.
 Other ethnic groups include Tamilians, Malayalis, Telugu, Hindi-speaking groups.
 The local people were completely out-numbered by immigrants.
 Guwahati: 33% of the population is Assamese- speaking.
 Mumbai: 42% of the population is Marathi-speaking.
 Causes:
1. When the conditions of the economy were improving, many metropolitan cities became the cities
of opportunities. Therefore, for the purpose of jobs, many migrants got attracted towards these
cities.
2. Dude to the spread of education and educational system, more and more graduates came
forwards. But the economy was not that big and prosperous enough to accommodate all the
graduates and therefore they migrated to metropolitan cities.
 Youth, especially students, with job concerns came at the fore-front of this movement.
 Nature:
1. Firstly, this movement was primarily a middle-class movement. People involved in the
movement and the people against whom the movement was initiated were all middle class people
2. It was against the white-collar jobs. Many labourers from Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, U.P.,
Bihar, etc. moved to these cities for jobs but despite this there was no concern against the black
collar labourers.
3. It was an urban movement. It had no reach in the rural areas.
 Modes of Invoking
1. It was essentially an identity movement and so they had adopted the ideals of communalism.
Communal issue came at the fore. These issues were used to target the migrants.
2. Casteism was invoked against them.
3. The third form of invocation was language-based. Those who spoke different language were
targeted.
 Most of the South Indians have their dhabas in Mumbai. When Siv Sena and Bal Thakre came to
power, they targeted these dhaba owners. They were also against the Muslim Community. This was
for the purpose of survival.
 Demand: Preferential Treatment
 They expected the government to frame such laws and legislation that would benefit the
locals in comparison to the outsiders in terms of jobs, etc. as per the constitutional provisions,
equality is to be maintained. Article 15 (prohibits the state from discriminating any citizen on
ground of any religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them), Article 16(2).
Therefore, such demands cannot be accepted.
 This problem currently persists in Mumbai with MNS and Raj Thakre at the centre of such
politics. In other parts like Bangalore and Guwahati, there have not been such instances.
  Tushar Gandhi (great grandson of Mahatma Gandhi) wrote an article “Who Built Bombay
and not Mumbai?”- If we look at the ancient time when Mumbai was part of Mauryan
Empire, Pataliputra was the capital and the region was under North India.
 The Sultan of Gujarat had also owned this region and even today there are a lot of
monuments belonging to his period. Parsi community also has a lot of contribution in
Mumbai, for instance the Hotel Taj belongs to Tatas.
 Haji Ali Dargah belongs to the medieval period, around the time when Sultan of Gujarat was
the ruler. Therefore, Mumbai in essence belongs to all of us and the only people who were the
real settlers were the kohlis or fishermen. Everyone else are immigrants in this sense and thus
everyone has equal rights in the region.
 He also talks about the contribution of British Gerald Aungier- Father of Bombay. Before
this it was controlled by the Portuguese.

COMMUNALISM

IDENTITY

 Philosophers refer to the idea of “sameness” in the context of identity. Sameness can be in the sense
of being part of the same community.
 Whether identity is a static/dynamic concept?
 We identify ourselves as a part of a religion, nation, gender group, etc.
 There are certain identities that stay static for example: identity as a son or daughter. There
are also identities that may change change of identity from being a student of an institution
to being an aluminous of the constitution. A person may also change his/her religion.
 Thus, identity is both a dynamic and a static concept.
 What constitutes identity?
 There are 2 broad categories that are termed as the markers of identity:
1. Tangible: in the context of identity, the tangible aspects are physical characteristics,
language (when thought culminates into the form of speech, it becomes tangible), visible
cultural aspects
2. Intangible: thought process, state of consciousness, belief system, invisible cultural
aspects, mental attributes are the intangible aspects of identity.
 Regarding identity, there is a Buddhist Principle called “Law of Momentariness” identity is in a
situation of constant flux, nothing remains static, everything that is matter is bound to change.
Human body is made of matter and that is why, whether you realize or not, this body keeps on
changing. If you don’t obey the law of nature, the body deteriorates rapidly. When a candle is burnt,
the flame does not remain static, it keeps on changing. Another example: if you stand near a brook
and you observe the flow of water, it may seem that it is the same water but after every second, there
is new water that is flowing. Body is an intelligent matter whereas non-living things are dormant
matter. Every matter, whether intelligent or dormant, is subject to change and destruction.

