Object Oriented Programming

with C++

Prepared by
ALOK KUMAR
MCA-2012
 Part – A
1. Overview of OOP
 Object Oriented Paradigm
• Software Evolution
• Evolution of Programming Paradigm
- Monolithic
- Procedure Oriented Programming
- Structured Oriented Programming
- Object Oriented Programming
 Structured Vs Object Oriented
Programming
Function Oriented Object Oriented
Procedure Abstraction Procedure & Data abstraction
Does not support Supports External Interface
External Interface
Free flow of Data Secured Data & not freely
flows
Also called FOP Also called OOP
 Elements of OOP
Well suited for:
• Modeling the real world problem as close as
possible to the users perspective.
• Interacting easily with computational
environment.
• Constructing reusable software components
and easily extendable libraries.
• Easily modifying and extending
implementations of components without
having to recode every thing from scratch.
 Elements of OOP
Definition of OOP:
“Object oriented programming is a
programming methodology that associates
data structures with a set of operators which
act upon it.”
 Elements of OOP
• Objects
• Classes
• Encapsulation
• Data Abstraction
• Inheritance
• Polymorphism
• Dynamic Binding
• Message Passing
 Objects
• OOP uses objects as its fundamental building
blocks.
• Objects are the basic run-time entities in an
object-oriented system.
• Every object is associated with data and
functions which define meaningful operations
on that object.
• Object is a real world existing entity.
• Object is anInstance of a particular class.
 Object

Operation

Operation Attributes Operation

Operation
 Example: StudentObject

Enroll()

st_name
st_id
Performa Displayinfo()
branch
nce()
semester

Result()
 Class
• Class is a collection of similar objects.

Class
 Encapsulation
“Mechanism that associates the code and the
data it manipulates into a single unit and
keeps them safe from external interference
and misuse.”
 Encapsulation

Class: student

Attributes: st_name, st_id,

branch, semester

Functions: Enroll()
Displayinfo()
Result()
Performance()
 Data Abstraction
“A data abstraction is a simplified view of an
object that includes only features one is
interested in while hides away the
unnecessary details.”

“Data abstraction becomes an abstract data

type (ADT)or a user-defined type.”
 C++ Implementation
class class_name
{
Attributes;//Properties
Operations;//Behaviours
};
 C++ Implementation
class student class stack
{ {
char st_name[30]; int stck[SIZE];
int tos;
char st_id[10];
void init();
char branch[10]; void push(int i);
char semester[10]; int pop();
Void Enroll( ); };
Void Displayinfo( );
Voide Result( );
Void Performance( );
};
 Inheritance
• “Inheritance is the mechanism to provides the
power of reusability and extendibility.”
• “Inheritance is the process by which one
object can acquire the properties of another
object.”
Inheritance

Point

Line
 Polymorphism
• Polymorphism means that the same thing can
exist in two forms.

• “Polymorphism is in short the ability to call

different functions by just using one type of
function call.”
Polymorphism

+
 Dynamic Binding
“ Dynamic Binding is the process of linking of
the code associated with a procedure call at
the run-time”.
 Message Passing
“The process of invoking an operation on an
object. In response to a message the
corresponding method is executed in the
object”.
 Message Passing
StudentObject FacultyObject

Performance

MgmtObject Performance
Result
 Object Oriented Languages
1. Object-Based programming Languages
Not support Inheritance & Dynamic Binding
Example: Ada

2. Object-Oriented programming Languages

Examples: Simula, Smalltalk80, Objective C,
C++, Eiffel etc.,
2. C++ Overview
Structure of C++ Program

Include Files

Class Definition

Class Function Definition

Main Function Program

 Simple C++ Program
// Hello World program comment

#include <iostream.h> Allows access to an I/O

library

int main() {
Starts definition of special function
main()
cout << "Hello World\n";
output (print) a
string
return 0;
Program returns a status
} code (0 means OK)
 Preprocessing

Temporary file
C++ (C++ program) C++
Preprocessor Compiler

Executable
C++ Program Program
 C++ LANGUAGE
C++ Program is a collection of
• Tokens
• Comments
• White Space
 C++ TOKENS
RESERVED KEYWORDS

IDENTIFIERS

LITERALS

OPERATORS

SEPARATORS
 RESERVED KEYWORDS

• Has predefined functionality

• C++ has 48 keywords
• Written in only in lower case
 RESERVED KEYWORDS

delete boolean Break Enum

case volatile Catch Char
const continue Default Do
else asm Extern Union
float for Auto Unsigned
if inline Register Class
int template Long Double
virtual operator Signed goto
Protected public Sizeof Return
Static Struct this new
Friend Throw Typedef private
try Switch while short
 IDENTIFIERS

• Programmer-designed tokens
• Meaningful & short
• Long enough to understand
• C++ rules for Identifiers
- alphabets, digits, underscore
- should not start with digits.
- Case sensitive
- Unlimited length
- Declared anywhere
 LITERALS

• Sequence of char. that represents constant

values to be stored in variables

• C++ literals are:

- Integer literals: 1,2,456,0xffff
- Floating_point literals: 4.67,3.14E-05
- Charater literals: ‘A’, ‘B’
- String literals: “ABC”, “TOTAL”
 LITERALS (Symbolic Constants)

• Using const qualifier

ex: const int size=10;

• Using enum keyword

ex: enum{X,Y,Z};
defines const X=0;
defines const Y=0;
defines const Z=0;
 OPERATORS

• Is a symbol that takes more than one operands &

operates on them to produce a result.
- Arithmetic
- Relational
- Logical
- Assignment
- increment/Decrement
- conditional
- scope resolution(::)
- special operators: new, delete, endl, setw
 SEPARATORS

• Symbols used to indicate where groups of code

are divided & arranged
• C++ separators:
()parentheses .. Methods, precedence in exp
{} braces .. Arrays init., block of codes, scopes
; semicolon
,comma.. Separate multiple identifiers, chain
more than one stmt
. Period.. Data members, methods
[]Brackets.. Array referencing/dereferencing
 C++ STATEMENTS
C++ stmts

Exp Labelled Guarding

stmt stmt stmt

Control
stmt

Selection stmt Iteration stmt Jump stmt

If contin
If switch while do for break
ue
return
else
 Arrays in C++
• An array is a consecutive group of memory
locations.
• An array is a collection of similar data
elements.
 Memory and Arrays
Each int is 2 bytes 16 bits

a[0]

a[1]
int a[6];

a[5]
 Array Initialization
We can initialize an array :

int a[5] = { 1,8,3,6,12};

double d[2] = { 0.707, 0.707};

char s[] = { 'R', 'P', 'I' };

NOTE:
Need not have to specify a size when initializing,
the compiler will count automatically.
 An array printing function

void print_array(int a[], int len)

{
for (int i=0;i<len;i++)
cout << "[" << i << "] = "
<< a[i] << endl;
}
 Arrays of char are special

• C++ provides a special way to deal with arrays

of characters:

char str[] = “C++ char Arrays";

• char arrays can be initialized with string literals.

