University of Debrecen

Faculty of Engineering

Engineering Experimentation

Mechanical Engineer BSc Education

Lecturer : Krisztián Deák

Mechanical Engineer,
Enviromental Engineer

2014.
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 Introduction
Name: Krisztián Deák
Room: 307., The main building, Dep. of Mechanical Eng.
Email: [email protected]
Web: http://www.mk.unideb.hu/userdir/deak.krisztian/
Phone: 06-52-415-155 / 77780

Age: 33
Qualification: 2003: Mechanical Engineer
2012: Enviromental Engineer
2013-: PhD studies
Experience: 2003-2010: automobile industry, machine design
CAD/CAE systems, maintenance engineer

2010- : lecturer of the University

BSc lectures: mechanics, machine fault diagnosis
maintenance engineering
MSc lectures: dynamics of mechanical systems
Researches: Intelligent maintenance, Artificial Neural Networks,
Support Vector Machines, Tribology, FPGA
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 ENGINEERING
MEASUREMENTS
 Standards organizations
• SASO— Saudi Arabian Standards organization
• ISO—International Organization for
Standardization
• Others—ASME, NFPA, ASTM, etc.
 Reliability of Measurements
• Measurements must be reliable to be useful
• Incorrect information is more damaging than no
information
• There is no perfect measurement
• Accuracy of measurements
• Precision of measurements
• Uncertainty of measurements
• Do not accept data without questioning the source
and uncertainty of the measurements
Fundamentals Methods of Measurements

There are two basic methods of measurement:

• Direct comparison: with a primary or secondary
standard
• Indirect comparison—conversion of measurand
input into an analogous form which can be
processed and presented as known function of
input
 Types of Input Signals
• Static
• Dynamic (Time dependence)
- Steady periodic, complex periodic
- Nonperiodic: nearly periodic or transient
- Single pulse.
- Random
• Analog or digital:
- Analog; continuous signal,
- Digital; distinct values, step changes.
 Calibration
• Calibration involves the determination of the
relationship between the input and output of a
measurement system
• Eliminate Bias error
• The proving of a measurement system’s capability
to quantify the input accurately
• Calibration is accomplished by applying known
magnitudes of the input and observing the
measurement system output
 Primary Standards For Comparison
and Calibration
• SI System: Meter – Kg -- Sec.– Kelvin – volt -
Mole – Ampere – Radian
• LENGTH (meter): Distance traveled by light in
vacuum during 1/299792458 of a sec.
• MASS (Kg.): International prototype (alloy of platinum
and iridium) kept near Paris.
• TIME (Sec.): Duration of 9192631770 periods of the
radiation emitted between two excitation levels of
Cesium-133
• TEMPERATURE (Kelvin): K = oC + 273
 Uncertainty of Measurements
• Measurement error = Measured result - True value
• The true value of a measurand is Unknown ( Error is
unknown )
• The potential value of error can be estimated
(uncertainty)
• Two types of error:
- Systematic errors (bias) and Random errors
( Statistics to estimate random errors)
SOURCE OF ERRORS
Measurement errors
Bias and Random Errors
 MEASUREMENT STAGES

• Data transmission
– Gets data between measurement elements
– Wire, speedometer cable, satellite downlink system

• Data storage/playback
– Stores data for later retrieval
– Hard drive, RAM

• Data presentation
– Indicators, alarms, analog recording, digital recording
Periodic Wave and its Spectrum
Time Domain & Freq. Domain
frequency spectrum examples
Square and Hanning window functions

Shannon law
Periodic Signals
Sine Wave Digitising
Periodic Wave and its Spectrum
Square Wave and its Spectrum
Analog and Digital Signals
Analog RC Filtering
Measuring System Stages
Resolution of an A/D Converter
 Measuring instruments

Length measurement

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Mass- or volume flow measurement

A mass flow meter, also known as an inertial flow meter is a device that
measures mass flow rate of a fluidtraveling through a tube. The mass flow rate is
the mass of the fluid traveling past a fixed point per unit time.