RELIGIOUS IDENTITY
 A person who possesses a religious identity should have the understanding to make distinction
between the ultimate ideals and its converse. He will be able to know what is sacred/profane, what is
good/evil, what is supreme/inferior, what is admirable/contemptible [ultimate ideal/its converse]. His
ideals will be rooted in the ultimate ideals and hence he will be able to make this distinction.
 In case of Sikh community, the 5 Ks will be a part of a devoted Sikh identity. Naam Simran, Respect
to Guru Granth Sahib are other parts.
 In the case of Hinduism, these principles don’t apply. That is why Hinduism is not considered as
faith, it is a way of life.
 Belief is something which is still subject to certain doubts because you lack experience in that belief.
When this belief grows deeper through experience, it develops into faith. Swami Vivekananda had a
n idea or belief about God and he was roaming everywhere seeking help to see God. He then met
Swami Pramhasa who said that he had seen God. When Vivekananda went through experience, then
only his belief got transformed into faith.
 Religious Identity

 Can be two kinds Monolith and Pluralist. Monoliths are the ones which believe that only their
religion is superior. Pluralist is the opposite
 Identity of a religious Ideologue
 Religious ideologue is a person who converts a religion from a matter of faith or belief to a
matter of Ideology. Then the religion becomes a matter of rules and norms. Then these rules
and norms start governing the people of the religion. A believer is hold by the religion but an
ideologue holds the religions hence it can manipulate the way he wants to.
 When the religion faced this problem that from a matter of faith it becomes a matter of
ideology and the ideas of the ideologue are not centred to the ultimate ideas. This clearly
shows that he wears a pseudo religious identity
 He might be guided by various political, social and economic interest and these are behind
him becoming an ideologue.
 Example – Md. Ali Jinnah was an ideologue. He did thing which were against islam like
eating pork and drinking wine. But the change came after 1930s he started following Islam
and then took shape of an ideologue. He created symbols and slogons which motivated
people to protest etc. and he had a great influence on the masses also he actions were driven
by political and social motives. Recent times assaduddin owaisi, veer savarkar, most of the
RSS chiefs, in Christianity- the missionaries
 Identity of a religious Zealot/Fanatic-
 One of the imp thing here is that his prime mission is restoration of an order. Like ISIS says
that it want to create a khalifat state like the ones in the mediviel time. He selects some
fundamentals of a religion/faith and via that he tens to govern other people’s life. He has
greate desire for power and thus he tends to become a robust political realist. He is cynical of
the ultimate ideals. He does not have that wisdom between what is good what is bad etc. and
 hence he does not have a real understanding of what a religion is. He is known to be very
cunning and brutal.

[Get Preeti’s notes]

Being religious is not the same as being communalist. A religious person is necessarily opposed to the other
communities. There are various conditionalities which make a person communist which are best absent in a
religious person. However, there have been various movements in which religious movements get cloaked
by a communist movement.

Aligarh Movement: by itself this movement was not a communal movement. It was for the reformation of
Muslim community. The community was to be exposed to modernity and western education. But gradually
this movement became a communal movement in the context of Syed Ahmed Khan, who himself become a
communist.

Arya Samaj: it was purely a reformist movement. After Swami Dyanand Sarawati , when the group got
divided, it took a communal form. They started bringing the Muslims into the Hindu fold through the
process of the ritual of purification (Shuddhi Movement). In retaliation Muslims launched the “Tabliq” and
“Tanjeer” movement. As a result, communalism increased manifold.