 2-D Array: int A[3][4]

Col 0 Col 1 Col 2 Col 3

Row 0 A[0][0] A[0][1] A[0][2] A[0][3]

Row 1 A[1][0] A[1][1] A[1][2] A[1][3]

Row 2 A[2][0] A[2][1] A[2][2] A[2][3]

 2-D Memory Organization

{
A[0][0]
char A[4][3]; A[0]
A[0][1]
A[0][2]
A[1][0]

{
A[1][1]
A is an array of size 4. A[1]
A[1][2]
A[2][0]
A[2][1]

{
Each element of A is A[2]
A[2][2]
A[3][0]
an array of 3 chars A[3][1]
A[3]

{
A[3][2]
 2-D Array

double student_average( double g[][NumHW],

int stu)
{
double sum = 0.0;
for (int i=0;i<NumHW;i++)
sum += g[stu][i];

return(sum/NumHW);
}
 C++ Strings
• Supports C-String
• C++ defines a string class called string
• The string class supports several constructors.
The prototypes of commonly used one is
– string( );
ex: string str("Alpha");
 C++ Strings
Operator Meaning
= Assignment
+ Concatenation
+= Concatenation assignment
== Equality
!= Inequality
< Less than
<= Less than or equal
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal
>> Reads
<< Prints
 C++ Strings
• str2 = str1; // assigning a string
• str3 = str1 + str2; //concatenating strings
• if(str2 > str1) cout<<” str2 is bin“;//compares
• str1 = "This is a null-terminated string.\n";
• cin>>str1; //reads
• Cout<<str1; //prints
3. Modular Programming with
Functions
 Modular Programming
“The process of splitting of a large program into
small manageable tasks and designing them
independently is known as Modular
Programming or Divide-&-Conquer
Technique.”
 C++ Functions
• “Set of program statements that can be
processed independently.”

• Like in other languages, called subroutines or

procedures.
 Advantages …?
• Elimination of redundant code
• Easier debugging
• Reduction in the Size of the code
• Leads to reusability of the code
• Achievement of Procedure Abstraction
 Function Components
• Function Prototypes
• Function Definition(declaration & body)
• Function Parameters(formal parameters)
• return statement
• Function call(actual parameters)
 Sample function

int add_int(int a, int b)

{
return(a+b);
}
 Using Math Library functions
• C++ includes a library of Math functions that
we use.
• We have to know how to call these functions
before we use them.
• We have to know what they return.
• We don’t have to know how they work!
• #include <math.h>
 Math Library Functions

ceil floor

cos sin tan

exp log log10 pow

Etc.,
 Function parameters
• The Formal parameters are local to the
function.

– When the function is called they will have the

values passed in.

– The function gets a copy of the values passed in.

 Local variables
• Parameters and variables declared inside the
definition of a function are local.
• They only exist inside the function body.
• Once the function returns, the variables no
longer exist!
 Block Variables
• We can also declare variables that exist only
within the body of a compound statement
(a block):
{
int res;
…
…
}
 Global variables
• We can declare variables outside of any
function definition – these variables are
global variables.
• Any function can access/change global
variables.
• Example: flag that indicates whether
debugging information should be printed.
 Scope
• The scope of a variable is the portion of a
program where the variable has meaning
(where it exists).
• A global variable has global (unlimited)
scope.
• A local variable’s scope is restricted to the
function that declares the variable.
• A block variable’s scope is restricted to the
block in which the variable is declared.
 Block Scope
int main(void)
{
int y;

{
int a = y;
cout << a << endl;
}
cout << a << endl;
}
 Nested Blocks
void example()
{
for (int j=0;j<10;j++)
{
int k = j*10;
cout << j << “,” << k << endl;
{
int m = j+k; k j
cout << m << “,” << j << endl;
m
}
}
}
 Storage Class
• Each variable has a storage class.
– Determines the life time during which
the variable exists in memory.
– Some variables are created only once
• Global variables are created only once.
– Some variables are re-created many
times
• Local variables are re-created each time a
function is called.
 Storage Classes
• auto – created each time the block in which
they exist is entered.
• register – same as auto, but tells the
compiler to make as fast as possible.
• static – created only once, even if it is a
local variable.
• extern – global variable declared
elsewhere.
 Argument Passing
• Pass by Value
• Pass by Reference
• Program to swap two numbers
• Program to sort list of numbers
 Inline Functions
“ Inline functions are those whose function body
is inserted in place of the function call
statement during the compilation process.”

• Syntax:
inline return_dt func_name(formal parameters)
{
function body
}
 Inline Functions
• Frequently executed interface functions.

• Expanding function calls inline can produce

faster run times.

• Like the register specifier, inline is actually just

a request, not a command, to the compiler.
 Inline Function
• Pgm to find square of a given number using
inline function

• Pgm to implement queue with its basic

operations: enqueue(), dequeue(), display()
where queue_full() and queue_empty() are
inline functions
 Function Overloading
“ Multiple functions to share the same name
with different signatures(types or numbers).”
 Function Templates
• “A generic function defines a general set of
operations that will be applied to various types
of data.”