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Gas meter

A gas meter is a specialized flow meter, used to measure the volume of fuel
gases such as natural gas andpropane.

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Tachometer

A tachometer (revolution-counter, tach, rev-counter, RPM gauge) is an instrument

measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor or other
machine.[1] The device usually displays the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a
calibrated analogue dial, but digital displays are increasingly common.

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Stroboscope

Stroboscopes play an important role in the study of stresses on machinery in

motion, and in many other forms of research
A stroboscope, also known as a strobe, is an instrument used to make a cyclically
moving object appear to be slow-moving, or stationary. The principle is used for the
study of rotating, reciprocating, oscillating or vibratingobjects. Machine parts and
vibrating strings are common examples.

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Speedometer

A speedometer or a speed meter is a gauge that measures and displays the

instantaneous speed of a land vehicle.

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Accelerometer

An accelerometer is a device that measures proper acceleration.

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Mass- Weighing scale

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Force gauge

A force gauge (also force gage) is a small measuring instrument used across all
industries to measure the force during a push or pull test.

A digital force gauge is basically a handheld instrument that contains a load cell,
electronic part, software and a display. A load cell is an electronic device that is used to
convert a force into an electrical signal. Through a mechanical arrangement, the force
being sensed deforms a strain gauge. The strain gauge converts
the deformation (strain) to electrical signals. The software and electronics of the force
gauge convert the voltage of the load cell into a force value that is displayed on the
instrument.
Test units of force measurements are most commonly newtons or pounds

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A load cell is a transducer that is used to convert a force into an electrical signal. This
conversion is indirect and happens in two stages. Through a mechanical arrangement,
the force being sensed deforms a strain gauge. The strain gauge measures the
deformation (strain) as an electrical signal, because the strain changes the effective
electrical resistance of the wire. A load cell usually consists of four strain gauges in
a Wheatstone bridgeconfiguration. Load cells of one strain gauge (quarter bridge) or
two strain gauges (half bridge) are also available.[1] The electrical signal output is
typically in the order of a few millivolts and requires amplification by
an instrumentation amplifier before it can be used. The output of the transducer can
be scaled to calculate the force applied to the transducer. The various types of load
cells that exist include Hydraulic load cells, Pneumatic load cells and Strain gauge load
cells.

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Strain gauge

A strain gauge (also strain gage) is a device used to measure strain on an object.
Invented by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur C. Ruge in 1938, the most common type
of strain gauge consists of an insulating flexible backing which supports a metallic foil
pattern. The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable adhesive, such
ascyanoacrylate.[1] As the object is deformed, the foil is deformed, causing
its electrical resistance to change. This resistance change, usually measured using
a Wheatstone bridge, is related to the strain by the quantity known as the gauge
factor.

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Strain Gage [Gage Factor = (∆R/R)/(∆L/L)
& Young’s Modulus = (P/A) / (∆L/L) ]
Torque
A dynamometer or "dyno" for short, is a device for measuring force, moment of
force (torque), or power. For example, the power produced by an engine, motor or
other rotating prime mover can be calculated by simultaneously
measuring torque and rotational speed (RPM).
A dynamometer can also be used to determine the torque and power required to
operate a driven machine such as a pump.

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Tribometer

A tribometer is an instrument that measures tribological quantities, such

as coefficient of friction, friction force, and wear volume, between two surfaces in
contact.

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A tribotester is the general name given to a machine or device used to perform
tests and simulations of wear, friction and lubrication which are the subject of the
study of tribology. Often tribotesters are extremely specific in their function and
are fabricated by manufacturers who desire to test and analyze the long-term
performance of their products. An example is that of orthopedic
implant manufactures who have spent considerable sums of money to develop
tribotesters that accurately reproduce the motions and forces that occur in
human hip joints so that they can perform accelerated wear tests of their
products.

