Journal of Groundwater Science and Engineering Vol.4 No.

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Applications of hydrogeophysics in characterization of

subsurface architecture and contaminant plumes
DENG Ya-ping, SHI Xiao-qing, WU Ji-chun*

Key Laboratory of Surficial Geochemistry of Ministry of Education, School of Earth Sciences and Engineering,
Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China.

Abstract: Geophysical methods have been applied to a wide range of hydrogeological problems.
With improvement in geophysical inversion algorithms and measurement tools, significant
achievements have been made in the characterization of subsurface architecture, time-lapse
monitoring of hydrogeological process and contaminant plumes delineation. In this paper, we
summarize the geophysical methods that are most widely used in hydrogeology including
Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT), Induced Polarization (IP), Ground Penetrating
Radar (GPR) and Electromagnetic Induction (EMI). Three examples including lab and field
works are used to demonstrate current application of geophysical methods for characterizing
subsurface architecture and contaminant plumes. Though great progress has been made in
hydrogeohysics over the last few decades at home and abroad, challenges still remain in
practical applications. More recently, hydrogeophysics continues to develop in the areas of
establishment of hydrogeophysical models, large-scale architecture characterization,
uncertainty analysis, biogeochemical process monitoring and ecosystem science.

Keywords: Geophysical methods; Hydrogeophysics; Groundwater; Hydrogeological properties