• A single general procedure can be applied to a

wide range of data.
 Function Templates
• Syntax:
template <class Ttype> ret-type func-name(
parameter list)
{
// body of function
}
 Function Templates
• Pgm to sort integer list and float list using
function template
• Pgm to add matrix elements using function
template (for both int and double matrix)
• Pgm to find sum of a given list(int and
float)using functoin template
• Pgm to implement integer and float stack
using function template
 Recursive Functions
• Pgm to find Fibonacci sequence upto n
number
• Pgm to simulate Tower of Hanoi
• Pgm to add array of integers
• Pgm to multiply two natural numbers
• Pgm to find factorial of a given number
4. Classes & Objects
 Introduction
• The New C++ Headers(New style)
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

• The old style Headers

#include<iostream.h>
 The New C++ Headers
• A namespace is simply a declarative region.

• The purpose of a namespace is to localize the

names of identifiers to avoid name collisions.

• iostream, math, string, fstream etc., forms the

contents of the namespace called std.
 Class Specification
• Syntax:
class class_name
{

Data members

Members functions
};
 Class Specification
• class Student
{
int st_id; Data Members or Properties of
Student Class
char st_name[];
void read_data(); Members Functions or
Behaviours of Student Class
void print_data();
};
 Class Specification
• Visibility of Data members & Member functions
public - accessed by member functions and all
other non-member functions in the
program.
private - accessed by only member functions of the
class.
protected - similar to private, but accessed by
all the member functions of
immediate derived class
default - all items defined in the class are private.
 Class specification
• class Student
{
int st_id;
char st_name[]; private / default
void read_data(); visibility
void print_data();
};
 Class specification
• class Student
{
public:
int st_id;
char st_name[]; public visibility
public:
void read_data();
void print_data();
};
 Class Objects
• Object Instantiation:
The process of creating object of the type class
• Syntax:
class_name obj_name;
ex: Student st;

St_id, St_name

void read_data( )

void print_data( )
 Class Object
• More of Objects
ex: Student st1;
Student st2;
Student st3;
 Class Objects

10,Rama 20, Stephen

void read_data( ) void read_data( )

void print_data( ) void print_data( )

st1 st2
55, Mary

void read_data( )

void print_data( )

st3
 33, Joseph
Class Objects
• Array of Objects
void read_data( )
S[0]
ex:print_data(
Student s[8]; S[1]
void )
S[2]
St[0]
24, Sakshi S[3]
void read_data( )
S[4]
S[5]
void print_data( )
S[6]
St[4] S[7]
 Accessing Data Members
(outside the class)
• Syntax: (single object)

obj_name . datamember;
ex: st.st_id;
• Syntax:(array of objects)

obj_name[i] . datamember;
ex: st[i].st_id;
 Accessing Data Members
(inside the class member function)
• Syntax: (single object)
data_member;
ex: st_id;

• Syntax:(array of objects)
data_member;
ex: st_id;
 Defining Member Functions
• Syntax :(Inside the class definition)
ret_type fun_name(formal parameters)
{
function body
}
 Defining Member Functions
• Syntax:(Outside the class definition)
ret_type class_name::fun_name(formal parameters)
{
function body
}
 Accessing Member Functions
• Syntax: (single object)

obj_name . Memberfunction(act_parameters);
ex: st.read( );
• Syntax:(array of objects)

obj_name[i] . Memberfunction(act_parameters);
ex: st[i].read( );
 Data Hiding
• “Data hiding is the mechanism of
implementation details of a class such a way
that are hidden from the user.”

• The concept of restricted access led

programmers to write specialized functions
for performing the operations on hidden
members of the class.
 Data Hiding
Read_data()

private:
st_name
Cal_best() st_id Print_data()
branch
semester

Result()
 Data Hiding
• The access specifier acts as the key strength
behind the concept of security.

• Provides access to only to the member

functions of class. Which prevents
unauthorized access.
 Data Hiding
Advantages:
• Makes Maintenance of Application Easier
• Improves the Understandability of the
Application
• Enhanced Security
 Inline Functions with Class
• Syntax :(Inside the class definition)
inline ret_type fun_name(formal parameters)
{
function body
}
 Inline Functions with Class
• Syntax:(Outside the class definition)
inline ret_type class_name::fun_name (formal
parameters)
{
function body
}
 Inline Functions with Class
When to use Inline Function…..?
• If a function is very small.
• If the time spent to function call is more than
the function body execution time.
• If function is called frequently.
• If fully developed & tested program is running
slowly.
 Constructors
• “A constructor function is a special function
that is a member of a class and has the same
name as that class, used to create, and
initialize objects of the class.”

• Constructor function do not have return type.

• Should be declared in public section.