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Pressure measurement

Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum.
Instruments used to measure pressure are called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges.
A manometer is an instrument that uses a column of liquid to measure pressure,
although the term is often used nowadays to mean any pressure measuring instrument.
A vacuum gauge is used to measure the pressure in a vacuum—which is further divided
into two subcategories, high and low vacuum (and sometimes ultra-high vacuum). The
applicable pressure range of many of the techniques used to measure vacuums have an
overlap. Hence, by combining several different types of gauge, it is possible to measure
system pressure continuously from 10 mbar down to 10−11 mbar.

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.
Voltage and current measurement

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Wheatstone Bridge
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 Machine Fault Diagnosis

Machine fault diagnosis is a field of Mechanical Engineering concerned with finding

faults arising in machines. A particularly well developed part of it applies specifically to
rotating machinery, one of the most common types encountered. To identify the most
probable faults leading to failure, many methods are used for data collection,
including vibration monitoring, thermal imaging, oil particle analysis, etc. Then these
data are processed utilizing methods like spectral analysis,wavelet analysis, wavelet
transform, short term Fourier transform, Gabor Expansion, Wigner-Ville distribution
(WVD), cepstrum, bispectrum, correlation method, high resolution spectral analysis,
waveform analysis (in the time domain, because spectral analysis usually concerns only
frequency distribution and not phase information) and others. The results of this
analysis are used in a root cause failure analysis in order to determine the original cause
of the fault.

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Noise Measurement
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 Thermography

Infrared thermography (IRT), thermal imaging, and thermal video are examples
of infrared imaging science.Thermographic cameras detect radiation in
the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum (roughly 9,000–
14,000nanometers or 9–14 µm) and produce images of that radiation,
called thermograms. Since infrared radiation is emitted by all objects above absolute
zero according to the black body radiation law, thermography makes it possible to
see one's environment with or without visible illumination. The amount of radiation
emitted by an object increases with temperature; therefore, thermography allows
one to see variations in temperature.

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Thermal images, or thermograms, are actually visual displays of the amount of infrared
energy emitted, transmitted, and reflected by an object. Because there are multiple
sources of the infrared energy, it is difficult to get an accurate temperature of an object
using this method. A thermal imaging camera is capable of performing algorithms to
interpret that data and build an image. Although the image shows the viewer an
approximation of the temperature at which the object is operating, the camera is actually
using multiple sources of data based on the areas surrounding the object to determine
that value rather than detecting the actual temperature. This phenomenon may become
clearer upon consideration of the formula Incident Energy = Emitted Energy +
Transmitted Energy + Reflected Energy where Incident Energy is the energy profile when
viewed through a thermal imaging camera. Emitted Energy is generally what is intended
to be measured. Transmitted Energy is the energy that passes through the subject from a
remote thermal source. Reflected Energy is the amount of energy that reflects off the
surface of the object from a remote thermal source.

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Emissivity is a term representing a material's ability to emit thermal radiation. Each
material has a different emissivity, and it can be difficult to determine the
appropriate emissivity for a subject. A material's emissivity can range from a
theoretical 0.00 (completely not-emitting) to an equally theoretical 1.00 (completely
emitting); the emissivity often varies with temperature. An example of a substance
with low emissivity would be silver, with an emissivity coefficient of .02. An example
of a substance with high emissivity would be asphalt, with an emissivity coefficient of
.98.
A black body is a theoretical object which will radiate infrared radiation at its contact
temperature. If a thermocouple on a black body radiator reads 50 °C, the radiation
the black body will give up will also be 50 °C. Therefore a true black body will have an
emissivity of 1.