2 Dimensions of Communalism

1. Communalism as a state of consciousness

 It is about how communalism percolates among the masses as consciousness and people tend
to get communalised.
 It is used as an instrument of power.
 Religious consciousness can get converted into communal consciousness.
 In Banaras, controversy emerged with respect to the language. It was the Hindi-Urdu
controversy. This led to increased communalisation in the region. Initially he was an advocate
of Hindu-Muslim unity but gradually he turned into a staunch communist with all his
inclinations towards the Muslim community.
 1980s: Television launched 3 mega series Ramayana (Ramananda Sagar) and Mahabharata
(B.R. Chopra). Religious sentiments increased and they got deeply devoted towards this.
Scholars believe that it was the result of this mega series that religious consciousness
increased by such a great degree. There was a serial called Tamas [book by Bhisham Sahni]
whose theme is partition which shows how certain circumstances lead to suppression of
liberalism toards all communities.
  Communally mobilised: they are the common mases. Generally, masses in India are neutral.
This neutrality can be problematic when it gets influenced by certain ideologies on
invocation. They are mobilised for a short term for a particular cause.
Use of religious symbols in communal mobilisation: Vishva Hindu Parishad- Trishul, BJP-
Lotus, Ram Janma Bhoomi Movement- Raam paduka or Ram Shila, Bajrang Dal- Gada.
Religious symbols bring a sense of emotionally charged commitment and spread communal
consciousness.
 Communally convinced: these are the people who are the carriers of a communal
organization. E.g. carriers of Shiv Sena/RSS, etc.
2. Instrument of Power
 Goal of Communalism: capturing people’s mind capture of social power capture of
political power Theocratic State (Ultimate Goal).
 In the context of communal organizations, especially the Hindu organizations, the way of
capturing people’s minds is through education. For example: the actions of RSS by spread of
communal education in Saraswati Shihu Mandi, Aadarsh Vidhya Mandir, etc. culture is
another tool through which people are brought under the communal fold. This is how social
power is captured.
 BJP is a communal party but when it came to power it became more and more responsible.
 Targets of Communal mobilisation: primarily the middle class (lower middle class mainly);
upper class have all the resources and so they don’t get influenced, lower class is struggling
for food itself and so they don’t get involved.

Process of Communal Riots

 Section 146 of IPC.

 When an unlawful assembly of a religious community or any member thereof uses force or violence
against other religious community in prosecution of a common object, it is called a communal riot.
 Causes of communal riots:
1. Historical Aspect
 India had a history of animosity between communities.
 There is a principle in Islam that either you convert to Islam or force will be employed for the
same.
 Hanafi school made the provision that if you don’t want to convert to Islam you’ll have to
pay tax- Jaziya tax [protected status given to people: Jimmi].
 These historical injunctions became the reason for the rise of animosity between the Hindu
and Muslim communities.
 Destruction of temple is another historical reason. Many Arab and Muslim rulers were
involved in temple destruction, especially Aurangzeb. The Ram Janma Bhoomi issue is a
result of this reason only.
 Divide and Rule policy of the British: it was started being applied post 1857. The entire sub-
continent was divided based on this policy only. We find the legacy of communal violence in
this policy.
2. Psychological Aspect
 The majority Hindu community considers Muslims as traitors or pro-Pakistan.
  Muslims view Hindus as majority community and so there is a persecution mania that in case
of any conflict they will be attacked. This is a fear of the majority.
 The idea of one God among Muslims- this also creates a gap between the two communities
3. Ethnic Aspect
 Ethnicity is based upon culture. There is a tendency to term Hindus as a different ethnic
group and Muslims as a separate ethnic group. This is parochial and wrong.
 Ethnicity has to be understood in terms of culture and language.
 The perception f separate ethnic group percolates and creates the divide.
4. Humanistic/Gandhian Explanation
 People are not aware of humanistic value and this creates the divide.
 Universal principles of peace and harmony- preached by Gandhi as well. People are
unaware and this creates the divide.
5. Economic Explanation
 Economic reasons create divide between families also in cases of property.
 In Gujarat there was a dispute about a pond which culminated into a communal riot. A
purely economic issue got converted into a communal riot.
 Shia-Sunni riots in Lucknow and not Hindu-Muslim riots: mot of the Muslims are from
the weaving community. Most of the buyers are Hindus. There is a symbiotic relationship
between Hindus and Muslims. An understanding developed that communal riots will
jeopardize the economy. This a classic case noticed by a famous American scholar Bill
Kinson who found out how economic reason can lead to communal riots but in certain
case it can also bring about comity between communities as was in the case of Lucknow.
6. Political Explanation
 Vote bank politics: it is considered as a very important reason.
 When vote bank politics merged in India there came about “Mazhab ki Siyasat”.
 Winning elections becomes the sole criterion for a political party.
 D.N. Shehsan became to power: political parties came to realise the power of election
commission.
7. Role of Administration
 In the case of Godhara 2002, which portrayed Narendra Modi as a villain throughout the
world, it can be seen how administrative action leads to communal violence. S6 of
Sabarmati Express, in which certain Hindu activists were sitting, was burnt by certain
Muslims. This incident was the trigger behind Godhara riots. Administration was
responsible for its inaction. CNN IBN documentary on Godhara led to allegations against
Modi.
 Efficiency of administration can prevent communal riots. During the 15-year RJD
government in Bihar there were no communal riots. There was the presence of caste
based politics but there was no sign of communal violence. This shows how
administration can effectively keep a check on communal violence.
 Thus the determination of administration towards preventing communal riots is very
important.