 Constructors
Synatax: Example:
class class_name class student
{
{ int st_id;
public:
class_name(); public:
}; student()
{
st_id=0;
}
};
 Constructors
• How to call this special function…?
class student
{
int main() int st_id;
{ public:
student st; student()
………… {
………… st_id=0;
}; }
};
 Constructors
• Pgm to create a class Addition to add two
integer values. Use constructor to initialize
values.
• Pgm to create a class Circle to compute its
area. Use constructor to initialize the data
members.
 Types of Constructors
• Parameterized constructors
• Overloaded constructors
• Constructors with default argument
• Copy constructors
• Dynamic constructors
 Parameterized Constructors
class Addition
{
int num1;
int num2;
int res;
public:
Addition(int a, int b); // constructor
void add( );
void print();
};
 Overloaded Constructors
class Addition
{
int num1,num2,res;
float num3, num4, f_res;
public:
Addition(int a, int b); // int constructor
Addition(float m, float n); //float constructor
void add_int( );
void add_float();
void print();
};
 Constructors with Default Argument
class Addition
{
int num1;
int num2;
int res;
public:
Addition(int a, int b=0); // constructor
void add( );
void print();
};
 Copy Constructor
class code
{
int id;
public:
code() //constructor
{ id=100;}
code(code &obj) // constructor
{
id=obj.id;
}
};
 Dynamic Constructors
class Sum_Array
{
int *p;
public:
Sum_Array(int sz) // constructor
{
p=new int[sz];
}
};
 Destructors
• “A destructor function is a special function
that is a member of a class and has the same
name as that class used to destroy the
objects.”
• Must be declared in public section.
• Destructor do not have arguments & return
type.
 Destructors
Synatax: Example:
class class_name class student
{ {
public: public:
~class_name(); ~student()
}; {
cout<<“Destructor”;
}
};
 Programs for Implementation
• Pgm to create a class Complex to add two
complex numbers using parmeterized
constructor.
• Pgm to create a class Complex to add two
complex numbers using copy constructor.
• Pgm to create a class Complex to add
dynamically created integer to a complex
number using Dynamic constructor.
 Local Classes
“A class defined within a function is called Local
Class.”
void fun()
Syntax: {
void function() class myclass {
{ int i;
class class_name public:
{ void put_i(int n) { i=n; }
// class definition int get_i() { return i; }
} obj; } ob;
//function body ob.put_i(10);
} cout << ob.get_i();
}
 Multiple Classes
Synatax: Example: Example:
class class_name1 class test class student
{ { int st_id;
{ public: test m;
//class definition int t[3]; public:
}; }; viod init_test()
{
class class_name2
m.t[0]=25;
{ m.t[1]=22;
//class definition m.t[2]=24;
}; }
};
 Nested Classes
Synatax: Example:
class outer_class class student
{ int st_id;
{ public:
//class definition class dob
{ public:
class inner_class
int dd,mm,yy;
{ }dt;
//class definition void read()
{
}; dt.dd=25;
dt.mm=2;
}; dt.yy=1988;}
};
 Program for Implemention
Pgm to create a class STUDENT with
properties: id, name, semester & three TEST
marks(which should be defined as a separate
class suitable properties) . The behaviors of
the STUDENT should include:
1. To read the data
2. To Calculate average of best two
test marks
3. To print the data
 Program for Implementation
Pgm to create a class EMPLOYEE with
properties: id, name, designation & date of
birth as DOB (which should be defined as
inner class with suitable properties) . The
behaviors of EMPLOYEE should include:
1. To read the data
2. To Calculate age
3. To print the data
 Static Data Members
• Static data members of a class are also known
as "class variables“.

• Because their content does not depend on

any object.

• They have only one unique value for all the

objects of that same class.
 Static Data Members
• Tells the compiler that only one copy of the
variable will exist and all objects of the class
will share that variable.

• Static variables are initialized to zero before

the first object is created.

• Static members have the same properties as

global variables but they enjoy class scope.
 Static Data Member
10, John 20, Shilpa

void read_data( ) void read_data( )

void print_data( ) void print_data( )

emp1 emp2
55, Mohn
static int emp_seq;
void read_data( )

void print_data( )

emp3
 Static Member Functions
• Member functions that are declared with
static specifier.

Synatax:
class class_name
{
public:
static ret_dt fun_name(formal parameters);
};
 Static Member Functions
Special features:
• They can directly refer to static members of the
class.
• They does not have this pointer.
• They cannot be a static and a non-static version
of the same function.
• The may not be virtual.
• Finally, they cannot be declared as const or
volatile.
 Scope Resolution Operator
int i; // global i
void f()
{

?
int i; // global i
int i; // local i void f()
i = 10; // uses local i {
Solution…..
. int i; // local i
::i = 10; // now refers to global i
. .
. .
} .
}
 Scope Resolution Operator
• The :: operator links a class name with a
member name in order to tell the compiler
what class the member belongs to.

• Has another related use:

Allows to access to a name in an enclosing
scope that is "hidden" by a local declaration
of the same name.
5. Objects with Functions
 Passing Objects as Arguments
• Objects are passed to functions through the
use of the standard call-by-value mechanism.

• Means that a copy of an object is made when

it is passed to a function.
 Object Assignment

20, Shilpa Only 20, Shilpa

If Instances of
void read_data( )

void print_data( )
=
same
Class!!
void read_data( )

void print_data( )

emp1 emp2
 Passing Objects as Arguments

class complex void main()

{ {
…… complex obj, s1;
.….. ……
……
void Add(int x, complex c); ……
…… obj.Add(6, s1) ;
……
…… ……
}; }
 Returning Objects
• A function may return an object to the caller.
class complex void main()
{ {
……
complex obj, s1;
.….. ……
complex Add(int x, complex c); ……
……
…… obj=obj.Add(6, s1) ;
…… ……
……
};
}
 Program for Implementation
Pgm to create class PAPER with its properties:
width & height. Find the characteristics of a
magzine Cover: width, height, perimeter and
Area using passing object as argument(s) .
 Friend Functions
• “Friend function is a non-member function
which can access the private members of a
class”.

• To declare a friend function, its prototype

should be included within the class, preceding
it with the keyword friend.
 Friend Functions
Example:
class myclass
{
int a, b;
Syntax:
public:
class class_name
friend int sum(myclass x);
{
void set_val(int i, int j);
//class definition
};
public:
friend rdt fun_name(formal parameters);
};
 Friend Functions
Advantages…?
• When we overload operators.
• When we create I/O overloaded functions.
• When two or more classes members are
interrelated and to carry out the
communication to other parts of the program.
 Program for Implementation
Pgm to create a class ACCOUNTS with function
read() to input sales and purchase details.
Create a Friend function to print total tax to
pay. Assume 4% of profit is tax.
 Friend Classes
“A class can be a friend of another class,
allowing access to the protected and private
members of the class in which is defined.”

Friend class and all of its member functions

have access to the private members defined
within the that class.
 Friend Classes
class Bclass
class Aclass Friend class Declaration
{
{
public :
public :
:
:
void fn1(Aclass ac)
friend class Bclass;
{
private :
Bvar = ac. Avar;
int Avar;
}
};
private :
int Bvar;
};
 Program for Implementation
Program to create a class MinValue, is a friend
of class TwoVaules contains two private
members a and b. Where minimum() is a
member function of MinValue that finds out
the minimum of two values by accessing data
members of class TwoValue. Initialize the
values for two integer numbers through
constructor.
 Arrays of Objects
• Several objects of the same class can be
declared as an array and used just like an array
of any other data type.