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Passive vs. active thermography

All objects above the absolute zero temperature (0 K) emit infrared radiation. Hence,
an excellent way to measure thermal variations is to use an infrared visiondevice,
usually a focal plane array (FPA) infrared camera capable of detecting radiation in the
mid (3 to 5 μm) and long (7 to 14 μm) wave infrared bands, denoted as MWIR and
LWIR, corresponding to two of the high transmittance infrared windows. Abnormal
temperature profiles at the surface of an object are an indication of a potential
problem.[4]
In passive thermography, the features of interest are naturally at a higher or lower
temperature than the background. Passive thermography has many applications
such as surveillance of people on a scene and medical
diagnosis (specifically thermology).
In active thermography, an energy source is required to produce a thermal contrast
between the feature of interest and the background. The active approach is
necessary in many cases given that the inspected parts are usually in equilibrium
with the surroundings.

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Advantages of thermography

It shows a visual picture so temperatures over a large area can be compared

It is capable of catching moving targets in real time

It is able to find deteriorating, i.e., higher temperature components prior to their

failure

It can be used to measure or observe in areas inaccessible or hazardous for other

methods

It is a non-destructive test method

It can be used to find defects in shafts, pipes, and other metal or plastic part

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Limitations and disadvantages of thermography

Quality cameras often have a high price range (often US$ 3,000 or more), cheaper are
only 40x40 up to 120x120 pixels
Images can be difficult to interpret accurately when based upon certain objects,
specifically objects with erratic temperatures, although this problem is reduced in
active thermal imaging[6]
Accurate temperature measurements are hindered by differing emissivities and
reflections from other surfaces[7]

Most cameras have ±2% accuracy or worse in measurement of temperature and are
not as accurate as contact methods[8]
Only able to directly detect surface temperatures
Condition of work, depending of the case, can be drastic: 10°C of difference between
internal/external, 10km/h of wind maximum, no direct sun, no recent rain.

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 Endoscopy

Endoscopy means looking inside and typically refers to looking inside the body for
medical reasons using anendoscope, an instrument used to examine the interior of a
hollow organ or cavity of the body. Unlike most other medical imaging devices,
endoscopes are inserted directly into the organ. Endoscope can also refer to using
aborescope in technical situations where direct line of-sight observation is not
feasible

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Components

An endoscope can consist of a rigid or flexible tube.

A light delivery system to illuminate the organ or object under inspection. The light
source is normally outside the body and the light is typically directed via an optical
fiber system.
a lens system transmitting the image from the objective lens to the viewer, typically
a relay lens system in the case of rigid endoscopes or a bundle of fiberoptics in the
case of a fiberscope.
an eyepiece Modern instruments may be videoscopes, with no eyepiece, a camera
transmits image to a screen for image capture.

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 Nondestructive testing further methods

Acoustic emission testing (AE or AT) Dye penetrant inspection

Leak testing (LT) or Leak detection

X-ray computed tomography (CT)

Ultrasonic testing (UT)

Visual inspection (VT)

Eddy-current testing (ECT)

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Ultrasonic testing

In ultrasonic testing (UT), very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center frequencies
ranging from 0.1-15 MHz and occasionally up to 50 MHz are transmitted into
materials to detect internal flaws or to characterize materials. A common example
is ultrasonic thickness measurement, which tests the thickness of the test object,
for example, to monitor pipework corrosion.

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How it works

In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine is

passed over the object being inspected. The transducer is typically separated from the
test object by a couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing. However,
when ultrasonic testing is conducted with anElectromagnetic Acoustic Transducer
(EMAT) the use of couplant is not required.
There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform: reflection and
attenuation. In reflection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer performs both the
sending and the receiving of the pulsed waves as the "sound" is reflected back to the
device. Reflected ultrasound comes from an interface, such as the back wall of the
object or from an imperfection within the object. The diagnostic machine displays these
results in the form of a signal with an amplituderepresenting the intensity of the
reflection and the distance, representing the arrival time of the reflection.