hydrological parameters and monitor dynamical

Introduction processes (Rubin Y and Hubbard S S, 2006).
Conventional approaches for hydrogeological
Over the past decades, growing attention has investigations, like pumping tests, slug tests, core
been focused on the characterization and remedia- sampling, have mainly been dependent on a sparse
tion of sites contaminated by hazardous chemicals network of intrusive drilling cores (Stienstra P and
which pose a long-term threat to the groundwater Van Deen J K, 1994; Jim Yeh T C et al. 1995;
quality and human health. It is therefore necessary Sánchez-Vila X et al. 1999). Although these
to conduct detailed hydrogeological studies asso- methods do provide detailed information about the
ciated with subsurface environmental problems. subsurface, data obtained through such methods
Geophysical techniques, such as electrical resisti- are limited by several discrete vertical profiles,
vity tomography (ERT), ground-penetrating radar which are not sufficient for characterizing geolo-
(GPR), induced polarization (IP), can play an gical heterogeneity. Generally, these measurements
important role in this domain. These methods have are time-consuming and costly. Furthermore, in
been widely applied in characterizing and some cases, such invasive methods are restricted
monitoring hydrogeological architecture and due to the obstruction of buildings or roads and
transport of contaminants in shallow subsurface environmental protection constraints (Binley A et
(see reviews in Revil A et al. 2012; Binley A, 2015; al. 2015). Recently, geophysical methods have
Binley A et al. 2015), which gave birth to been increasingly applied in hydrogeology because
“hydrogeophysics”. Hydrogeophysics is defined as they can provide non-intrusive and continuous
a research field that uses the geophysical methods profiles at an acceptably high resolution (Hubbard
to characterize subsurface features, estimate S, 2011). Significant improvements have been
made in data acquisition tools, inversion
*
Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected] approaches, hydrogeophysical relationships that
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link hydrological properties and geophysical to detect the diffusion range of landfill leachate.
parameters, coupled and uncoupled hydrological as YAN Y Y et al. (2007) successfully delineated the
well as geophysical modeling and thus the status of groundwater pollution on Asuwei refuse
characterization of subsurface properties and sanitary landfill through magnetotelluric method.
processes (Slater L, 2007; Revil A et al. 2012; Despite landfill leachate, an alternative realm of
Knight R et al. 2013; Singha K et al. 2015). studies associated with contamination problems is
The geophysical techniques used for hydrogeo- oil contamination. ZHOU Xun (2007) evaluated the
logical investigations include ERT (e.g., CHEN efficiency of GPR for detecting the leakage of
Ye-xun et al. 2004; Naudet V et al. 2004), IP (e.g., underground oil storage tank in south Jiangsu
Cassiani G et al. 2009), ground penetrating GPR province. CHEN Fu-xin et al. (2016) used time-
(e.g., Huisman J A et al. 2003; GUO Gao-xuan and domain reflectometry (TDR) to study the relation-
WU Ji-chun, 2005), electromagnetic induction ship between the contents of non-aqueous phase
(EMI) (e.g., Mohamed A K et al. 2002), self- liquids (NAPLs), dielectric properties and electrical
potential (SP), seismic and so on. Among these conductivity of soil. PAN Y et al. (2015) and GUO
methods, ERT, IP, GPR and EMI are probably the Xiu-jun et al. (2005) studied the resistivity charac-
most widely used geophysical techniques in teristics of oil contaminated soil through ERT
hydrogeophysics. ERT and IP methods are method. Geophysical methods have also been
assumed to originate from petroleum and mining utilized ingroundwater resource exploration. WAN
explorations in the early twentieth century. During Le and PAN Yu-ling (1999) illustrated availability
the late 1970s, development of instruments and of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) method for
inversion methods accelerated application of detecting karst water. JI Yan-jun et al. (2005)
electrical methods in a wide range of fields (Binley conducted groundwater prospecting through TEM
A, 2015). Over years, significant improvement has in Neimeng. A large number of studies described
been made in resistivity and IP methods where use of geophysical methods in the exploration of
both three-dimensional and four-dimensional seawater intrusion (SU Yong-jun et al. 2014),
surveys are available in areas with complex delineation of aquifer architecture (SUN Yin-hang
hydrogeological conditions. The use of GPR and GAI Li-ya, 2014), and estimation of hydrogeo-
methods for groundwater started from the work of logical parameters (LI Zhen-yu et al. 2003; YU
El-said M A H (1956). There have been revolu- Yong-xiang and WU Ji-chun, 2006). Recently,
tionary advancements of GPR since the 1970s. As biogeophysics has emerged as a new sub-discipline
the instruments evolve and designs get better, the of hydrogeophysics focusing on the characterization
amplitude of GPR data is becoming more stable of biogeochemical process (ZHANG C et al. 2013;
and reliable (Annan A P, 2002). In recent years, ZHANG C et al. 2014).
application of GPR in hydrogeological investiga- The primary objective of this paper is to
tions has increased due to a better understanding of introduce some practical applications of hydrogeo-
correlations between GPR responses and water physics. This study focuses more on the geophy-
content (Annan A P, 2005). EMI method for sical methods which are the most commonly used
subsurface investigations started in the 1950s and in hydrogeological investigations. The paper first
1960s. Because of development of instruments, briefly describes the basic principles of geophy-
EMI was applied to groundwater prospecting later sical methods. Then it is followed by some bench-
and has experienced a rapid growth in use for and field-scale examples combined with our
environmental problems in the recent two decades present work to illustrate the current applications
(Everett M E and Meju M A, 2005). of the geophysical methods. Finally, the paper
The application of geophysical methods in provides a few views on future development of this
hydrogeology started late in China compared to growing area of research.
developed countries, but there have been numerous
successful cases in natural resources exploration,
protection and management. For contamination 1 Geophysical methods
problems, CHENG Ye-xun et al. (2004), used ERT,
GPR and TEM (transient electromagnetic method) While there are a number of geophysical

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methods showing potential in hydrogeology, here studies. Table 1 displays the geophysical properties
we restrict our discussions on the selected four and hydrogeological applications of these geophy-
techniques including ERT, IP, GPR and EMI, sical methods.
which are most commonly used in hydrogeological

Table 1 List of most commonly used geophysical methods in hydrogeology

(modified from Binley A et al. 2015)

Geophysical Geophysical
Deployment Hydrogeological applications
methods properties
Ground surface, Geohazards assessments, environmental
Electrical resistivity Resistivity
cross-boreholes, contamination monitoring, hydrogeological
tomography (conductivity)
waterborne parameters estimation
Mineral exploration, environmental
Chargeability,
Ground surface, contamination monitoring, hydrogeological
Induced polarization complex
cross-boreholes parameters estimation, detection of biological
conductivity
activity
Mineral exploration, environmental
Ground penetrating Permittivity, Ground surface,
contamination monitoring, mapping of
radar conductivity borehole
geological features and water table
Ground surface,
Electromagnetic Natural resources prospecting and reserve
Conductivity borehole, waterborne,
induction evaluation
airborne