• The syntax for declaring and using an object

array is exactly the same as it is for any other
type of array.
 33, Joseph
Class Objects
• Array of Objects
void read_data( )
S[0]
ex:print_data(
Student s[8]; S[1]
void )
S[2]
St[0]
24, Sakshi S[3]
void read_data( )
S[4]
S[5]
void print_data( )
S[6]
St[4] S[7]
 Program for Implementation
Pgm to create a class STUDENT with
properties: rollno, name, IAmarks for 6
subjects, EndExamMarks for 6 subjects. Create
function read() to read the details of student,
calc_percent() to calculate the percentage
marks for each student and show() to display
the details of all students. Assume the
following things to calculate percentage:
Total_sub_marks = IAmarks + EndExamMarks
& Total_marks = Addition of Total_sub_marks
of 6 subjects.
 Dynamic Objects
“ Dynamic objects are objects that are created /
Instantiated at the run time by the class”.

• They are Live Objects, initialized with

necessary data at run time.

• Its life time is explicitly managed by the

program(should be handled by programmer).
 Dynamic Objects
• The new operator is used to create dynamic
objects.

• The delete operator is used to release the

memory allocated to the dynamic objects.
 Pointers to Objects
student st; 51, Rajesh

student *ptr; void read_data( )

ptr = & st; void print_data( )

st
ptr 2FCD54
 Pointers to Objects
“Pointers can be defined to hold the address
of an object, which is created statically or
dynamically”.
33, Joseph Statically created object:
student *stp;
void read_data( )
stp = &st;
void print_data( )
Dynamically created object:
student *stp;
st stp = new student;
2FCDA4
 Pointers to Objects
• Accessing Members of objects:
Syntax:
ptr_ob j  member_name;
ptr_obj  memberfunction_name( );

Example:
stp  st_name;
stp  read_data ( );
 The this Pointer
“The this pointer points to the object that
invoked the function”.

• When a member function is called with an

object, it is automatically passed an implicit
argument that is a pointer to the invoking
object (that is, the object on which the
function is called).
 The this Pointer
• Accessing Members of objects:
Syntax:
obj . memberfunction_name( );

this pointer points to st object

Example:
st . read_data ( );
 Program for Implementation
• Pgm to find factorial of a number using this
pointer.

• Pgm to generate Fibonacci sequence upto nth

value using this pointer.
Pointer to Class Member

d_ptr 51, Rajesh

void read_data( )

f_ptr void print_data( )

st
2FCD54
 Pointer to Class Member
“A special type of pointer that "points"
generically to a member of a class, not to a
specific instance of that member in an
object”.

Pointer to a class member is also called

pointer-to-member.
 Pointer to Class Member
• It provides only an offset into an object of the
member's class at which that member can be
found.

• Member pointers are not true pointers, the . and

-> cannot be applied to them.

• A pointer to a member is not the same as a

normal C++ pointer.
 Pointer to Class Member
• To access a member of a class:
special pointer-to-member operators
1) .*
2) –>*
 Pointer to Class Member
• Syntax to create pointer to data member
of a class:
Data_type class_name ::* data_member_ptr;
int student::*d_ptr;

• Syntax to create pointer to member function

of a class:
rtn_dt (class_name::* mem_func_ptr)(arguments);
int (student::*f_ptr)();
 Programs for Implementation
• Pgm to find number of vowels in a given string
using pointer to class members.

• Pgm to find square of a given number if it is

even else compute its cube, using pointer to
class members.
 Operator Overloading
• “Operator overloading is the ability to tell the
compiler how to perform a certain operation
when its corresponding operator is used on one
or more variables.”

• Operator overloading is closely related to

function overloading.

• Allows the full integration of new class types into

the programming environment.
 Operator Overloading
• Overloading of operators are achieved by
creating operator function.

• “An operator function defines the operations

that the overloaded operator can perform
relative to the class”.

• An operator function is created using the

keyword operator.
 Operator Overloading
• Operator functions can be either members or
nonmembers of a class.

• Non-member operator functions are always

friend functions of the class.
 Operator Overloading
• Overloadable operators are:
+ - * / = < > += -= *= /= << >>
<<= >>= == != <= >= ++ -- % & ^
! | ~ &= ^= |= && || %= [] ()
new delete
 Operator Overloading
• Creating a Member Operator Function
Within Class:
ret-type operator#(argument-list);

Outside Class:
ret-type class-name::operator#(arg-list)
{
// operations
}
 Operator Overloading
Example:
comp comp::operator+(comp op2 )
{
comp temp;
temp.real = op2.real + real;
temp.img = op2.img + img;
return temp;
}
 Operator Overloading
Implicitly passed
by this pointer
Explicitly passed
ob1 = ob1 + ob2; argument

ob1 = ob1.operator+ (ob2);

Operator Overloading Restrictions
• Should not alter the precedence of an
operator.
• Should not change the number of operands
that an operator takes.
• Operator functions cannot have default
arguments.
• Operators cannot be overloaded are:
. : : .* ?: sizeof
 Why not . : : .* ?: sizeof()
operators?
• The restriction is for safety. If we overload .
operator then we cant access member in
normal way.

• The :? takes 3 argument rather than 2 or 1.

There is no mechanism available by which we
can pass 3 parameter during operator
overloading.
 Why not . : : .* ?: sizeof()
operators?
• Example:
c = a+b - both a & b actually refer to some
memory location, so "+" operator can be
overloaded,
but the "." operator, like a.i actually refers to
the name of the variable from whom the
memory location has to be resolved at time
and thus it cannot be overloaded.
I/O Stream Class Hierarchy
 Overloading >>
• Prototype:
friend istream& operator >>(istream&, Matrix&);

• Example:
istream& operator >>(istream&
in, Matrix& m)
{
for(int i=0; i<row*col; i++)
void main()
{ {
in >> Mat[i];
} :
Cin>>mobj;
return in;
:
}
}
 Overloading <<
• Prototype:
friend ostream& operator <<(ostream&, Matrix&);

• Example:
ostream& operator <<(ostream&
out, Matrix& m)
{
for(int i=0; i<row; void
++i)
main()
{ {
for(int j=0; j<col; : j++)
cout<<mobj;
{ out>> Mat[i][j] >> : “\t”
; }
}
out << endl;
 Program for Implementation
• Pgm to create a class Matrix assuming its properties
and add two matrices by overloading + operator.
Read and display the matrices by overloading
input(>>) & output(<<) operators respectively.