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Acoustic emission

Acoustic emission (AE) is the sound waves produced when a material undergoes
stress (internal change), as a result of an external force.[1] AE is a phenomenon
occurring in for instance mechanical loading generating sources of elastic waves. This
occurrence is the result of a small surface displacement of a material produced due
to stress waves [2] generated when the energy in a material, or on its surface is
released rapidly.[3] The wave generated by the source is of practical interest in
methods used to stimulate and capture AE in a controlled fashion, for study and/or
use in inspection, quality control, system feedback, process monitoring and others.

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AE is commonly defined as transient elastic waves within a material, caused by the
release of localized stress energy. Hence, an event source is the phenomenon which
releases elastic energy into the material, which then propagates as an elastic wave.
Acoustic emissions can be detected in frequency ranges under 1 kHz, and have been
reported at frequencies up to 100 MHz, but most released energy within 1 kHz to
1 MHz. Rapid stress-releasing events generate a spectrum of stress waves starting at
0 Hz, and typically falling off at several MHz.
The three major applications of AE techniques are: 1) source location - determine the
locations where an event source occurred; 2) material mechanical performance -
evaluate and characterize materials/structures; and 3) health monitoring - monitor
the safety operation of a structure, i.e. bridges, pressure containers, and pipe lines,
etc.

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The application of acoustic emission to non-destructive testing of materials, typically
takes place between 100 kHz and 1 MHz. Unlike conventional ultrasonic testing, AE tools
are designed for monitoring acoustic emissions produced within the material during
failure or stress, rather than actively transmitting waves, then collecting them after they
have traveled through the material. Part failure can be documented during unattended
monitoring. The monitoring of the level of AE activity during multiple load cycles forms
the basis for many AE safety inspection methods, that allow the parts undergoing
inspection to remain in service.[4]
The technique is used, for example, to study the formation of cracks during the welding
process, as opposed to locating them after the weld has been formed with the more
familiar ultrasonic testing technique. In a material under active stress, such as some
components of an airplane during flight, transducers mounted in an area can detect the
formation of a crack at the moment it begins propagating. A group of transducers can be
used to record signals, then locate the precise area of their origin by measuring the time
for the sound to reach different transducers. The technique is also valuable for detecting
cracks forming in pressure vessels [5][6] and pipelines transporting liquids under high
pressures. Also, this technique is used for estimation of corrosion in reinforced concrete
structures.

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Eddy-current testing

Eddy-current testing uses electromagnetic induction to detect flaws

in conductive materials. There are several limitations, among them: only conductive
materials can be tested, the surface of the material must be accessible, the finish of
the material may cause bad readings, the depth of penetration into the material is
limited by the materials' conductivity, and flaws that lie parallel to the probe may be
undetectable. However, eddy-current testing can detect very small cracks in or near
the surface of the material, the surfaces need minimal preparation, and physically
complex geometries can be investigated. It is also useful for making electrical
conductivity and coating thickness measurements.

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Industrial computed tomography scanning

Industrial computed tomography (CT) scanning is any computer-

aided tomographic process, usually x-ray computed tomography, that (like its medical
imaging counterparts) uses irradiation (usually with x-rays) to produce three-
dimensional representations of the scanned object both externally and internally.
Industrial CT scanning has been used in many areas of industry for internal inspection
of components. Some of the key uses for CT scanning have been flaw detection,
failure analysis, metrology, assembly analysis and reverse engineering applications

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Void, crack and defect detection

Traditionally, determining defects, voids and cracks within an object would require
destructive testing. CT scanning can detect internal features and flaws displaying
this information in 3D without destroying the part. Industrial CT scanning (3D X-ray)
is used to detect flaws inside a part such as porosity,[8] an inclusion, or a crack.[9] In
some software programs the porosity within a part is categorized by colour based
on their respective sizes.

Generation of CAD data for reverse engineering requirements

A CAD file can be generated from the CT data set, which is particularly useful in
reverse engineering applications and product development. Exported CAD file
formats are recognized by many software such as CAD, FEA, Fluid Dynamics and
Mold Flow software. The CAD file created by CT scanning not only shows the
external components, but the internal as well. This allows for first-time rapid
prototyping of internal components without the daunting task of creating an
entirely new CAD file.