and Kemna A, 2005). Finite-difference and finite-

1.1 Electrical resistivity tomography element methods are commonly used to solve the
ERT calculates the electrical resistivity of the Poisson equation (Coggon J, 1971; Park S K and
subsurface by introducing a current into the ground Fitterman D V, 1990). Then inverse methods are
through two current electrodes and measuring the used to back calculate the resistivity using the
difference of voltage at the other two potential potential valuespreviously obtained from the
electrodes. A typical multi-electrode system has at forward modeling. Since inverse modeling of
least four electrodes connected to the resistivity geophysical problems is not inherently unique, i.e.,
meter by cables. To obtain a continuous profile of there are probably a number of different geophysical
the subsurface, measurements should be made with models that can fit the measured data, it’s necessary
different spacing at different locations along the to impose additional constraints on inversion
cables. Traditional two-dimensional and three- (Marquardt D W, 1963; Constable S C et al. 1987).
dimensional resistivity surveys are based on the
surface-based electrode configurations. Recent 1.2 Induced polarization
developed novel configurations include cross-
Compared to ERT, IP is able to provide both
boreholes (Slater L et al. 2000; Wilkinson P B et al.
resistive and capacitive characteristics of sub-
2010), surface-tunnel (Power C et al. 2015;
surface materials. IP measurements can be also
Simyrdanis K et al. 2015), surface-borehole (Bevc
conducted by the four-electrode geometry the same
D and Morrison H F, 1991; Kirkou S et al. 2015)
way as ERT surveys used, but the former require
and other optimized arrays for specific field
much higher input current and more stacks of
problems (Wilkinson P B et al. 2006; Loke M H et
measurements due to relatively low overvoltage
al. 2014; Loke M H et al. 2015).
(Binley A, 2015). Surveys can be performed in the
In order to retrieve the intrinsic distribution of
time domain or in the frequency domain. For the
resistivity of ERT measurements, an inverse
time domain, a current is injected first. Then the
modeling is usually performed based on the
transient voltage decay over a period of time is
measured data. Before conducting the inverse
recorded when the current is cut-off. The measured
modeling, a forward modeling is performed, which
voltage decay is a result of polarization at the
is done by solving the Poisson equation (Binley A
fluid-mineral interface as well as the electrical

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conduction within the pore water and along the and receiver, which have a specific polarization
grain boundaries. The IP effect is generally character for the field generated and detected. In
represented as partial chargeability. this mode, GPR antennas can be pulled along a
Frequency domain methods measure phase- survey line at walking speed. When the
shifted voltage relative to an injected current electromagnetic waves into the soil reach the
(Binley A and Kemna A, 2005). In frequency interface with different dielectric constants, part of
domain IP survey, the injected current is harmonic the energy is transmitted deeper into the ground
and the corresponding voltage is measured at a and the other part is reflected and displayed in the
sampling frequency which should be high enough form of two-dimensional profiles.
to capture the small phase lag between the voltage
and the current. Measurements can be made either 1.4 Electromagnetic induction
at a single frequency or over a range of frequencies
(referred to as spectral IP, SIP). However, the EMI uses a transmitter, typically operating with
frequency range is limited in field measurements. a frequency range from 1-15 kHz, to introduce time-
Low frequency measurements result in a long data or frequency varying currents into the ground.
acquisition time and high frequency measurements Measurements can be taken on the ground surface,
are suffered fromcoupling effects. In frequency in boreholes, in a waterborneor airborne manner.
domain measurements, the result is usually EMI has been an effective tool for large-scale
described in terms of complex conductivity which hydrological investigations (Cook P G and Kilty S,
consists of phase component (real part) and 1992; Kirkegaard C et al. 2011). Compared to GPR
out-of-phase or quadrature conductivity (imaginary and ERT, EMI can provide greater penetration and
part) (Revil A et al. 2012). better resolution. The EMI method performs well in
highly conductive environments, areas with high
radar reflectivity and electrically resistive zones
1.3 Ground penetrating radar
(Everett M E and Meju M A, 2005). Since the coils
GPR is a geophysical method which uses of EMI system do not need to contact with ground
electromagnetic energy at high frequencies (10- surface directly, EMI method also performs well
1 000 MHz) to map subsurface features (Davis J L with the presence of highly resistive or paved
and Annan A P, 1989). Commonly used GPR ground while good electrode contact with ground is
system consists of two antennas. One antenna is required for ERT methods.
used as the transmitter which produces electro- The EMI data can be collected in profile or
magnetic waves downward into the soil, and the sounding model. In frequency domain systems, a
other is served as the receiver that measures the high resolution investigation of subsurface at
reflected signal from the transmitter (Huisman J A shallow depth is completed with high transmitter
et al. 2003). Generally, GPR has an advantage in frequencies.Lower transmitter frequencies are able
shallow coarse-grained materials which are trans- to detect deeper but at a loss in resolution. The
parent to radiowave signals, but it has its limitation secondary magnetic field measured in time domain
in fine-grained soils. GPR signal strength is systems is a function of time: early-time measure-
attenuated quickly in highly conductive environ- ments provide information about shallow depth
ment. The resolution and depth penetration of GPR while later-time measurements reflect the electrical
measurements depend largely on the frequency properties at a deeper depth. The resolution and
bandwidth used and the surrounding soil electrical penetration depth of EMI are determined by the
conductivity (Huisman J A et al. 2003). distribution of subsurface conductivity and separa-
GPR measurements can be divided into two tion of coils as well as the source configuration.
categories: Reflections (including common-offset
reflection and multi-offset reflection) and transillu-
mination methods (Annan A P, 2005). Among 2 Practical applications
these, common-offset reflection method is the most
commonly used in GPR surveys. Generally, This section presents several cases to illustrate
common-offset surveys involve a single transmitter application of geophysical methods in hydrogeo-