Why communal violence in certain regions and not in other regions?  the above explanations do
not answer this.
 8. Rumours
 In Ahmedabad there spread a rumour that the Municipal milk supply was poisoned by the
Muslims.
 Bhagalpur riot: 1988-89- there is a famous festival called Chatt, during which rumours
had spread that the bananas were injected with poisons. This rumour lead to no bananas
being sold and got rotten.
 A mere rumour is enough to trigger violence.
 Communal Violence Production
 Chain reaction of communal riots: Communal Activity Communal Consciousness
Communal Mobilisation Riots
 Through communal activity a communally surcharge atmosphere, called communal
consciousness is created. The tempo of the communal consciousness leads to communal
mobilisation by the members of a particular community. The actions taken in furtherance of
the communal mobilisation culminates into communal riots.
 Paul R. Brass and Steven Wilkinson: especially Brass is very famous for working on a number of
sensitive sites in India like Aligarh and Meerut region and has written extensively on that. Their
conclusions say that no matter who throws the first stone, the ultimate sufferers will be the
minorities, that is the Muslims in case of India. This can be said based upon statistical data from the
past 60 years.
 Sensitive regions where there has been recurrence of communal violence: Varanasi, Meerut,
Muzaffarnagar, Kanpur, Faizabad, Muradabad, Ranchi, Nalanda (Bihar), Ahmedabad, Baroda.

Why Communal Riots in 1960s?

1. Ideology and Organization: the 3 prominent Hindu communal organizations that existed at that time-
Hindu Mahasabha, Vishva Hindu Parishad and RSS. Muslim League, Jammat-e-Islami were some of
the prominent Muslim organizations. On the issue of language, RSS and others raised the slogan
“Hindi, Hindu, Hindustan”. They started preaching their communal ideologies. Gradually
communalisation started because of these reasons only perpetuated by these fundamentalist
organizations by creating a communal atmosphere. These ideologies resulted into communal
consciousness.
2. 1965 Indo-Pak War: this war raised nationalist sentiments amongst the people and due to this a
further divide was created between Hindus and Muslims as Muslims were considered to be
supporters of Pakistan.
3. Economic Rivalry increase; 1960 onwards, rivalry for government jobs and other employment
opportunities increased. This was another device to divide the 2 communities. In India, back money
and underworld started emerging for instance the event of Black Friday which followed the Mumbai
riots. In this context, the communal tensions grew.
4. Local Politics:

Cases of Communal Violence

1. Ranchi Riot 1967
 Muslims comprised 20% of the population.
 Maximum refugees from East Pakistan. Hindu refugees were settling down and were sharing
their horror tales and other stories of persuasion which increased.
 The immediate cause was the language issue. Congress was the ruling government in Ranchi
and the CM, Mahamaya Prasad made Urdu the official language of the state. There were
protests by Jan Sangh and RSS against this move. They initiated a procession against the
move and they were attacked with stones.
 Raghuvar Dayal Commission was formed to probe into this riot. The commission blames the
police as well as the Hindu organizations for invoking these riots.
2. Meerut Riots 1968
 Demographic of Meerut at that time involved 30% Muslim population.
 It also has the presence of Hindu refugees who came from Pakistan. Their presence also
becomes one factor. 4% of the population comprised Hindu refugees. They got communalised
 Sheikh Abdullah was imprisoned by Nehru for more than a decade. He was released around
1962-63.
 In the UP Assembly a bill was to be passed making Urdu the second official language.
Abdullah was invited by Jamiat-e-Ulema to address the rally in support of Urdu. RSS and Jan
Sangh decided to oppose Abdullah, they formed a front called the “Kashmir Bacho Morcha”.
On the due date, the venue where Abdullah was to speak, in front of the venue they also led a
procession. There were arsons and killing as result of the clash between the 2 groups.
3. Ahmedabad Riots 1969
 Demographic condition: 15% Muslims.
 RSS organized a political camp to train the volunteers for para-military exercises. This camp
was used primarily for anti-Muslim propaganda.
 Jagan Mohan Reddy Commission was formed to probe into the riots. As per this commission,
the immediate reason was the Jagannath Temple incident. A Muslim sub-inspector went ot the
temple to enforce that after a particular period of time people would not be allowed to enter
the temple. It was alleged that he kicked a copy of Ramayana. This was the trigger leading to
Hindu organizations coming together to rally against this.
 The procession by the Hindu organizations was stoned and thus arose the riot.
 The commission put the responsibility on police, RSS, Jan Sangh and Hindu Mahasabha.
4. Bhiwandi Riots 1970
 Demographic condition: 65% Muslims.
 Generally, wherever Muslims are in majority there is absence of communal riots but this
place was an exception.
 D.P. Madan Inquiry Commission was formed to probe into the riots.
 The death toll was around 250 and 80% of those who died were Muslims.
 There was a communal atmosphere due to the presence of Hindu and Muslim organizations.
 Due to various hate speeches on part of both the organizations, the communal violence
surcharged further.
 We see the role of rumours in these riots. There were rumours that the Muslims wanted to
avenge the killings in the Ahmedabad riots.
 Muslim organizations - Jammat-e-Islami and Muslim League; Hindu organization: Shiv Sena.
  The commission put responsibility on the above organizations and the police.
5. Moradabad Riot, 1980
 Most of the people are involved in occupations related to brassware, especially the Muslim
population which comprises 55% of the population.
 During 1980s, there were clashes between Dalit Hindus and Muslims. Dalits were also
working in the same industry. One Dalit girl was kidnapped by the Muslims and this created a
communal atmosphere.
 There was also tussle for job opportunities in the brassware industry between the Dalit
Hindus and Muslims. However, it was the kidnapping incident which created the atmosphere.
 Immediate reason it was the occasion of Id-ul-Fitar. there is an Idgah Medan where the
Muslims had assembled in large numbers to do Namaz. An incident took place called as the
“Pig Incident”. People were sitting for performing Namaz and suddenly a pig started moving
towards them. They asked the police to take care of the situation but the police refused ot do
so. The pigs brought indignation to the gathering and this led to a clash between the Muslims
and the police. The ADM got killed and ASP got injured.
 In the initial stage the clash was not communal in nature, it was a clash between the Muslims
and the police but later when a rumour came up that the pig belonged to the Dalit community
and the act was propagated by the Dalits, it led to the communal riot between Musims and
Dalits. More than 100 people were killed.
 Inquiry commission Justice Saxena (Allahabad HC judge) Commission. He put the
responsibility on the State Govt. led by V.P. Singh.
 There was a theory that it was a pre-planned move by the Muslims and it was financed by
Arabs. Muslims contended this by saying that they wouldn’t have involved their children if it
was pre-planned.
6. Bihar Sharif riot, 1981
 48% Muslim population
 The main economic activity in this region is Bidi making.
 There were problems between the Yadavs and the Muslims
 Yadavs had constructed a temple of Lord Hanuman on a Muslim graveyard. This was the
immediate reason for the communal tension.
 When the District Administration got to know about this, the District Magistrate decided to
resolve the matter on a particular.
 Before the date arrived, communal riot broke out between the two communities.
 The casualty was around 150-200 local inquiry commission by the administration.
 It was alleged that some Hindu organizations like VHP (Vishva Hindu Parishad) had backed
the Yadavs in the communal riots.
7. Bhagalpur Riot, 1989
 Even today it is famous for silk industries. In the silk weaving, both Hindus and Muslims
played an important role.
 Mostly the Muslims are the weavers and most Hindus are the buyers.
 This continued for a period of 2 months.
 1100 people died during the riots. However, this is the official figure and the actual number is
double or triple the number. Around 50,000 people got displaced. 90% of the people who died
were Muslims.
 The riots took place in the backdrop of Ramjanma Bhoomi Movement.
 There was Ram Shila poojan taking place in support of the movement, organized by VHP.
There were bricks which were worshipped and sent to Ayodhya for the construction of the
Ram Mandir.
 After this ceremony, VHP organised a procession. During the procession anti-Muslim slogans
were chanted. They passed through a Muslim locality and continued to chant the slogans.
 District Administration decided to talk to the Muslim leaders to allow the procession to pass
peacefully. When the talk was going on some crude bombs were dropped in the possession. A
lot of police force got injured.
 The procession turned into a mob and they started attacking Muslims shops and houses.
 There were firings from Muslim houses.
 This marked the beginning of the riot.
 This started in the Bhagalpur district but later it spread to villages around the district. This
was the reason why the riots continued for almost 2 months.
 2 Incidents:
(a) Chanderi Incident
 Most of the Muslims assembled in a haveli of a noted Muslim personality. Around
120 Muslims left their houses and assembled.
 By this time the govt. had ordered the army to go to the haveli. They assured the
people that they will be rescued the next morning.
 The Yadavs came along with a large number of people and they asked them to
come out by saying that they were there to rescue them. When they came out, the
Yadavs cut them into pieces and their dead bodies were dumped into a nearby
pond.
 The army found 70-80 bodies in the pond.
 This was the story in most of the localities. Hindus were in majority in most
localities and they surrounded groups of Muslims and butchered them.
(b) Logain Village incident
 160 Muslims lived in this village.
 Everyone in this village got killed and their dead bodies were buried in a field.
Cauliflower was then planted on the field to hide evidence.
 Gudi Kandak river: most bodies were taken in trucks and dumped in this river
 Mobs that attacked the Muslims were accompanied by police forces. Thus the police had also
gotten communalised.
 Inquiry commission was constituted headed by C.P. Sinha, a high court judge. The CM at that
time was S.N. Sinha who was replaced by Jagannath Mishra who was more liberal.
 A lot of people, especially the main perpetrators, got life imprisonment.
 The commission also blamed a lot of police officers who were charged.
 A lot of big fishes could not be indicted.
 A second riot commission was formed by Nitish Kumar when he became the CM. it was head
by Patna HC judge, N.N. Singh. The report was submitted in 2015 to the government.
  The local Congress government, CM and the police were blamed by the commission for the
riots.
 Congress lost a huge vote bank in the aftermath of these riots.