• Pgm to create a class RATIONAL with numerator and

denominator as properties and perform following
operations on rational numbers.
- r = r1 * r2; (by overloading * operator)
- To check equality of r1 and r2 (by overloading ==
operator)
 6. Inheritance
&
Virtual Functions
 Inheritance
• “Inheritance is the mechanism to provides the
power of reusability and extendibility.”
• “Inheritance is the process by which one object
can acquire the properties of another object.”
• “Inheritance is the process by which new classes
called derived classes are created from existing
classes called base classes.”
• Allows the creation of hierarchical classifications.
Inheritance

Point

Line
 Inheritance

Fruit

Orange Mango Banana

 Inheritance

Polygon

Triangle Rectangle
Polygon Inheritance

Triangle RightAngle
Triangle
 Base Class
• “Base class is a class which defines those
qualities common to all objects to be derived
from the base.”

• The base class represents the most general

description.

• A class that is inherited is referred to as a base

class.
 Derived Class
• “The classes derived from the base class are
usually referred to as derived classes.”

• “A derived class includes all features of the

generic base class and then adds qualities
specific to the derived class.”

• The class that does the inheriting is called the

derived class.
 Inheritance
Note:
Derived class can be used as a base class for
another derived class.

• In C++, inheritance is achieved by allowing one

class to incorporate another class into its
declaration.
 Inheritance
• Syntax:
class derived_class: Acesss_specifier base_class
{ };

• Example:
class CRectangle: public Cpolygon{ };
class CTriangle: public Cpolygon{ };
 Inheritance & Access Specifier

Access public protected private

Members of the Yes Yes Yes
same class
Members of derived Yes Yes No
classes
Non-members Yes No No
 Public base class Inheritance
• All public members of the base class become
public members of the derived class.

• All protected members of the base class

become protected members of the derived
class.
 Private base class Inheritance
• All public and protected members of the base
class become private members of the derived
class.

• But private members of the base class remain

private to base class only, not accessible to
the derived class.
 Protected Members of Base Class
• Member is not accessible by other non
member elements of the program.

• The base class' protected members become

protected members of the derived class and
are, therefore, accessible by the derived class.
 Protected Base-Class Inheritance
• All public and protected members of the base
class become protected members of the
derived class.

• All public members of the base class become

unavailable to main() function.

• All private members of the base class become

unavailable to the derived class.
 Inheritance & Access Specifier

Access public protected private

Members of the Yes Yes Yes
same class
Members of derived Yes Yes No
classes
Non-members Yes No No
 Inheriting Multiple Base Classes
• Syntax:
class derived: Acess_specifier base1,
Acess_specifier base2
{ };

• Example:
class Orange: Acess_specifier Yellow,
Acess_specifier Red
{ };
Inheriting Multiple Base Classes

Yellow Red

Orange
Constructors, Destructors & Inheritance
• Constructor functions are executed in their
order of derivation.

• Destructor functions are executed in reverse

order of derivation.
 Inheritance
Fruit

Mango

Malgoba Mallika
Mango Mango
Constructors, Destructors & Inheritance
• When an object of a derived class is created,
if the base class contains a constructor, it will
be called first, followed by the derived class'
constructor.

• When a derived object is destroyed, its

destructor is called first, followed by the base
class' destructor.
Passing Parameters to Base-Class Constructors
• Making use of an expanded form of the
derived class's constructor declaration, we
can pass arguments to one or more base-class
constructors.

• Syntax:
derived-constructor(arg-list) : base1(arg-list),
base2(arg-list), … baseN(arg-list)
{ // body of derived constructor }
Passing Parameters to Base-Class Constructors

• As we are arguments to a base-class constructor

are passed via arguments of the derived class'
constructor.

• Even if a derived class‘ constructor does not use

any arguments, we need to declare a constructor
as if the base class requires it.

• The arguments passed to the derived class are

simply passed along to the base class constructor.
 Granting Access
• When a base class is inherited as private:
- all public and protected members of that
class become private members of the derived
class.

• But in some certain circumstances, we want to

restore one or more inherited members to
their original access specification.
 Granting Access
• To accomplish this :

using

access declaration
 Granting Access
• using statement:
is designed primarily to support namespaces.

• Access declaration:
restores an inherited member's access
specification
Syntax:
base_class_name::member;
 Granting Access
• Access declaration is done under the
appropriate access heading in the derived
class’ declaration.

Note:
No type declaration is required.
Granting Access
class base {
public:
int j;
};

class derived: private base {

public:
// here is access declaration
base::j;
};
 Program for Implementation
Program to implement the
student
given hierarchy assuming
proper properties for private
student class. The Result
class computes the result of Result
every student. The
Result_on_Web class protected
displays the result upon
Result_on_Web
getting the grant for USN.
Hierarchy of Classes
i

j k

2 copies
i
j&k
Hierarchy of Classes

Remedy…..?
 Virtual Base Classes
• Used to prevent multiple copies of the base
class from being present in an object derived
from those objects by declaring the base class
as virtual when it is inherited.

• Syntax:
class derived : virtual public base
{ . . . };
 Virtual Functions
• “A virtual function is a member function that
is declared within a base class and redefined
by a derived class.”

• Virtual functions implements the "one

interface, multiple methods" philosophy
under polymorphism.
 Virtual Functions
• The virtual function within the base class
defines the form of the interface to that
function.

• Each redefinition of the virtual function by a

derived class implements its operation as it
relates specifically to the derived class. That is,
the redefinition creates a specific method.
 Virtual Functions
• To create a virtual function, precede the
function‘s declaration in the base class with
the keyword virtual.

• Example:
class base {
public:
virtual void member_func(){ }
};
 Virtual Functions
Base Virtual function

Derived1 Derived2

override override
 Virtual Functions
• When accessed "normally" virtual functions
behave just like any other type of class
member function.

• But virtual functions’ importance and capacity

lies in supporting the run-time polymorphism
when they accessed via a pointer.
 Virtual Functions
• How to implement run-time polymorphism?
- create base-class pointer can be used to point
to an object of any class derived from that base
- initialize derived object(s) to base class object.