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logical studies. These cases are mainly based on Hirsch M et al. (2008) delineated a resistive gravel
our present wok that are conducted to characterize layer overlying mudstone bedrock through
the subsurface architecture of aquifer, monitor the multiple geophysical methods.
dense non-aqueous liquids (DNAPLs) infiltration In order to illustrate the efficiency of
process and map the extension of plumes in a geophysical methods for mapping hydrogeological
contaminated site. heterogeneity in subsurface, we conducted both
GPR and ERT measurements and hydrogeological
2.1 Characterization of subsurface surveys, including single-well and multi-well
architecture pumping tests and dispersion tests, in a field site.
The target area is located on the middle and lower
Geophysical methods have been used for reaches of the Yangtze River mainly with sandy
different aspects of application in subsurface aquifer. The regional geology comprises a 20 to 30
architecture delineation. For example, in the m thick layer of quaternary silty clay and fine sand.
assessments of geohazards, Jardani A et al. (2007) A loam and sandy loam layer of variable thickness
used both ERT and SP methods and successfully (80-100 m) overlies the aquifer. The aquifer is
detected the sinkholes in a karstic area. LIU Si-xin present at a depth varying between 120 to 200 m.
et al. (2005) utilized borehole radar to detect the The deployment of geophysical lines and wells can
subsurface fractures. Compared to the traditional be seen in Fig. 1.
hydrogeological methods, geophysical methods
also have an advantage in geological structure
delineation. Davis J L and Annan A P (1989)
illustrated application of GPR in soil and rock
characterization. Van Overmeeren R A (1998)
summarized several examples of characteristic
radar signatures for different sedimentary environ-
ments in the Netherlands helping identify different
types of sedimentary sequences. Geophysical
methods have also been used to characterize
aquifer geometry. Schütze C et al. (2012) located a Fig. 1 Deployment of wells and GPR and ERT
survey lines. (Note: Arrow stands for the
potential fault zone through both seismic refraction direction of survey lines (Modified from Wu
and electrical resistivity tomography investigations. Ji-Chun, 2006)

Fig. 2 Three dimensional structure of the study area (Modified from Wu Ji-Chun, 2006)
The results of GPR and ERT detections are shows the three dimensional structure of the
compared with the hydrogeological surveys. Fig. 2 subsurface. The data used to construct this
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structure were collected from the GPR and ERT geophysical methods are able to map the
measurements and geological borehole information. distribution of hydraulic conductivity and reflect
Based on the established hydrogeophysical the heterogeneity in the subsurface. The mean
relationship between hydrogeological properties values of hydraulic conductivity for the upper and
and geophysical parameters, GUO Gao-xuan and lower part of the aquifer were 4.12 and 2.57 m/d
WU Ji-chun (2005) and YU Yong-Xiang and WU respectively, according to the GPR data. ERT
Ji-Chun (2006) used GPR and ERT datares- method and fitting curve method of pumping test
pectively to estimate the hydrogeological para- provided mean values of 5.94 and 5.23 m/d
meters of studied aquifer. Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 display respectively for the study area. Though there is an
the distribution of hydraulic conductivity estimated inconsistence among these three methods, such
from the GPR and ERT measurement section with results are reasonable because of the difference of
a depth below 16 m. It can be seen that both support volumes among them.