SECULARISM

Social reform movements in Europe tussle between Church and the State which continued for centuries
thus emerged the idea of Secularism State emerged as the most dominant institution No interference of
religion in the affairs of the State.

Constituent Assembly Debates

 Professor K.T. Shah wanted the State to be completely aloof from religious activities. On the western
line, State must not have any link with any religion, religious sect, religious organization, etc. This
resolution, however, failed.
 H.V. Kamath: Secular state doesn’t mean that the State will be a religion-less State. The very idea of
secular state is wrongly understood in the resolution of Shah. His idea got wide-scale acceptance.
 H.N. Kunjuru: Religion is very closely linked with the social fabric. Conditions in India are very
different from the conditions in Europe. It is not practically possible for the State to remain
absolutely aloof from religion.
 Finally, the House passed the resolution that our idea of secularism is different. It is not the same as
the traditional understanding of secularism.
 They came up with the idea of “Sarva Dharma Sambhava” which propagates equal respect for all
the religions. This does not have legal acceptance but a general understanding emerged in the context
of secularism in India.

Today in the field of secular discourse 3 different streams of thought emerged:

1. Secularist: Highly critical to any sort of communal or fundamentalist organizations. They assert
strongly that India is a secular state and the State must not be involved in any religious activity.
There should be no patronage for any religious activity.
2. Hindutva: After the Hindutva judgement, it is said that Hindutva is also a secular concept as it is a
way of life.
3. Liberals: they sae the socio-political realities of India and they were against both the above groups.
They said that Hindutva is fundamentalism. They termed secularists as opportunists. In the garb of
secularism, they seek to cater to their own interests.

M.N. Srinivasa says that secularization does not mean that religious institutions will cease to exist but they
will cease to encompass or regulate or dominate other institutions of the society.