• Based upon which derived class objects’

assignment to the base class pointer, c++
determines which version of the virtual function
to be called. And this determination is made at
run time.
 Virtual Functions
• The redefinition of a virtual function by a
derived class appears similar to function
overloading?
• No

• The prototype for a redefined virtual function

must match exactly the prototype specified in
the base class.
 Virtual Functions
Restrictions:
• All aspects of its prototype must be the same as base
class virtual function.
• Virtual functions are of non-static members.
• Virtual functions can not be friends.
• Constructor functions cannot be virtual.
• But destructor functions can be virtual.
NOTE:
Function overriding is used to describe virtual function
redefinition by a derived class.
 Destructor functions can be virtual?
• Yes.
• In large projects, the destructor of the derived
class was not called at all.
• This is where the virtual mechanism comes
into our rescue. By making the Base class
Destructor virtual, both the destructors will be
called in order.
 Function overriding
“A function overriding is a process in which a
member function that is declared within a
base class and redefined by a derived class to
implement the "one interface, multiple
methods" philosophy under polymorphism.”
 Calling a Virtual Function Through a
Base Class Reference
• Since reference is an implicit pointer, it can
be used to access virtual function.

• When a virtual function is called through a

base-class reference, the version of the
function executed is determined by the object
being referred to at the time of the call.
 The Virtual Attribute Is Inherited
• When a virtual function is inherited, its virtual
nature is also inherited.

Base Virtual function

Derived1 override

Derived2 override
Virtual Functions Are Hierarchical
• Virtual functions are also hierarchical in
nature.

• This means that when a derived class fails to

override a virtual function, then first
redefinition found in reverse order of
derivation is used.
Virtual Functions Are Hierarchical

Base Virtual function

Derived1 override

Derived2
Virtual Functions Are Hierarchical
Base Virtual function

Derived1 Derived2

override
 Pure Virtual Functions
• “A pure virtual function is a virtual function
that has no definition within the base class.”

• To declare a pure virtual function:

Syntax:
virtual rtype func-name(parameter-list) = 0;
 Pure Virtual Functions
• When a virtual function is made pure, any
derived class must provide its definition.

• If the derived class fails to override the pure

virtual function, a compile-time error will
result.
NOTE:
When a virtual function is declared as pure, then all
derived classes must override it.
 Abstract Classes
• “A class that contains at least one pure virtual
function then it is said to be abstract class.”

• No objects of an abstract class be created.

• Abstract class constitutes an incomplete type

that is used as a foundation for derived.
classes.
 Using Virtual Functions
• We can achieve the most powerful and
flexible ways to implement the "one interface,
multiple methods“.

• We can create a class hierarchy that moves

from general to specific (base to derived).
 Using Virtual Functions
• We can define all common features and
interfaces in a base class.

• Specific actions can be implemented only by

the derived class.

• We can add new case easily.

 Early vs. Late Binding
• “Early binding refers to events that occur at
compile time.”
• Early binding occurs when all information
needed to call a function is known at compile
time.
• Examples :
function calls ,overloaded function calls, and
overloaded operators.
 Early vs. Late Binding
• “Late binding refers to function calls that are
not resolved until run time.”
• Late binding can make for somewhat slower
execution times.
• Example:
virtual functions
7. IO Stream Library
 Introduction
• In C++ I/O system operates through streams.

• I/O system provides a level of abstraction

between the programmer and the device.

• This abstraction is called a stream and the

actual device is called a file.
 Introduction
• A stream is a logical device that either
produces or consumes information.

• A stream is linked to a physical device by the

I/O system.

• Standard C++ provides support for its I/O

system in <iostream.h>
 C++ Streams
Input Streams Extracts
Extracts
Input from
from
device Input
Input
stream
stream

Program

Inserts
Output Streams Into
Output output
Device stream
I/O Stream Classes for console Operations
ios

istream streambuf ostream

iostream

istream_withassign ostream_withassign

iostream_withassign
 C++'s Predefined Streams
When a C++ program begins execution, four built-
in streams are automatically opened.

Stream Meaning Default Device

cin Standard input Keyboard
cout Standard output Screen
 Unformatted I/O
• Input operator
• Output operator
• Overloading I/O Operator
 Input Operator
• Extraction operator:(>>)
• float var;
cin >>var;
char line[20];
cin>>line;

• get(), getline(),read()
 Output Operator
• Insertion Operator:(<<)
• float var;
char line[20];
cout<< var<<line;

• put(),putline(),write()
 Overloading >> operator
• Prototype:
friend istream& operator >>(istream&, Matrix&);

• Example:
istream& operator >>(istream&
in, Matrix& m)
{
for(int i=0; i<row*col; i++)
void main()
{ {
in >> Mat[i];
} :
Cin>>mobj;
return in;
:
}
}
 Overloading << operator
• Prototype:
friend ostream& operator <<(ostream&, Matrix&);

• Example:
ostream& operator <<(ostream&
out, Matrix& m)
{
for(int i=0; i<row; void
++i)
main()
{ {
for(int j=0; j<col; : j++)
cout<<mobj;
{ out>> Mat[i][j] >> : “\t”
; }
}
out << endl;
 Formatted I/O
• There are three related but conceptually
different ways that we can format data.

- directly accessing members of the ios class.

- using special functions called manipulators.
- user defined output functions
Formatting Using the ios Members
• The ios class declares a bitmask enumeration
called fmtflags in which the following set of
format flags are defined.

• To set a flag, the setf() function is used. This

function is a member of ios.