Fig. 3 The distribution of hydraulic conductivity obtained from GPR methods in the study area (the
depth is less than 16 m) (Modified from Wu Ji-Chun (2006))

Fig. 4 The distribution of hydraulic conductivity obtained from ERT survey line in the study area (the
depth is less than 16 m) (Modified from YU Yong-Xiang and WU Ji-Chun (2006))

geophysical methods have been powerful

2.2 Time-lapse monitoring of Dense techniques for monitoring hydrological processes,
Non-aqueous Phase Liquids (DNAPLs) including water flow in vadose zone (Daily W et al.
infiltration process 1992; Arora T and Ahmed S, 2011; Johnson T C et
al. 2012), contaminants transportation (Chambers J
With the development of time-lapse algorithm,
E et al. 2010; Revil A et al. 2013), environmental

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remediation (Johnson T et al. 2010; Flores Orozco heterogeneous porous media. We used sands of
A et al. 2011). DNAPLs trapped in subsurface pose 40/50 mesh size as back ground media and sands of
a potential threat to soil and groundwater system. 100/140 meshsize to create the low-permeability
Recently, time-lapse geophysical methods have layered lenses. The ERT measurement consisted of
been used to monitor DNAPLs migration and 13 parallel lines at a distance of 3 cm. AGI
remediation process. Chambers J E et al. (2004) EarthImager was then used to combine these
used ERT to monitor the movement of DNAPLs in parallel lines to obtain an overall view of the
saturated porous media within a column. Orlando resistivity distribution in the whole sandbox.
L and Renzi B (2015) conducted a controlled Fig. 5 shows the time-lapse images of DNAPLs
sandbox experiment to study the effects of migration with both LTV and ERT methods. The
DNAPLs release on geophysical signals through results show that the resistivity images well match
both GPR and ERT methods. Mao D et al. (2015) the saturation images. ERT successfully shows the
used ERT and SP methods to observe the DNAPLs transport in the slightly heterogeneous
trichloroethylene (TCE) remediation process in a porous media. It resolves the evolution of general
laboratory experiment. shape of plume. Pooling and bypassing flow
Though there are some achievements in the phenomenon are observed through ERT when
investigations associated with DNAPLs, a direct DANPLs encounters the low-permeability lenses.
comparison between geophysical methods and Though pure DNAPLs is highly resistive (106 Ω·m),
accurate laboratory methods within an experiment is the positive anomalies caused by the presence of
still lacking. In order to quantitatively evaluate the DNAPLs is not significant under low-saturation.
efficiency of ERT for monitoring DNAPLs For example, the plume with a saturation of 0.3
migration, ERT and high-resolution light trans- only causes around a 40% increase of resistivity.
mission visualization (LTV) methods were used to Such small change of resistivity is likely to be
simultaneously monitor the infiltration process in a ignored by investigators or covered by complex
controlled laboratory experiment. The sandbox was hydrogeological conditions, especially with the
filled with sands of various grain sizes to construct a presence of biological activity.

Fig. 5 Comparison between LTV (upper) and ERT (bottom) images at the same time. Data acquired
after TCE injection: (a) 20 min; (b) 40 min; (c) 60 min; (d) 80 min; (e) 110 min. LTV images show the
distribution of TCE saturation. Sn stands for the TCE saturation. ERT images show the percentage
difference between sequential data and base data

mapped the extension of inorganic plumes through

2.3 Mapping of plumes in contaminated high-resolution ERT method. Goes B J M et al.
sites (2004) and Cardarelli E and Filippo G D (2009)
used ERT and IP and correctly identified the plume
Geophysical methods have been increasingly
of non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs). The
used to solve contamination problems. Naudet V et
examples above illustrate the application of
al. (2004b) and Rucker D F and Fink J B (2007)
geophysical methods in unplanned release caused