S.R. Bommai case

 Justice Ramaswamy and Justice Jeevan Reddy have tried to further elaborate upon secularism.
 Justice Ramaswamy: Secularism is a part of the basic structure of the Constitution.
 Justice Jeevan Reddy: Secularism means equal treatment of all religions by the State.
  The idea of sarva dharma sambhava got legitimized.
 Hindutva has been interpreted as a way of life. It should not be construed as parochial religious
fundamentalism. However, in reality this remains questionable.
 Media had condemned the above interpretation.

Somnath Temple Incident

 When Mehmood Gazini attacked, he had destroyed this temple in the 12th century.
 Sardar Vallabhai Patel proposed re-construction
 They agreed that this temple will be re-constructed through government funds.
 Gandhi sent a note to the cabinet suggesting not to use state funds as it will set a bad precedent. He
suggested that money be taken from the masses.
 His suggestion was accepted and implemented.
 Questions regarding a cabinet committee headed by PM in the matter of re-construction of a temple
and the inauguration of the temple by the head of the state, i.e. the President arose. India’s secular
nature was questioned.

Shah Bano Case

 Alimony or maintenance was the main issue in this case. This right was asserted and provided for by
the Supreme Court.
 Rajiv Gandhi, to please the Muslim Community, passed an amendment by which the above right was
taken away. Muslim Women Protection of Rights and Divorce Act, 1986 was passed in the
Parliament and the amendment was initiated through this act and the decision of the Supreme Court
was overturned.
 L.K. Advani: this case was very significant as it gave us the pedestal to mobilise Hindus in their
favour. Congress was considered as anti-Hindu and thus Hindus turned against it.

Subsidies provided to Pilgrims

 Subsidy of 1.5 lakh per person for pilgrimage to Mecca Madina.

 However, when Modi government came to power this subsidy has been drastically deducted.
 This raises the question regarding secularity as such subsidies are not provided for pilgrimages
associated with other religions.

Iftars

 Iftar parties during the Ramadan month have become places of political hobnobbing. The so called
secularists organize such parties to appease the Muslim Community.
 Vote bank politics is kept in mind while throwing such parties.

Imrana Rape Case of 2005

 In Muzaffarnagar, Imrana was raped by her father-in-law.

 Muslim clerics were approached and their judgement was a shock for everyone they said that the
father-in-law should now be considered by her as her husband.
 Mulayam Singh Yadav said that the judgement by the Muslim clerics should not be interfered with.
Nadeem Akhtar Saifi

 Nadeem and Shravan Kumar Rathod are a legendary music director duo in the Bollywood film
industry of India.
 Shravan was murdered and Nadeem was the alleged murderer.
 He went to Britain and convinced the British courts that he, being a Muslim person belonging to the
minority community will not get justice.
 Extradition could not happen.

Satanic Verses by Salman Rushdie

 In Islam, anything said against the religion is considered as a blasphemous act.

 He was charged for blasphemy. Many organizations issued fatwa on him.
 Congress Government realised that if Rushdie is given shelter, the Muslim Community will get
infuriated and so shelter was denied to him.

Lajja by Tasleema Nasreen

 In the fear that her stay in India will infuriate the Muslim Community and so the Congress
Government asked her to leave India.

Jamia Milia Islamia

 Initially it was a minority institution but today anyone can get education here.
 Mushirul Hasan was the Vice Chancellor of the institution at that time.
 When he was asked to comment on Satanic Verses, he said that instead of condemning him there
should be debate between Rushdie and the society opposing him.
 This created fury against Mushirul Hasan and he was attacked.
 He had to leave he institution and later joined DU.

NAXALISM

Reasons for choosing the region of Naxalbari

 Tribals like Mundas, Santhal, Oran used to inhabit this region. Most of them were agriculturists or
worked in mines.
 Geographically this region was close to China and Naxalism is a Maoist ideology and therefore this
region was chosen.
 It was a forested and hilly region which could provide better sanctuaries for hiding.
 There was grievance regarding the landowners, etc. who exploited the agricultural and mining
labourers.
 Thus arose Naxalism.
 The Chinese thought that Maoism will emerge as an ideology in India too

Kisan Convention 1966

  In 1966, a convention of agriculturist and peasantry classes was formed by the leaders of the
Naxalite groups.
 3 important resolutions were passed:
1. Establishment of a Peasant Committee: they will look after the management of the village.
2. They were told to get organized and be armed.
3. Through their organized activities and with the help pf the arms all the exploitative elements
must be smashed. Land were to snatched away from zamindars and redistributed amongst the
peasants.
 First time the peasantry class arose in action.