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Dye penetrant inspection

Dye penetrant inspection (DPI), also called liquid penetrant inspection (LPI)
or penetrant testing(PT), is a widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to
locate surface-breaking defects in all non-porous materials (metals, plastics, or
ceramics). The penetrant may be applied to all non-ferrous materials and ferrous
materials, although for ferrous components magnetic-particle inspection is often used
instead for its subsurface detection capability. LPI is used to detect casting, forging and
welding surface defects such as hairline cracks, surface porosity, leaks in new
products, and fatigue cracks on in-service components.

DPI is based upon capillary action, where low surface tension fluid penetrates into clean
and dry surface-breaking discontinuities. Penetrant may be applied to the test
component by dipping, spraying, or brushing. After adequate penetration time has
been allowed, the excess penetrant is removed and a developer is applied. The
developer helps to draw penetrant out of the flaw so that an invisible indication
becomes visible to the inspector. Inspection is performed under ultraviolet or white
light, depending on the type of dye used - fluorescent or nonfluorescent (visible).

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Penetrants are classified by sensitivity levels. Visible penetrants are typically red in
color, and represent the lowest sensitivity. Fluorescent penetrants contain two or
more dyes that fluoresce when excited by ultraviolet (UV-A) radiation (also known
as black light). Since fluorescent penetrant inspection is performed in a darkened
environment, and the excited dyes emit brilliant yellow-green light that contrasts
strongly against the dark background, this material is more sensitive to defects.

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Hardness test

Hardness is a measure of how resistant solid matter is to various kinds of

permanent shape change when a force is applied. Macroscopic hardness is
generally characterized by strong intermolecular bonds, but the behavior of solid
materials under force is complex; therefore, there are different measurements of
hardness: scratch hardness, indentation hardness, and rebound hardness.
Hardness is dependent
on ductility, elastic stiffness, plasticity, strain, strength, toughness, viscoelasticity,
and viscosity.

Common indentation hardness scales are Rockwell, Vickers, Shore, and Brinell.

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Charpy impact test

The Charpy impact test, also known as the Charpy V-notch test, is
a standardized high strain-rate test which determines the amount
of energy absorbed by a material during fracture. This absorbed energy is a measure
of a given material's notch toughness and acts as a tool to study temperature-
dependent ductile-brittle transition. It is widely applied in industry, since it is easy to
prepare and conduct and results can be obtained quickly and cheaply. A
disadvantage is that some results are only comparative.

The apparatus consists of a pendulum of known mass and length that is dropped
from a known height to impact a notched specimen of material. The energy
transferred to the material can be inferred by comparing the difference in the height
of the hammer before and after the fracture (energy absorbed by the fracture
event).
The notch in the sample affects the results of the impact test,[7] thus it is necessary
for the notch to be of regular dimensions and geometry.
Scanning electron microscope

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that

produces images of a sample by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. The
electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that can be
detected and that contain information about the sample's surface topography and
composition. The electron beam is generally scanned in a raster scan pattern, and
the beam's position is combined with the detected signal to produce an image. SEM
can achieve resolution better than 1 nanometer. Specimens can be observed in high
vacuum, in low vacuum, and (in environmental SEM) in wet conditions.

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Atomic force microscopy

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) or scanning force microscopy (SFM) is a very high-
resolution type ofscanning probe microscopy, with demonstrated resolution on the
order of fractions of a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than the optical
diffraction limit.

The AFM consists of a cantilever with a sharp tip (probe) at its end that is used to
scan the specimen surface. The cantilever is typically silicon or silicon nitride with a
tip radius of curvature on the order of nanometers. When the tip is brought into
proximity of a sample surface, forces between the tip and the sample lead to a
deflection of the cantilever according to Hooke's law.

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