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by landfill leachate or oil pipeline leakage. There

are also a number of researches associated with
planned release of contaminants in controlled
laboratory experiments to study the efficiency of
geophysical methods for mapping electrically
anomalous plumes. Slater L et al. (2002) and
Lekmine G et al. (2012) conducted an ERT
monitoring of solute transport and dispersion in
porous media to quantify solute transport processes.
Sentenac P et al. (2010) and LIU Han-le and Fig. 6 Curve of resistivity obtained from ERT
ZHANG Sha (2014) used ERT to study the NAPLs profile as a function of TDS data within the
plume migration in a simulated unconfined aquifer. chemical plant

Fig. 7 2D inverted profiles of lines A-1 (a), B-1 (b), C-1 (c), D-1 (d), and E-1 (e)
(Dark blue area indicates contaminant plume)

Here we give an example of the use of ERT plume with high total dissolved solids (TDS)
method to delineate the extension of contaminant formed by leachate movement from a chemical
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plant. Geological data from well cores show that the site involved 43 lines and the data were
the site is composed of four stratigraphic layers collected by using Wenner electrode arrays. The
including artificial fill, silty clay, silt and silty clay apparent resistivity data were then inverted using a
within the depth of 16 m. As a result, the hydraulic least-squares method which is commonly used in
conductivity of this local area is rather weak. The 2D profile inversion. A curve which describes the
regional groundwater flows from southwest to relationship between resistivity and total dissolved
northeast with a hydraulic gradient of 1‰-2‰. solids (TDS) within the chemical plant is presented
The groundwater level was measured between based on the ERT inversion results and
2.55-4.92 m underground in this area. Based on the corresponding hydrochemical data from boreholes
previous analysis of soil and water samples, (Fig. 6). This curve is thus used as the basis for the
inorganic salts like Fe and Na make up the main determination of plume range outside the chemical
contaminants in the study area. The ERT surveys at plant.

Fig. 8 The area of contaminant plume estimated from ERT surveys (Note: Black lines indicate ERT
survey lines and red line shows the plume range)

Fig. 7 shows that the inversion resulted from 5 compared to lines B-1 and C-1. As a result, a2D
of 43 ERT lines, one of which was measured map showing the extension of contaminants plume
directly at the source zone which situated in the is obtained by jointly analyzing all the 43 lines
southwest of site labeled as line A-1. The other (Fig. 8).
four lines were measured from the south, east,
north and west of the source zone, labeled as line
B-1, C-1, D-1 and E-1, respectively. In the source 3 Future challenges and directions
zone, the low resistivity, with values less than
1.0 Ω·m, is consistent with the high TDS measured
Significant achievements have been made in
by previous chemical analysis (Fig. 7a). In line B-1,
the applications of geophysical methods in hydro-
low resistivity values are found between 15 and
geological field over last few decades. Geophysical
80 m along the survey line. The range of low
methods have been widely used in mineral
resistivity anomalies shown in line C-1 is similar
exploration, assessment of geohazards, subsurface
to that of line B-1. The results for the resistivity
architecture delineation, solving environmental
tomography of line D-1 indicate that the
problems and hydrogeological processes. Despite
contaminant plumes have not reached that far. As
these advances, challenges still exist in the field of
can be seen in Fig. 7e, the resistivity value and
hydrogeophysics and deserve further research.
plume area shown in line E-1 are smaller

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(1) Hydrogeophysical relationship information and geophysical data, will become

First of all, it is necessary to establish increasingly popular in hydrogeological parameters
universally used petrophysical models that incor- estimation.
porate hydrogeological properties with geophysical
properties. As is known, geophysical methods can Acknowledgements
not directly provide hydrogeological information
and their effectiveness is dependent on the strength This work is funded by the National Natural
of relationship between obtained geophysical Science Fund of China (NSFC)-Xinjiang
properties and properties of interest. No. U1503282 and by the NSFC No. 41030746,
(2) Uncertainty analysis 41672229 and 41172206.
Secondly, assessment of uncertainty in the
derived inverted image is generally ignored, which References
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(3) Large-scale architecture characterization
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have focused on the bench- and plot- scale recharge through complex vadose zone of a
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