Leadership

 Charu Majumdar- brain of the entire organization

 Kanu Sanyal- establishment and expansion of the organization network
 Jangal Santhal- prime work was to mobilise the tribes as he himself was a tribal person.

1969-71- Apex Phase of the Movement

 The movement spread to Bihar and Telangana region.

 West Bengal, Bihar and Telangana became the hotspots of Naxal activities.

Programs or Methods of Action

1. Assassinations: A fear or menace was to be created in the minds of the exploiting class. A few were
killed to create the fear.
2. Overthrow the Feudalism: they said that the exploding class or the feudal class was in minority and
so they could be easily thrown away.
3. Fearlessness: Unless you are fearless you cannot go for resolute actions against the exploiters.
4. Education or Awareness: Generally, the Naxal leaders took lantern classes in the evening and night.
They used to visit villages and propagate Maoist ideologies. One of the aspects of this education was
the ways to get rid of parochial factors of casteism, superstitions, rigid traditions, etc.

Weapons

 As per Maoism, weapon is important aspect but it is not an all-encompassing factor.

 Their emphasis was on traditional weapon rather than modern weapons.
 Till late 90s, Naxals relied on traditional weapons which could be made in their own houses.
 Red Terror: terror which is caused by the Naxals among the class enemies (Capitalist class,
bureaucrats, police).
 White Terror: terror caused by the class enemies.
 Base Are (region where red terror has been established and the class enemies and feudal regime has
been overthrown. There is complete Naxal dominance. Bastar region is one example.

Around 1971, Charu Majoumdar got arrested and the government started taking action. Many other leaders
were captured and thus there was a decline in the movement.

Gradually, students became the backbone of Naxal movement and the movement spread.
However, after the death of Charu Majumdar the movement declined.

Around 1971-72, due to the governmental suppression, the movement started declining.

Guerrilla Warfare

 Methodology adopted by the Naxals.

 There is an entire process regarding how this is undertaken.
 If a target has to be attacked or someone or a group has to be assassinated, there is a process.
1. Whispering Campaign: They first demonise a particular individual or group. When a target is
eliminated, there should be n negative reaction and so this campaign is undertaken.
2. Small Groups: Various small groups, with around 5-6 people in each group, are formed. They all
assemble in their particular spots before the attack. A detailed investigation is carried out by the
guerrillas and one they determine the trend of the movement they determine the time and place of
the target.
3. Shelter: they fix shelters where they can hide after the attacks. The forested and hilly regions
facilitate this.
4. Plan of Operation: A plan of operation is formulated by consulting the core group.
5. Once they reach the place of target they finish their plan of assassination or killings. Once the
target is fulfilled, the whispering campaign is conducted again. The idea is that people should be
convinced that the person killed was bad. This process continues till a Base Area is created.

Naxal Organizations

 CPI (ML) [Communist Party of India (Marxist Leninist) was formed by Charu Majumdar. But after
the death of Majumdar the organization split into a number of Maoist organizations.
 One such organization was Maoist Communist Centre (MCC). This organization decided to keep
Jangal Mahal of Vardhman district, as their area of activity because there was a large number of SCs
and STs. The socio-economic conditions of the people in the region were bad. There already were a
lot of grievances against the exploiters.
 In 1975, 2 of the leaders, Amulya Ganguly and Kanai Chatterjee established Dakshin Desh. To
spread the activities to the region of Bihar, the organization was renamed as MCC.
 Pramod Mishra became a leader of this organization. Till recent time, when the MCC merged with
other small units, Pramod Mishra has continued to lead.
 Armed Wing of MCC- Lal Raksha Dal  It is involved in most of the assassinations and killings.
 2 massacres by Lal Raksha Dal:
1. Aurangabad Massacre: Around 42 high caste Rajputs were killed
2. Bara Massacre: the high caste Bhumihar Brhamins were killed

Jan Adaalats or People’s Courts

 This is formed when certain elements inform police about Naxal activities or carry out other
distrustful activities or for punishing the exploiters.
 An assembly of people is called and they claim that the common people will be the judge but they
have their own candidates.
MCC merged with CPI (ML)