• Syntax: fmtflags setf(fmtflags flags);

example: stream.setf(ios::showpos);
 Flag Meaning
skipws leading white-space characters are discarded when
performing input on a stream
left output is left justified.
right output is right justified. Default is right justified.
internal a numeric value is padded to fill a field by
inserting spaces between any sign or base character.
oct flag causes output to be displayed in octal.
hex flag causes output to be displayed in hexadecimal.
dec flag causes output to be displayed in decimal. Default is
decimal output.
showbase Shows the base of numeric values
 Flag Meaning
showpos causes a leading plus sign to be displayed before
positive values.
scientific floating-point numeric values are displayed using
scientific notation. By default, when scientific notation
is displayed, the e is in lowercase.
uppercase characters are displayed in uppercase.
showpoint causes a decimal point and trailing zeros to be
displayed for all floating-point output
fixed floating-point values are displayed using normal
notation.
unitbuf the buffer is flushed after each insertion operation.
boolalpha Booleans can be input or output using the keywords
true and false.
 Function Meaning
width( ) To specify required field size for displaying an output
value.
precision( ) To specify the number of digits to displayed after the
decimal point of a float value value.
fill( ) To specify a character to used to fill the unused portion
of a field.
setf( ) Sets the format flags
unsetf( ) Un-Sets the format flags
 Using Manipulators to Format I/O
Manipulators Meaning
boolalpha Turns on boolapha flag.

dec Turns on dec flag.

endl Output a newline character and flush the stream.
ends Output a null.
fixed Turns on fixed flag.
flush Flush a stream.
hex Turns on hex flag.
internal Turns on internal flag.
left Turns on left flag.
noboolalpha Turns off boolalpha flag.
 Manipulators Meaning
noshowbase Turns off showbase flag.
noshowpoint Turns off showpoint flag.
no showpos Turns off showpos flag.
noskipws Turns off skipws flag.
nounitbuf Turns off unitbuf flag.
nouppercase Turns off uppercase flag.
oct Turns on oct flag.
right Turns on right flag.
scientfic Turns on scientific flag.
setbase(int base) Set the number base to base.
 Manipulators Meaning
setfill(int ch) Set the fill character to ch.

setiosflags(fmtflags f) Turn on the flags specified in f.

setprecision(int p) Set the number of digits of precision.
setw(int w) Set the field width to w.
showbase Turns on showbase flag.
showpoint Turns on showpoint flag.
showpos Turns on showpos flag.
skipws Turns on skipws flag.
unitbuf Turns on unitbuf flag.
uppercase Turns on uppercase flag.
ws Skip leading white space.
 File I/O Operations

Write Files Read

data data
To from
files files
Program +Data
 File Input & Output streams
Input Streams Extracts
Read data
from
Input
stream

Files Program

Inserts
Output Streams Into
output
stream
Write data
I/O Stream classes for File operations
ios

streambuf
istream ostream
filebuf

iostream
ifstream ofstream
fstream

fstreambase
I/O Stream Class Hierarchy
 Opening & Closing a File
• Opening (default mode):
–Create a file stream
–Link it to the filename
–Two method to Open a file
• Using constructor function of the class
• Using member function open() of the class
• Closing
–Delinking the file stream from filename
 Using constructor of the class
• ofstream out(“data.txt”);
• ifstream in(“data.txt”);
in
Read data

Input Stream

data.txt Program

out

Write data
Output Streams
 Using member function open()
of the class
• creating a filestream for writing
ofstream out;
out.open(“result.txt”,ios::app);

• creating a filestream for reading

ifstream in;
in.open(“inputdata.txt”,ios::app);

• closing a file
– out.close( );
– in.close( );
 Modes of File Opening
Parameter Meaning
ios::in opens file for reading only
ios::out opens file for writing only
ios::app opens file for appending at the end only
ios::binary opens file in binary mode
ios::trunc Deletes the content of the file if it exists
ios::ate opens file for appending but at
anywhere
 File Pointers
• Each file has two associated pointers
– get pointer : to reads from file from given location
– put pointer : to writes to file from given location
• Manipulation of get pointer
– seekg: moves get pointer to a specified location
– tellg: gives the current position of the get pointer
• Manipulation of put pointer
– seekp: moves put pointer to a specified location
– tellp: gives the current position of the put pointer
 Moving to a specified location in file
• Syntax:
– seekg(n_bytes); //can be + or – n bytes
– seekg(n_bytes, reposition);
• repostion constants:
– ios::beg
– ios::cur
– ios::end
NOTE:
+ go forward by n bytes
-  go backwards by n bytes
 Error Handling with Files
• File which we are attempting to open for
reading does not exist.
• The filename used for a new file may already
exist.
• attempting an invalid operation such as
reading past the eof.
• attempting to perform an operation when a
file is not opened for that purpose.
Function Return value & meaning
eof() returns true (non-zero) if end-of-file
encounterd while reading
otherwise false(zero)
fail() returns true when an iput of output operation
has failed
bad() returns true if an invalid operation is
attempted of any unrecoverable error as
occurred. if it false it may possible to recover
from any other error reported and continue
operation
good() returns true if no error has occurred, if it false ,
no further operations can be carried out.
8. Exception Handling
 Introduction
• Exception: “An abnormal condition that
arises in a code sequence at run time”.

• An exception is a run-time error.

• Exception handling allows us to manage

run-time errors in an orderly fashion.
 Introduction
• Using exception handling, our program can
automatically invoke an error-handling routine
when an error occurs.

• C++ exception handling is built upon three

keywords: try, catch, and throw.
Exception Handling Fundamentals
• Error prone program statements that we may
want to monitor for generation of exceptions
are contained in a try block.
• Syntax:
try {
// try block
}
Exception Handling Fundamentals
• If an exception (i.e., an error) occurs within
the try block, then that exception is thrown
using throw.
• Syntax:
throw exception;
• If an exception is to be caught, then throw
must be executed either from within a try
block or from any function called from within
the try block (directly or indirectly).
Exception Handling Fundamentals
• The thrown exception is caught, using catch
block and processed.

• Syntax:
catch (type argument)
{
// catch block
}
try
{

Program statements
requires monitor for exceptions

}
catch( type argument )
{

Program statements
handles for Exception

}
try
{

Program statements
requires monitor for exceptions

}
catch( type1 argument )
{ catch( type2 argument )
{ catch( typen argument )
Program statements{
handles for Exception
Program statements
handles for Exception
Program statements
} handles for Exception
}
}
 Using try & catch
try
{
Arithmetic
int d = 0;
int a = 30 / d; throws Exception
}

catch(int e )
{

printf("Division by zero.");

}
Exception Handling Fundamentals
NOTE:
Throwing an unhandled exception causes
the standard library function terminate()
to be invoked. By default, terminate()
calls abort() to stop your program.